The document discusses the costs of air pollution from transport in the European Union. It finds that:
1) Transport accounts for a major share (around 30-69%) of key air pollutants in most EU countries. Road transport is the largest contributor to transport emissions.
2) While regulations have reduced per-vehicle emissions by 90% since 1970, total emissions of some pollutants continue to rise due to increased traffic.
3) The external costs of air pollution from transport are estimated at around 0.4% of GDP across EU countries, though this figure may underestimate health costs. Local air pollution imposes health and economic damages.
The document discusses the current policy approach to reducing transport-related air pollution in the EU, which has largely followed a regulatory approach through product standards and rules to meet air quality standards. It notes that while effective, this approach has limitations given the significant variations in causes and effects of air pollution across different regions and cities in Europe. Economic instruments could provide more flexibility to address this differentiation. Specifically, the document examines alternatives like adjusting taxes on fuels and vehicles to better reflect their environmental performance to further internalize the costs of air pollution.
The document discusses potential economic instruments to better align transportation charges with costs related to heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) in the EU. It suggests revising taxes and permits for HGVs outlined in the Eurovignette directive to allow more differentiation based on infrastructure costs and vehicle characteristics. It also proposes investigating an electronic kilometer charge for HGVs that could vary based on axle weight, vehicle type, time, and location to more closely link charges with road damage costs. The Commission intends to study possibilities and advantages of transitioning to an electronic kilometer charge system for HGVs.
This document discusses transport externalities such as congestion, accidents, and air pollution costs and proposes pricing policies to better align prices with real transport costs. It notes that these externalities currently cost the EU around 250 billion euros annually, with over 90% related to road transport. The document explores using price signals through measures like road tolls and differentiated taxes to reduce negative impacts while making the transport system more efficient and fair. It argues for a community-wide discussion to ensure consistency across policies set at national and EU levels.
The document discusses the need for policy action to address transport externalities. It notes that while transport provides many benefits, it also imposes significant costs through congestion, accidents, air pollution, and noise. These external costs are estimated to be up to 5% of GDP across EU countries. The document argues that transport policy needs to be rebalanced to better account for these externalities, through the use of pricing mechanisms and other measures. This will help ensure transport users pay the real costs of their activities.
This document contains two annexes related to estimating external costs of transport. Annex 10 provides data on the external costs of different modes of transport in the EU-15 in 1991. It estimates costs from accidents, noise, and air pollution/climate change. The total external costs were estimated at 209 billion ECU for passenger transport and 63 billion ECU for freight. Annex 11 lists studies that the European Commission plans to launch to further analyze issues related to internalizing external transport costs. This includes studies on pricing policies, infrastructure costs, and the economic impacts of transport sector activities.
Also see: http://bit.ly/1vjtYg8
Professor Chris Nash spoke on heavy goods vehicle charging at the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission Conference on regulation in Brisbane on 8th Aug 2014.
www.accc.gov.au/about-us/conferences-events/accc/aer-regulatory-conference/accc-aer-regulatory-conference-2014
The document discusses how infrastructure and congestion costs are currently charged for in the EU. It notes that no country explicitly charges for congestion, though some toll systems vary rates by peak periods. Infrastructure costs are recovered through annual vehicle taxes and fuel duties. There are significant differences between member states in these rates. The document argues for developing telematics-based pricing systems to allow charges to be differentiated based on costs which vary by vehicle, time, and location. This would better link charges to costs. In the short-term, it recommends aligning road haulage charges across member states and improving how the current system accommodates cost differentiation.
The document discusses the current policy approach to reducing transport-related air pollution in the EU, which has largely followed a regulatory approach through product standards and rules to meet air quality standards. It notes that while effective, this approach has limitations given the significant variations in causes and effects of air pollution across different regions and cities in Europe. Economic instruments could provide more flexibility to address this differentiation. Specifically, the document examines alternatives like adjusting taxes on fuels and vehicles to better reflect their environmental performance to further internalize the costs of air pollution.
The document discusses potential economic instruments to better align transportation charges with costs related to heavy goods vehicles (HGVs) in the EU. It suggests revising taxes and permits for HGVs outlined in the Eurovignette directive to allow more differentiation based on infrastructure costs and vehicle characteristics. It also proposes investigating an electronic kilometer charge for HGVs that could vary based on axle weight, vehicle type, time, and location to more closely link charges with road damage costs. The Commission intends to study possibilities and advantages of transitioning to an electronic kilometer charge system for HGVs.
This document discusses transport externalities such as congestion, accidents, and air pollution costs and proposes pricing policies to better align prices with real transport costs. It notes that these externalities currently cost the EU around 250 billion euros annually, with over 90% related to road transport. The document explores using price signals through measures like road tolls and differentiated taxes to reduce negative impacts while making the transport system more efficient and fair. It argues for a community-wide discussion to ensure consistency across policies set at national and EU levels.
The document discusses the need for policy action to address transport externalities. It notes that while transport provides many benefits, it also imposes significant costs through congestion, accidents, air pollution, and noise. These external costs are estimated to be up to 5% of GDP across EU countries. The document argues that transport policy needs to be rebalanced to better account for these externalities, through the use of pricing mechanisms and other measures. This will help ensure transport users pay the real costs of their activities.
This document contains two annexes related to estimating external costs of transport. Annex 10 provides data on the external costs of different modes of transport in the EU-15 in 1991. It estimates costs from accidents, noise, and air pollution/climate change. The total external costs were estimated at 209 billion ECU for passenger transport and 63 billion ECU for freight. Annex 11 lists studies that the European Commission plans to launch to further analyze issues related to internalizing external transport costs. This includes studies on pricing policies, infrastructure costs, and the economic impacts of transport sector activities.
Also see: http://bit.ly/1vjtYg8
Professor Chris Nash spoke on heavy goods vehicle charging at the Australian Competition and Consumer Commission Conference on regulation in Brisbane on 8th Aug 2014.
www.accc.gov.au/about-us/conferences-events/accc/aer-regulatory-conference/accc-aer-regulatory-conference-2014
The document discusses how infrastructure and congestion costs are currently charged for in the EU. It notes that no country explicitly charges for congestion, though some toll systems vary rates by peak periods. Infrastructure costs are recovered through annual vehicle taxes and fuel duties. There are significant differences between member states in these rates. The document argues for developing telematics-based pricing systems to allow charges to be differentiated based on costs which vary by vehicle, time, and location. This would better link charges to costs. In the short-term, it recommends aligning road haulage charges across member states and improving how the current system accommodates cost differentiation.
EED - Managing compliance and optimising operations under the EU’s new regimeEl Estrecho Digital
El informe "Shipping and Fit for 55" de Lloyd's Register (LR) resalta la necesidad de que los armadores implementen buques de alta eficiencia en rutas específicas y desarrollen estrategias basadas en combustibles alternativos y tecnologías para ajustarse a las regulaciones de Fuel EU y EU ETS. Este estudio proporciona orientaciones esenciales para propietarios, operadores, gerentes y fletadores, con el objetivo de formular estrategias efectivas frente al primer mecanismo de precios de emisiones en la industria marítima.
The London LEZ - An Economic EvaluationIsobel Daley
The document provides an economic evaluation of the London Low Emission Zone (LEZ) introduced in 2008 to improve air quality by charging vehicles that do not meet emissions standards. It presents empirical analysis of the costs and benefits of the LEZ between 2008-2014. The analysis quantifies air quality improvements from the LEZ and estimates the costs of vehicle replacement, modification, paying the charge, and avoiding the zone - the main behavioural responses of affected drivers. It finds that while the LEZ accelerated the adoption of green technology, the air quality improvements did not justify the high costs of compliance, indicating the scheme failed to achieve its objectives.
1. The document discusses CO2 regulation in Europe, focusing on trends in CO2 emissions, fuels, and the transportation sector. It analyzes emissions data and trends over time in Europe, China, India, and other regions.
2. Key points include that global CO2 emissions are increasing, driven mainly by growth in Asia, while emissions are declining only in Europe. European regulations now have relatively little influence on growing global emissions.
3. Transportation accounts for about a quarter of EU emissions, with passenger cars responsible for nearly half of transportation emissions. The share from cars is declining while other modes, like aviation, are growing.
Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport: An Ignored Environment...OECD Environment
Airborne particulate matter produced from the wearing down of brakes, tyres, and road surfaces, as well as the resuspension of road dust constitute a little-known but rising share of pollution from road traffic. These non-exhaust emissions can have significant negative impacts on public health and are expected to comprise the majority of all particulate matter from road traffic as early as 2035.
Projections from the OECD report Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from "Road Transport: An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge" show that electric vehicle uptake in future years will not reduce non-exhaust emissions and may even increase them. On 7 December, our team of experts discussed the nature, causes, and consequences of non-exhaust emissions and how policy makers can address this emerging policy issue.
Find the report: http://www.oecd.org/environment/non-exhaust-particulate-emissions-from-road-transport-4a4dc6ca-en.htm
- Transport is the only sector where greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are increasing in the EU. Emissions from transport need to be reduced by around 89% by 2050 to meet overall emission reduction targets.
- An overall target for reducing transport emissions is needed, as relying solely on technical improvements will not be enough. Modal shift to more sustainable modes like rail is also required.
- Road transport is currently subsidized through externalized costs like air pollution, accidents and climate change impacts. Internalizing these external costs through economic instruments could help shift transport to more sustainable modes and reduce emissions.
This document discusses market-based incentives that Sweden has implemented to reduce air pollution from transport, including:
- Differentiated fuel taxes based on environmental characteristics to promote cleaner fuels.
- Differential vehicle taxes based on emission classes to stimulate sales of lower-emitting vehicles.
- An environmental tax on domestic airline emissions to induce changes to more efficient engines.
- A car scrapping charge and premium to increase the ratio of scrapped cars to new cars sold.
The measures have generally been effective in promoting cleaner fuels and vehicles in Sweden.
This study used micro-simulation traffic modeling (Paramics) coupled with an emissions prediction model (Versit+) to examine the impact of two traffic management schemes on vehicle emissions in Antwerp, Belgium. Reducing the network speed limit was found to decrease CO2 emissions by 23-41% and NOx and PM by 27-45%, while removing green wave traffic signal coordination increased emissions by around 10%. The models provided an effective way to evaluate potential traffic and air quality impacts of management strategies at a network level.
Presentation on eu ets & aviation for iffaadJauwadSyed
The document discusses the European Union's Emission Trading Scheme and its implications for Indian airlines. The EU ETS aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through capping emissions and allowing trading of allowances. It includes aviation emissions starting in 2012. Indian airlines that fly routes to and from Europe must monitor and report their emissions. They will receive some allowances for free in 2012 based on past traffic, and may need to buy more allowances if emissions exceed the cap, or sell allowances if emissions are lower than allocated. Compliance with the EU ETS presents new responsibilities for covered Indian carriers.
The document discusses progressing towards fair and efficient transport pricing in the European Union. It outlines several upcoming Commission proposals and studies that aim to better internalize external costs, especially for road transport. These initiatives include revising legislation around road tolls and vehicle taxes to further cost internalization policies. The Commission intends to carefully consider introducing elements of efficient pricing strategies in these proposals, while balancing internal market functions and complementary measures.
The document discusses CO2 regulation in Europe across multiple sectors. It provides an overview of key megatrends related to CO2 emissions, including that global emissions are increasing significantly due to growth in Asia while declining in Europe. It also discusses trends in fuels, noting the EU's high dependence on fuel imports and how fracking in the US has impacted oil and gas prices and production.
Real-drive emissions and the impact of the VW scandal on the future of the au...Leonardo ENERGY
On 18th of September 2015, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a Notice of Violation of the Clean Air Act accusing Volkswagen of having equipped its US diesel models with a “defeat device” software. In real-life conditions, the emissions were 10 to 40 times above those measured during the official testing.
Around 500,000 cars in the US and over 11 million cars worldwide have been equipped with the rigged engine Type EA189. The so-called “Diesel Gate” quickly sparked global outrage, leading to the resignation of VW CEO, Martin Winterkorn, who was replaced by Matthias Müller, former Porsche CEO and putting the entire sector under suspicion.
Most EU countries ordered investigations to be conducted on random vehicles to verify their compliance with Euro norms. The scandal broke out at a crucial time for the automotive sector as the EU is in the process of adopting a “real-drive emissions test” (RDE). The European Commission found itself also under high pressure as the media accused it of being too com-placent towards the car industry while being aware of the real-drive emissions gap since many years.
The document discusses the European Green Deal (EUGD) proposed by the European Commission to make the EU climate neutral by 2050. It aims to decarbonize the transport sector, which accounts for 25% of EU emissions. Key policies include revising fuel taxes to promote low-carbon fuels, expanding the emissions trading system to maritime and road transport, and increasing funding for electric vehicles and alternative fuels. While stakeholders like port organizations welcome the EUGD, others note more needs to be done, like shifting more freight from roads to rail and inland waterways.
This document discusses the potential for introducing a kilometre tax on vehicles based on electronic odometers or tachographs to more accurately charge for road use compared to existing fuel tax systems. It notes that if costs of electronic systems decrease, applying such taxes to private vehicles could also be considered. The technical devices used for kilometre taxes may evolve over time and could eventually coincide with future electronic road pricing systems. The document also discusses modulating existing charges in other modes like rail and aviation based on environmental impacts.
This technical and macro-economic study focuses on light duty vehicles -- cars and vans. It has been advised by a broad group of stakeholders in the move to low-carbon transport, including auto producers, technology suppliers, labour groups, energy providers and environmental groups. The resulting fact-base is anticipated to serve as a reference point for discussions around the low-carbon transition.
The model results show that a shift to low-carbon cars and vans increases spending on vehicle technology, a sector in which Europe excels, therefore generating positive direct employment impacts. This shift will also reduce the total cost of running Europe’s auto fleet, leading to mildly positive economic impacts including indirect employment gains.
The analysis showed that a shift to low-carbon vehicles would increase spending on vehicle technology, therefore generating positive direct employment impacts, but potentially adding €1,000-€1,100 to the capital cost of the average new car in 2020. However, these additional technology costs would be offset by fuel savings of around €400 per year, indicating an effective break-even point for drivers of approximately three
years. At the EU level, the cost of running and maintaining the European car fleet would become €33-35 billion lower each year than in a “do nothing scenario” by 2030, leading to positive economic impacts including indirect employment gains.
El procedimiento penal en las reclamaciones por accidente de tráfico: ¿una he...Carlos Villacorta
¿Son las reclamaciones en el ámbito penal por accidente de tráfico un instrumento práctico o suponen una amenaza? El socio director de nuestras oficinas de Madrid, Carlos Villacorta, respondió a esta pregunta en una charla organizada por PEOPIL (Pan-European Organisation of Personal Injury Lawyers) el pasado día 18 de mayo en la sede central de ADAC en la ciudad alemana de Munich
This document discusses infrastructure costs and congestion in transportation. It makes three key points:
1) Infrastructure and congestion costs are increasing significantly in the EU. Current transportation charges often do not reflect the true costs of infrastructure provision or congestion.
2) Ideal transportation cost charges would link fees to marginal costs, recover total infrastructure costs, and be transparent. Marginal cost pricing incentives reduce costs, while full cost recovery prevents subsidies.
3) Congestion arises when infrastructure exceeds capacity, wasting time for all users. Individuals only consider their own time losses, not those imposed on others, leading to overuse of infrastructure. Congestion charges can correct this market failure.
Ricardo-AEA provided technical support to the European Commission in assessing the environmental, social and economic impacts of policy proposals to reduce GHG emissions from the international shipping sector.
Despite some recent progress in the IMO negotiations with respect to technical measures for new ships, the emissions of existing vessels are still not regulated. At the European level, a range of targets have been set concerning economy-wide GHG emission reductions. International shipping is the only sector not included in EU level GHG reduction targets. The modelling projections developed for this project show that under the baseline scenario CO2 emissions from European maritime transport would increase by over 50% between 2010 and 2050. As such, there is a pressing need to take action to control the growing GHG emissions from the international maritime sector.
WALSH, Michael, Former Chairman of the Board, International Council on Clean ...CALSTART
This document discusses particulate emissions from road vehicles and their health effects. It focuses on black carbon as a major component of particulate matter that is strongly linked to adverse health effects and climate change. Technologies now exist to significantly clean vehicles, with standards in Europe and North America reducing particulate emissions by over 90% between 2005 and 2010. However, transportation is expected to continue consuming large amounts of energy without strong new policies. The document outlines regulatory efforts in various regions and technologies like electric and fuel cell vehicles that could reduce emissions from trucks and buses in the long term.
This document discusses using different fiscal instruments to reduce NOx emissions from cars in a cost-effective manner. It finds that incentives targeting multiple factors are more cost-effective than those targeting just a few factors. Increasing fuel taxes is an ineffective way to reduce NOx emissions. Increasing existing circulation taxes induces people to scrap old, polluting cars. Basing circulation taxes on emission factors produces larger NOx reductions at lower costs by encouraging cleaner vehicle technology. A circulation tax accounting for both emissions and mileage provides more choices and achieves further NOx reductions at the same cost. Taxing actual emissions could optimize reductions but is difficult to implement.
This document discusses leverage points for reducing air pollutant emissions from road transport. It examines vehicle and fuel characteristics like fuel type and efficiency, emission controls, and vehicle age. It also looks at factors related to vehicle ownership and use, including location of travel, time of day, speed of travel, and vehicle load. Reducing emissions requires improvements in fuels, vehicle technology, traffic management, and urban planning to encourage more efficient modes of transport.
EED - Managing compliance and optimising operations under the EU’s new regimeEl Estrecho Digital
El informe "Shipping and Fit for 55" de Lloyd's Register (LR) resalta la necesidad de que los armadores implementen buques de alta eficiencia en rutas específicas y desarrollen estrategias basadas en combustibles alternativos y tecnologías para ajustarse a las regulaciones de Fuel EU y EU ETS. Este estudio proporciona orientaciones esenciales para propietarios, operadores, gerentes y fletadores, con el objetivo de formular estrategias efectivas frente al primer mecanismo de precios de emisiones en la industria marítima.
The London LEZ - An Economic EvaluationIsobel Daley
The document provides an economic evaluation of the London Low Emission Zone (LEZ) introduced in 2008 to improve air quality by charging vehicles that do not meet emissions standards. It presents empirical analysis of the costs and benefits of the LEZ between 2008-2014. The analysis quantifies air quality improvements from the LEZ and estimates the costs of vehicle replacement, modification, paying the charge, and avoiding the zone - the main behavioural responses of affected drivers. It finds that while the LEZ accelerated the adoption of green technology, the air quality improvements did not justify the high costs of compliance, indicating the scheme failed to achieve its objectives.
1. The document discusses CO2 regulation in Europe, focusing on trends in CO2 emissions, fuels, and the transportation sector. It analyzes emissions data and trends over time in Europe, China, India, and other regions.
2. Key points include that global CO2 emissions are increasing, driven mainly by growth in Asia, while emissions are declining only in Europe. European regulations now have relatively little influence on growing global emissions.
3. Transportation accounts for about a quarter of EU emissions, with passenger cars responsible for nearly half of transportation emissions. The share from cars is declining while other modes, like aviation, are growing.
Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from Road Transport: An Ignored Environment...OECD Environment
Airborne particulate matter produced from the wearing down of brakes, tyres, and road surfaces, as well as the resuspension of road dust constitute a little-known but rising share of pollution from road traffic. These non-exhaust emissions can have significant negative impacts on public health and are expected to comprise the majority of all particulate matter from road traffic as early as 2035.
Projections from the OECD report Non-exhaust Particulate Emissions from "Road Transport: An Ignored Environmental Policy Challenge" show that electric vehicle uptake in future years will not reduce non-exhaust emissions and may even increase them. On 7 December, our team of experts discussed the nature, causes, and consequences of non-exhaust emissions and how policy makers can address this emerging policy issue.
Find the report: http://www.oecd.org/environment/non-exhaust-particulate-emissions-from-road-transport-4a4dc6ca-en.htm
- Transport is the only sector where greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions are increasing in the EU. Emissions from transport need to be reduced by around 89% by 2050 to meet overall emission reduction targets.
- An overall target for reducing transport emissions is needed, as relying solely on technical improvements will not be enough. Modal shift to more sustainable modes like rail is also required.
- Road transport is currently subsidized through externalized costs like air pollution, accidents and climate change impacts. Internalizing these external costs through economic instruments could help shift transport to more sustainable modes and reduce emissions.
This document discusses market-based incentives that Sweden has implemented to reduce air pollution from transport, including:
- Differentiated fuel taxes based on environmental characteristics to promote cleaner fuels.
- Differential vehicle taxes based on emission classes to stimulate sales of lower-emitting vehicles.
- An environmental tax on domestic airline emissions to induce changes to more efficient engines.
- A car scrapping charge and premium to increase the ratio of scrapped cars to new cars sold.
The measures have generally been effective in promoting cleaner fuels and vehicles in Sweden.
This study used micro-simulation traffic modeling (Paramics) coupled with an emissions prediction model (Versit+) to examine the impact of two traffic management schemes on vehicle emissions in Antwerp, Belgium. Reducing the network speed limit was found to decrease CO2 emissions by 23-41% and NOx and PM by 27-45%, while removing green wave traffic signal coordination increased emissions by around 10%. The models provided an effective way to evaluate potential traffic and air quality impacts of management strategies at a network level.
Presentation on eu ets & aviation for iffaadJauwadSyed
The document discusses the European Union's Emission Trading Scheme and its implications for Indian airlines. The EU ETS aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions through capping emissions and allowing trading of allowances. It includes aviation emissions starting in 2012. Indian airlines that fly routes to and from Europe must monitor and report their emissions. They will receive some allowances for free in 2012 based on past traffic, and may need to buy more allowances if emissions exceed the cap, or sell allowances if emissions are lower than allocated. Compliance with the EU ETS presents new responsibilities for covered Indian carriers.
The document discusses progressing towards fair and efficient transport pricing in the European Union. It outlines several upcoming Commission proposals and studies that aim to better internalize external costs, especially for road transport. These initiatives include revising legislation around road tolls and vehicle taxes to further cost internalization policies. The Commission intends to carefully consider introducing elements of efficient pricing strategies in these proposals, while balancing internal market functions and complementary measures.
The document discusses CO2 regulation in Europe across multiple sectors. It provides an overview of key megatrends related to CO2 emissions, including that global emissions are increasing significantly due to growth in Asia while declining in Europe. It also discusses trends in fuels, noting the EU's high dependence on fuel imports and how fracking in the US has impacted oil and gas prices and production.
Real-drive emissions and the impact of the VW scandal on the future of the au...Leonardo ENERGY
On 18th of September 2015, the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) issued a Notice of Violation of the Clean Air Act accusing Volkswagen of having equipped its US diesel models with a “defeat device” software. In real-life conditions, the emissions were 10 to 40 times above those measured during the official testing.
Around 500,000 cars in the US and over 11 million cars worldwide have been equipped with the rigged engine Type EA189. The so-called “Diesel Gate” quickly sparked global outrage, leading to the resignation of VW CEO, Martin Winterkorn, who was replaced by Matthias Müller, former Porsche CEO and putting the entire sector under suspicion.
Most EU countries ordered investigations to be conducted on random vehicles to verify their compliance with Euro norms. The scandal broke out at a crucial time for the automotive sector as the EU is in the process of adopting a “real-drive emissions test” (RDE). The European Commission found itself also under high pressure as the media accused it of being too com-placent towards the car industry while being aware of the real-drive emissions gap since many years.
The document discusses the European Green Deal (EUGD) proposed by the European Commission to make the EU climate neutral by 2050. It aims to decarbonize the transport sector, which accounts for 25% of EU emissions. Key policies include revising fuel taxes to promote low-carbon fuels, expanding the emissions trading system to maritime and road transport, and increasing funding for electric vehicles and alternative fuels. While stakeholders like port organizations welcome the EUGD, others note more needs to be done, like shifting more freight from roads to rail and inland waterways.
This document discusses the potential for introducing a kilometre tax on vehicles based on electronic odometers or tachographs to more accurately charge for road use compared to existing fuel tax systems. It notes that if costs of electronic systems decrease, applying such taxes to private vehicles could also be considered. The technical devices used for kilometre taxes may evolve over time and could eventually coincide with future electronic road pricing systems. The document also discusses modulating existing charges in other modes like rail and aviation based on environmental impacts.
This technical and macro-economic study focuses on light duty vehicles -- cars and vans. It has been advised by a broad group of stakeholders in the move to low-carbon transport, including auto producers, technology suppliers, labour groups, energy providers and environmental groups. The resulting fact-base is anticipated to serve as a reference point for discussions around the low-carbon transition.
The model results show that a shift to low-carbon cars and vans increases spending on vehicle technology, a sector in which Europe excels, therefore generating positive direct employment impacts. This shift will also reduce the total cost of running Europe’s auto fleet, leading to mildly positive economic impacts including indirect employment gains.
The analysis showed that a shift to low-carbon vehicles would increase spending on vehicle technology, therefore generating positive direct employment impacts, but potentially adding €1,000-€1,100 to the capital cost of the average new car in 2020. However, these additional technology costs would be offset by fuel savings of around €400 per year, indicating an effective break-even point for drivers of approximately three
years. At the EU level, the cost of running and maintaining the European car fleet would become €33-35 billion lower each year than in a “do nothing scenario” by 2030, leading to positive economic impacts including indirect employment gains.
El procedimiento penal en las reclamaciones por accidente de tráfico: ¿una he...Carlos Villacorta
¿Son las reclamaciones en el ámbito penal por accidente de tráfico un instrumento práctico o suponen una amenaza? El socio director de nuestras oficinas de Madrid, Carlos Villacorta, respondió a esta pregunta en una charla organizada por PEOPIL (Pan-European Organisation of Personal Injury Lawyers) el pasado día 18 de mayo en la sede central de ADAC en la ciudad alemana de Munich
This document discusses infrastructure costs and congestion in transportation. It makes three key points:
1) Infrastructure and congestion costs are increasing significantly in the EU. Current transportation charges often do not reflect the true costs of infrastructure provision or congestion.
2) Ideal transportation cost charges would link fees to marginal costs, recover total infrastructure costs, and be transparent. Marginal cost pricing incentives reduce costs, while full cost recovery prevents subsidies.
3) Congestion arises when infrastructure exceeds capacity, wasting time for all users. Individuals only consider their own time losses, not those imposed on others, leading to overuse of infrastructure. Congestion charges can correct this market failure.
Ricardo-AEA provided technical support to the European Commission in assessing the environmental, social and economic impacts of policy proposals to reduce GHG emissions from the international shipping sector.
Despite some recent progress in the IMO negotiations with respect to technical measures for new ships, the emissions of existing vessels are still not regulated. At the European level, a range of targets have been set concerning economy-wide GHG emission reductions. International shipping is the only sector not included in EU level GHG reduction targets. The modelling projections developed for this project show that under the baseline scenario CO2 emissions from European maritime transport would increase by over 50% between 2010 and 2050. As such, there is a pressing need to take action to control the growing GHG emissions from the international maritime sector.
WALSH, Michael, Former Chairman of the Board, International Council on Clean ...CALSTART
This document discusses particulate emissions from road vehicles and their health effects. It focuses on black carbon as a major component of particulate matter that is strongly linked to adverse health effects and climate change. Technologies now exist to significantly clean vehicles, with standards in Europe and North America reducing particulate emissions by over 90% between 2005 and 2010. However, transportation is expected to continue consuming large amounts of energy without strong new policies. The document outlines regulatory efforts in various regions and technologies like electric and fuel cell vehicles that could reduce emissions from trucks and buses in the long term.
This document discusses using different fiscal instruments to reduce NOx emissions from cars in a cost-effective manner. It finds that incentives targeting multiple factors are more cost-effective than those targeting just a few factors. Increasing fuel taxes is an ineffective way to reduce NOx emissions. Increasing existing circulation taxes induces people to scrap old, polluting cars. Basing circulation taxes on emission factors produces larger NOx reductions at lower costs by encouraging cleaner vehicle technology. A circulation tax accounting for both emissions and mileage provides more choices and achieves further NOx reductions at the same cost. Taxing actual emissions could optimize reductions but is difficult to implement.
This document discusses leverage points for reducing air pollutant emissions from road transport. It examines vehicle and fuel characteristics like fuel type and efficiency, emission controls, and vehicle age. It also looks at factors related to vehicle ownership and use, including location of travel, time of day, speed of travel, and vehicle load. Reducing emissions requires improvements in fuels, vehicle technology, traffic management, and urban planning to encourage more efficient modes of transport.
This document discusses electronic fee collection (EFC) systems for transport payment. It outlines existing single-lane toll systems in Europe and challenges with multi-lane tolling at high speeds. Three main EFC technologies are described: microwave, infrared, and GSM/GPS. Exception handling and vehicle classification are difficult technical problems. Transaction processing bandwidth limitations could be addressed by expanding the available spectrum. Legal and institutional challenges also exist for introducing tolling on previously untolled roads. Ensuring interoperability of EFC systems across borders is a key priority.
This document discusses methods for assigning a monetary value to the external costs of transport in order to implement policies aimed at internalizing these costs. It describes several valuation methods and their advantages and disadvantages, including the damage function approach, avoidance costs approach, hedonic pricing approaches, and contingent valuation/stated preferences approach. It notes that contingent valuation tends to provide the highest monetary values since it aims to measure people's total willingness to pay and includes non-market impacts, though it is also the most expensive to conduct.
The document discusses the effectiveness of using prices to influence transportation behavior. It finds that price elasticities, which measure the responsiveness of demand to price changes, are generally higher than previously believed. For example, a 10% increase in fuel prices can reduce traffic by 3% in the long run. Road pricing and tax differentiation between fuels and vehicles can significantly impact choices and markets shares through relatively small price adjustments.
The document discusses transport pricing in Brussels. It finds that:
1) Without policy changes, peak travel speeds would drop from 38 km/hr to 23 km/hr by 2005 due to increased traffic.
2) Implementing efficient pricing that accounts for external costs could reduce peak car traffic by 21.8% and increase public transit use by 19.5%, cutting air pollution by 50% and providing annual benefits of 150 million ECU.
3) Pricing options could include road pricing and emission fees, or more conventional approaches like fuel taxes, which still provide sizable benefits compared to taking no action.
This document summarizes evidence on external costs of transport and proposes principles for policies to internalize these external costs. It finds that road transport accounts for over 90% of total external costs and costs per vehicle km are much higher for road than rail or shipping. Urban traffic has very high external costs. The document recommends transitioning towards transport pricing systems that reflect full social costs through gradually implementing charges linked to externalities over time.
The document discusses congestion costs from traffic in Europe. It notes that congestion has doubled in the Netherlands over the past decade and costs 0.7 billion ECU annually, or 0.25% of GDP. Congestion is concentrated in urban areas during peak hours. An efficient solution would be to introduce differentiated congestion charges that vary by time and location to reflect the full social costs of transportation. This would provide incentives to reduce unnecessary trips and maximize infrastructure usage, while also generating revenues to invest in expanding capacity.
The document discusses why transport externalities matter and how they can be reduced. It makes three key points:
1) When market prices do not reflect all costs to society, individual transportation decisions do not maximize benefits to society as a whole. Pricing that internalizes external costs is needed for an efficient system.
2) Transport externalities impair efficient resource allocation. For example, if pollution costs are not charged, demand will be "too high" for polluting vehicles and "too low" for cleaner ones.
3) Government measures are needed to internalize external costs by ensuring transportation users pay full social costs. This provides incentives to reduce problems and leads to more desirable societal outcomes compared to unpr
This document discusses options for incorporating external costs of transport into pricing in the European Union. It explores ways to make transport pricing more efficient and fair by internalizing costs related to infrastructure use, congestion, accidents, air pollution, and noise. The goal is to launch a broad discussion on using market-based instruments and regulations to reduce transport problems and reflect the full costs of transport activities on society and the environment.
Vicinity Jobs’ data includes more than three million 2023 OJPs and thousands of skills. Most skills appear in less than 0.02% of job postings, so most postings rely on a small subset of commonly used terms, like teamwork.
Laura Adkins-Hackett, Economist, LMIC, and Sukriti Trehan, Data Scientist, LMIC, presented their research exploring trends in the skills listed in OJPs to develop a deeper understanding of in-demand skills. This research project uses pointwise mutual information and other methods to extract more information about common skills from the relationships between skills, occupations and regions.
How Does CRISIL Evaluate Lenders in India for Credit RatingsShaheen Kumar
CRISIL evaluates lenders in India by analyzing financial performance, loan portfolio quality, risk management practices, capital adequacy, market position, and adherence to regulatory requirements. This comprehensive assessment ensures a thorough evaluation of creditworthiness and financial strength. Each criterion is meticulously examined to provide credible and reliable ratings.
STREETONOMICS: Exploring the Uncharted Territories of Informal Markets throug...sameer shah
Delve into the world of STREETONOMICS, where a team of 7 enthusiasts embarks on a journey to understand unorganized markets. By engaging with a coffee street vendor and crafting questionnaires, this project uncovers valuable insights into consumer behavior and market dynamics in informal settings."
Discover the Future of Dogecoin with Our Comprehensive Guidance36 Crypto
Learn in-depth about Dogecoin's trajectory and stay informed with 36crypto's essential and up-to-date information about the crypto space.
Our presentation delves into Dogecoin's potential future, exploring whether it's destined to skyrocket to the moon or face a downward spiral. In addition, it highlights invaluable insights. Don't miss out on this opportunity to enhance your crypto understanding!
https://36crypto.com/the-future-of-dogecoin-how-high-can-this-cryptocurrency-reach/
^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Duba...mayaclinic18
Whatsapp (+971581248768) Buy Abortion Pills In Dubai/ Qatar/Kuwait/Doha/Abu Dhabi/Alain/RAK City/Satwa/Al Ain/Abortion Pills For Sale In Qatar, Doha. Abu az Zuluf. Abu Thaylah. Ad Dawhah al Jadidah. Al Arish, Al Bida ash Sharqiyah, Al Ghanim, Al Ghuwariyah, Qatari, Abu Dhabi, Dubai.. WHATSAPP +971)581248768 Abortion Pills / Cytotec Tablets Available in Dubai, Sharjah, Abudhabi, Ajman, Alain, Fujeira, Ras Al Khaima, Umm Al Quwain., UAE, buy cytotec in Dubai– Where I can buy abortion pills in Dubai,+971582071918where I can buy abortion pills in Abudhabi +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Sharjah,+97158207191 8where I can buy abortion pills in Ajman, +971)581248768 where I can buy abortion pills in Umm al Quwain +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Fujairah +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Ras al Khaimah +971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in Alain+971)581248768 , where I can buy abortion pills in UAE +971)581248768 we are providing cytotec 200mg abortion pill in dubai, uae.Medication abortion offers an alternative to Surgical Abortion for women in the early weeks of pregnancy. Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman Fujairah Ras Al Khaimah%^^%$Zone1:+971)581248768’][* Legit & Safe #Abortion #Pills #For #Sale In #Dubai Abu Dhabi Sharjah Deira Ajman
1. Elemental Economics - Introduction to mining.pdfNeal Brewster
After this first you should: Understand the nature of mining; have an awareness of the industry’s boundaries, corporate structure and size; appreciation the complex motivations and objectives of the industries’ various participants; know how mineral reserves are defined and estimated, and how they evolve over time.
Solution Manual For Financial Accounting, 8th Canadian Edition 2024, by Libby...Donc Test
Solution Manual For Financial Accounting, 8th Canadian Edition 2024, by Libby, Hodge, Verified Chapters 1 - 13, Complete Newest Version Solution Manual For Financial Accounting, 8th Canadian Edition by Libby, Hodge, Verified Chapters 1 - 13, Complete Newest Version Solution Manual For Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Pdf Chapters Download Stuvia Solution Manual For Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Ebook Download Stuvia Solution Manual For Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Pdf Solution Manual For Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Pdf Download Stuvia Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Pdf Chapters Download Stuvia Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Ebook Download Stuvia Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Pdf Financial Accounting 8th Canadian Edition Pdf Download Stuvia
Economic Risk Factor Update: June 2024 [SlideShare]Commonwealth
May’s reports showed signs of continued economic growth, said Sam Millette, director, fixed income, in his latest Economic Risk Factor Update.
For more market updates, subscribe to The Independent Market Observer at https://blog.commonwealth.com/independent-market-observer.
A toxic combination of 15 years of low growth, and four decades of high inequality, has left Britain poorer and falling behind its peers. Productivity growth is weak and public investment is low, while wages today are no higher than they were before the financial crisis. Britain needs a new economic strategy to lift itself out of stagnation.
Scotland is in many ways a microcosm of this challenge. It has become a hub for creative industries, is home to several world-class universities and a thriving community of businesses – strengths that need to be harness and leveraged. But it also has high levels of deprivation, with homelessness reaching a record high and nearly half a million people living in very deep poverty last year. Scotland won’t be truly thriving unless it finds ways to ensure that all its inhabitants benefit from growth and investment. This is the central challenge facing policy makers both in Holyrood and Westminster.
What should a new national economic strategy for Scotland include? What would the pursuit of stronger economic growth mean for local, national and UK-wide policy makers? How will economic change affect the jobs we do, the places we live and the businesses we work for? And what are the prospects for cities like Glasgow, and nations like Scotland, in rising to these challenges?
South Dakota State University degree offer diploma Transcriptynfqplhm
办理美国SDSU毕业证书制作南达科他州立大学假文凭定制Q微168899991做SDSU留信网教留服认证海牙认证改SDSU成绩单GPA做SDSU假学位证假文凭高仿毕业证GRE代考如何申请南达科他州立大学South Dakota State University degree offer diploma Transcript
2. Elemental Economics - Mineral demand.pdfNeal Brewster
After this second you should be able to: Explain the main determinants of demand for any mineral product, and their relative importance; recognise and explain how demand for any product is likely to change with economic activity; recognise and explain the roles of technology and relative prices in influencing demand; be able to explain the differences between the rates of growth of demand for different products.
OJP data from firms like Vicinity Jobs have emerged as a complement to traditional sources of labour demand data, such as the Job Vacancy and Wages Survey (JVWS). Ibrahim Abuallail, PhD Candidate, University of Ottawa, presented research relating to bias in OJPs and a proposed approach to effectively adjust OJP data to complement existing official data (such as from the JVWS) and improve the measurement of labour demand.
[4:55 p.m.] Bryan Oates
OJPs are becoming a critical resource for policy-makers and researchers who study the labour market. LMIC continues to work with Vicinity Jobs’ data on OJPs, which can be explored in our Canadian Job Trends Dashboard. Valuable insights have been gained through our analysis of OJP data, including LMIC research lead
Suzanne Spiteri’s recent report on improving the quality and accessibility of job postings to reduce employment barriers for neurodivergent people.
Decoding job postings: Improving accessibility for neurodivergent job seekers
Improving the quality and accessibility of job postings is one way to reduce employment barriers for neurodivergent people.
1. ii) The limits of cover vary considerably: in some countries they do not extend to full
compensation of loss suffered by victims and allow little or nothing for non-material
injury (e.g. mental distress in the event of a fatality, temporary loss of use of vehicle,
etc.). Limits of cover and compensation for injury or loss still vary significantly across
the Union. Within the European Union, these limits are the subject of a Directive10
which will progressively align all EC States to certain minima.
In the Union, social protection systems in different Member States treat accident costs in
different ways:
i) There are some countries, such as Sweden, whose social security scheme covers all road
accidents in the framework of health insurance, no claim being possible against the
insurance company. Medical, pharmaceutical and hospitalisation costs are all met by
State institutions;
ii) In countries such as Belgium, France or Germany, social bodies may claim against the
insurance company of the driver who caused the accident. The insurance companies civil
liability costs become much higher as a result of this. Economic harm is no longer
financially assessed by the State body but is fixed by normal judicial practice.
This discussion shows that premiums paid by individual motorists do not accurately reflect
the full underlying cost. First, a large part of the cost is paid by society as a whole (e.g. via
general taxation or social security charges) implying that, in total, road users do not pay for
all accident costs. Secondly, risk based or quot;true pricingquot; pricing governs one part of the
premium and inter-generational cross-subsidisation (from older and female drivers to young
male motorists) another part. Consequently, the current rate is not based upon a true
evaluation of an individual's risk and charges, therefore, do not correspond to the likely
(statistical) risk at the level of individual road users (mismatch). If one accepts the principle
that the quot;polluter paysquot; in proportion to the pollution he/she generates, the driver too should
pay something in proportion to the full risk he creates.
5.6 Towards fair and efficient pricing for accidents
The current policy towards insurance in the Union is based on the necessary improvement of
the Single Market. If it was decided that more progress should be made on cost internalisation
through the insurance system, then this policy would need expansion.
The basic principle of such an approach would be to ensure that the insurance liability covers
the whole accident cost and that the premium is differentiated as much as possible:
i) This approach would imply withdrawing the quot;road accident subsidyquot; that is currently
paid by governments and societies and leaving the true and total costs to be borne by
the driving public;
ii) The cost of insurance should ideally vary with risk. Assessment of a driver's attitude
towards risk taking could include historical evidence such as:-
10
Articles of Directive 84/5
25
2. - Rewarding responsible behaviour through driving offence registrations or, proof
that driving behaviour is better than average, ie. by assessing acquired ability to
drive in a safer manner, eg. advanced testing is to be encouraged;
- A scale of charges by offence, perhaps automatically linked to the driving licence
point system, could be an equitable way of targeting the higher risk taker rather
than only relying on a blanket charge for high risk groups such as young male
drivers.
This approach would give consumers an incentive to buy safer cars, drive more safely, drive
less, use safer roads, switch to other modes, where appropriate, or car pool. It would,
therefore, leave it to individual users to decide how to reduce accident risk in a way that they
deem fit.
There are, however, a number of possible problems that would have to be solved before such
a system could be introduced. For example, in this system the young inexperienced driver,
particularly male driver, would, at present risk rates, incur the bulk of the higher costs, whilst
the experienced older driver would receive a rebate (the differential risk for young drivers is
currently between 2 and 4 times that of a comparable adult reference group). Such a structure
could cause an increase in the number of young people driving uninsured and exacerbate
under-claiming/non reporting of accidents. Enforcement and training will be the key to
ensuring that an insurance based internalisation works effectively.
Whatever approach is chosen, it is clear that it must respect the efficient functioning of the
internal market in insurance services.
5.7 Policy conclusions
• The Commission will promote harmonisation of the recording and assessment of traffic
accident statistics at the most thorough level throughout the Union.
• The Commission should encourage the willingness-to-pay principle as costing
mechanism for traffic injury accidents.
• Insurance premiums are the most direct and focused method for targeting the driver in
proportion to the risks involved. The Commission will analyse the potential of this
instrument and whether Community action is needed.
• There is significant scope for harmonising the practices and criterion for settlement. The
Commission will convene a working party to consider the possibility of establishing a
pain and suffering scale when assessing levels of personal injury awards and the
provision of compensation for bodily injury.
• Publicising the relative safety performance of cars through either analysis of their
occurrence and performance in road accidents or through crash simulation studies has
proved to be successful in influencing buying decisions and so reducing the user's risk.
Relative safety evaluation of passenger cars should be encouraged at EU level. By
giving sufficient incentives to reduce risk, cost targeting should give added incentive
for buying safer cars.
26
3. 6. AIR POLLUTION FROM TRANSPORT
6.1 Emissions from transport: levels and trends
In most Member States of the European Union the major share of carbon monoxide (CO) and oxides of nitrogen
(NOx) emissions come from transport (around 69% and 63%, respectively). This sector also contributes a
substantial share (around 30%) of non-methane volatile organic compounds11 and a minor share (1%) of sulphur
dioxide (SO2) emissions. Secondary pollutants are formed as a result of complex chemical reactions that the
primary pollutants undergo in the atmosphere. The main secondary pollutants attributable to transport activity
are nitrogen dioxide (NO2) and ground-level ozone. Oxides of sulphur and nitrogen also contribute to
acidification. Other air pollutants of concern come from fuel substances such as lead and benzene in gasoline,
are directly emitted from diesel vehicles such as particulate matter, or are linked to fuel consumption such as
emissions of carbon dioxide.
It has to be pointed out that there is a significant variation in the share of transport in total emissions across the
Union. For example, in Greece only 26.9% of total NOx emissions are from transport, whereas this share is
52.9% in Portugal and 68.7% in France. The lion's share of these emissions is from road transport. Although
emissions depend heavily on technology and vary according to a number of parameters, road transport emissions
per passenger or tonne-kilometre of freight are often a multiple of emissions from other modes, even for modern
cars and trucks (Table 6.1). By vehicle type, cars are responsible for the large majority of emissions of CO and
VOCs, while heavy goods vehicles are responsible for a substantial share of NOx emissions and the majority
share of SO2 emissions.
Table 6.1 : Specific Emissions by mode
CAR AIRCRAFT TRAIN WATERWAYS
C2
A B C A B C A B AB C
Passenger transport (grammes per passenger km)
CO2 180 126.4 160 210.0 78 48.7
CO 11 3.1 1.038 0.28 0.13 1.266 0.13 0.008
NOx 2.1 1.4 1.367 0.71 0.88 0.588 0.46 0.120
CxHy 2.3 0.75 0.168 0.31 0.043 0.198 0.30 0.003
SO2 0.084 0.078 0.209
Aer1 0.046 0.028 0.074
Freight transport (grammes per tonne km)
CO2 207 1160 41
CO 2.40 2.10 1.40 0.05 0.6 0.20
NOx 3.60 1.85 5.30 0.20 0.40 0.58
CxHy 1.10 0.92 0.80 0.08 0.02 0.08
SO2
Aer1 0.04 0.08 0.04
Source : OECD (1994) and AECMA (1994) A = Germany; B = Switzerland; C = Belgium
1 2
Aerosols Corresponding figures for high speed trains are 28.9,
0.005, 0.071, 0.002, 0.124 and 0.044 respectively
Transport-related air pollution has traditionally been addressed in Europe with regulations on
fuel quality, emission standards and vehicle inspection and maintenance programmes (see 6.3).
11
The main ingredient of VOC is hydrocarbons (HC). The lightest hydrocarbon, methane (CH4),
is often excluded from regulation and for that reason data is sometimes compiled as non-methane
VOC, NMVOC.
27
4. Overall, these regulations have succeeded in reducing emissions per vehicle-kilometre by
some 90% compared to 1970. As a result, transport-related emissions of carbon monoxide,
volatile organic compounds and oxides of nitrogen show a downward trend, while lead
emissions from gasoline are gradually being phased out. For example, NOx and VOC
emissions are expected to go down by 38 and 54 over the period 1990-2010. But total
emissions of other air pollutants continue rising due to the growth in motorization and
transport demand. This is the case of particulates and carbon dioxide.
6.2 The costs of air pollution
Transport-related air pollution can have local, regional, or global impact. Local air pollution
has impacts on health (e.g., respiratory diseases) and causes material damage to buildings and
vegetation. Local air pollution is caused by primary pollutants, SO2, lead and particulates.
Regional impacts derive from acidification and ground level ozone. Global impacts are related
to the progressive accumulation of greenhouse gases and their role in the gradual warming
of the earth's atmosphere. Transport sources are major contributors to the so-called
quot;greenhouse effectquot; principally through emissions of CO2 and CFCs12, but also through
emissions of other air pollutants. Besides their impacts on local air pollution, VOCs and NOx
emissions contribute to ozone formation and indirectly to global warming. NOx and VOC
emissions are both a local problem and, through chemical reactions, an important contributor
to regional air pollution. Lead and particulates are very local problems.
The air pollution externality from transport originates from the environmental impacts caused
by the emissions of air pollutants. If these emissions were harmless to public health,
buildings or vegetation, there would not be an externality. However, people's continued
exposure to high-level concentrations of local air pollutants, for example, can result in severe
health damage, including respiratory diseases, cancer and premature deaths. A recent OECD
survey puts the external costs of (local and regional) air pollution from transport at roughly
0.4% of GNP. This estimate excludes cost estimates for greenhouse gases from transport.
Clearly, the figure of 0.4 % of GNP is an average figure which varies across countries and
cities depending on the age and composition of the vehicle fleet, climatic conditions,
population exposure, etc. Moreover, preliminary results of ongoing research point to the
possibility that the above-mentioned average cost figure underestimates the costs of air
pollution by several orders of magnitude, by not fully taking account of public health effects.
In particular, emerging evidence suggests that the health effects of particulate matter have
been significantly underestimated until now.
6.3 The current policy approach: scope and limits of regulation
The costs per gramme of emissions do not normally depend on the mode from which it was
emitted. In this case, charges to bring these costs closer to users should, therefore, not
discriminate across modes. However, given the dominant share of road transport in total,
policies should be developed with a certain urgency for this mode. Other modes should,
however, not be overlooked, especially when they make an important contribution to total
emissions. For example, emissions of NOx and SO2 from maritime transport in the North East
Atlantic are of the same magnitude as total emissions in France. The levels for the English
Channel and the Southern North sea are approximately comparable to the national emissions
levels for Denmark. It was found, for example, in an environmental assessment of the
Öresund bridge that, although road traffic will increase, emissions of NOx and SO2 will be
reduced by 5 to 15% due to a reduction in ferry traffic (which uses high sulphur diesel oil and
has no catalytic converters) after the opening of the bridge.
12
CFC = Chlorofluorocarbons, emitted from the airconditioning of vehicles
28