3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 - Page 3.15 - Social-Cognitive Theories
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.15 Social-Cognitive Theories
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Social-Cognitive Theories
How do social-cognitive theorists view personality development, and how do they
explore behavior?
The social-cognitive perspective on personality, proposed by Albert Bandura (1986,
2006, 2008), emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our situations. Much as
nature and nurture always work together, so do individuals and their situations.
The point to remember Behavior emerges from the interplay of external and internal
influences.
Social-cognitive theorists believe we learn many of our behaviors either through
conditioning or by observing and imitating others. (That’s the “social” part.) They also
emphasize the importance of mental processes: What we think about a situation affects
our behavior in that situation. (That’s the “cognitive” part.) Instead of focusing solely on
how our environment controls us (behaviorism), social-cognitive theorists focus on how
we and our environment interact: How do we interpret and respond to external events?
How do our schemas, our memories, and our expectations influence our behavior
patterns?
Reciprocal Influences
Bandura (1986, 2006) views the person-environment interaction as reciprocal
determinism. “Behavior, internal personal factors, and environmental influences,” he
said, “all operate as interlocking determinants of each other” (Figure 8). We can see this
interaction in people’s relationships. For example, Rosa’s romantic history (past
behavior) influences her attitudes toward new relationships (internal factor), which
affects how she now responds to Ryan (environmental factor).
Figure 8
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Reciprocal Determinism
Circular illustration of how internal personal factors, behavior, and environmental factors
interact. Illustration contains three text boxes forming a triangle, with two-sided arrows
pointing between each text box. The first box contains internal personal factors, like
thoughts and feelings about risky activities. The second box contains behavior, like
learning to rock climb, and the third box contains environmental factors, like rock-
climbing friends.
Courtesy of Joslyn Brugh
Multiple-Choice Question
How does the social-cognitive approach differ from the other perspectives
on personality discussed in this chapter?
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of internal dispositions to a
greater extent than do the ot ...
An Introduction to Social Psychology.pptxAQSA SHAHID
Social psychology is the study of how individual or group behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others. The major question social psychologists ponder is this: How and why are people's perceptions and actions influenced by environmental factors, such as social interaction?
Social psychology focuses on three main areas: social thinking, social influence, and social behavior. Each of these overlapping areas of study is displayed . The circles overlap because, in our everyday lives, these three forces blend together as they influence us.The discipline of social psychology began in the United States at the dawn of the twentieth century. The first published study in this area was an experiment by Norman Triplett (1898) on the phenomenon of social facilitation.Topics examined in social psychology include: the self concept, social cognition, attribution theory, social influence, group processes, prejudice and discrimination, interpersonal processes, aggression, attitudes and stereotypes. It is clear that social psychology is worth appreciating, because it provides us with a framework by which we can understand how we identify ourselves, how we interact in groups. This field essentially assesses our willingness to improve the environments in which we are immersed.
Social psychologists study interpersonal and group dynamics and social challenges, such as prejudice, implicit bias, bullying, criminal activity and substance abuse. They research social interactions and the factors that influence them, such as group behavior, attitudes, public perceptions and leadershiSocial Psychologists work to study an individual's behavior, including actions, thoughts and choices and how they are influenced by the larger society. Many Social Psychologists are employed in academia (collegiate or university level), private sector research or public, governmental agencies (public school districts).There are four key characteristics of social psychology including broad scope, cultural mandate, scientific methods, and search for wisdom.
An Introduction to Social Psychology.pptxAQSA SHAHID
Social psychology is the study of how individual or group behavior is influenced by the presence and behavior of others. The major question social psychologists ponder is this: How and why are people's perceptions and actions influenced by environmental factors, such as social interaction?
Social psychology focuses on three main areas: social thinking, social influence, and social behavior. Each of these overlapping areas of study is displayed . The circles overlap because, in our everyday lives, these three forces blend together as they influence us.The discipline of social psychology began in the United States at the dawn of the twentieth century. The first published study in this area was an experiment by Norman Triplett (1898) on the phenomenon of social facilitation.Topics examined in social psychology include: the self concept, social cognition, attribution theory, social influence, group processes, prejudice and discrimination, interpersonal processes, aggression, attitudes and stereotypes. It is clear that social psychology is worth appreciating, because it provides us with a framework by which we can understand how we identify ourselves, how we interact in groups. This field essentially assesses our willingness to improve the environments in which we are immersed.
Social psychologists study interpersonal and group dynamics and social challenges, such as prejudice, implicit bias, bullying, criminal activity and substance abuse. They research social interactions and the factors that influence them, such as group behavior, attitudes, public perceptions and leadershiSocial Psychologists work to study an individual's behavior, including actions, thoughts and choices and how they are influenced by the larger society. Many Social Psychologists are employed in academia (collegiate or university level), private sector research or public, governmental agencies (public school districts).There are four key characteristics of social psychology including broad scope, cultural mandate, scientific methods, and search for wisdom.
Integrative Personality Theory 1
Integrative Personality Theory 6
Integrative Personality Theory
Tameka Bowen
Tolanda Martin
PSY 330-Theories of Personality
September 18, 2016
Major Concepts
The psychodynamic model
The psychodynamic model consists of concepts by Sigmund Freud that explains most aspects of personality. These theories were based on Sigmund’s the patients’ therapy whereby he was able to collect many theories and later became the psychodynamic approach to personality.
Throughout the years, these theories have become of much importance in the field of psychology. They have been widely used by therapists to treat patients suffering from depression and anxiety disorders.
The psychodynamic approach assumes that the behavior and feelings of a person are highly affected by their unconscious motives (Henning, Cilliers, 2012). For adults, their behavior and feelings are developed from their childhood experience. According to Freud, personality consists of three parts namely; the id, super-ego, and super-id. These three sections are shaped differently based on one’s childhood experiences during the psychosexual development stage. The unconscious mind consists of the super-ego and the id while as the conscious mind is the ego. These three parts are in constant conflicts that result to anxiety. This anxiety can be dealt with by the ego using defense mechanisms.
The neurobiological model
The neurobiological approach deals with the functioning of the neurons. In psychology, this approach is more concerned with how the neurotransmitters affect the behavior of a person. For instance, when trying to understand mental illness, an analysis on how biological aspects influence the human behavior is necessary. This will focus much on how learning and information processing occur in people.
Since this approach deals with how individual think, relates to others and perceive external events, it is very much related the antisocial personality. People suffering from neuron related disorders do not consider what is right or wrong when making decisions. According to neurobiological approach, the functioning of the effect neural functioning of the morally emotionally (Dodman et al., 2016).
According to this model, components that affect the way people behave are; the level of knowledge and skills, environmental constraints such as attitude, habits, and norms. This theory tries to explain how the mind affects the body and how the body affect the mind resulting in certain behaviors from a person.
Excluded Concepts
While discussing the psychodynamic model, there were some assumptions made. One of the assumptions made is that every behavior has a cause. By making this assumption, aspects such as feelings, thoughts and behavior are taken to be as a result of a certain cause either genetically or environmental. Other assumptions made are t.
4.1 EXPLORING INCENTIVE PAY4-1 Explore the incentive pay a.docxlorainedeserre
4.1 EXPLORING INCENTIVE PAY
4-1 Explore the incentive pay approach.
Incentive pay
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/bm01#bm01goss212) or
variable pay
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/bm01#bm01goss462)
rewards employees for partially or completely attaining a predetermined work objective.
Incentive or variable pay is defined as compensation, other than base wages or salaries that
fluctuate according to employees’ attainment of some standard, such as a preestablished
formula, individual or group goals, or company earnings.
Effective incentive pay systems are based on three assumptions:
Individual employees and work teams differ in how much they contribute to the
company, both in what they do as well as in how well they do it.
The company’s overall performance depends to a large degree on the performance of
individuals and groups within the company.
To attract, retain, and motivate high performers and to be fair to all employees, a
company needs to reward employees on the basis of their relative performance.
Much like seniority and merit pay approaches, incentive pay augments employees’ base pay,
but incentive pay appears as a one-time payment. Employees usually receive a combination
of recurring base pay and incentive pay, with base pay representing the greater portion of
core compensation. More employees are presently eligible for incentive pay than ever before,
as companies seek to control costs and motivate personnel continually to strive for exemplary
performance. Companies increasingly recognize the importance of applying incentive pay
programs to various kinds of employees as well, including production workers, technical
employees, and service workers.
Some companies use incentive pay extensively. Lincoln Electric Company, a manufacturer of
welding machines and motors, is renowned for its use of incentive pay plans. At Lincoln
Electric, production employees receive recurring base pay as well as incentive pay. The
company determines incentive pay awards according to five performance criteria: quality,
output, dependability, cooperation, and ideas. The company has awarded incentive payments
every year since 1934, through prosperous and poor economic times. In 2014, the average
profit sharing payment per employee was $33,984.
Coupled with average base
pay, total core compensation for Lincoln employees was $82,903. Over the past 10 years,
Lincoln’s profit-sharing payments averaged approximately 40 percent of annual salary.
1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end1)
2
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end2)
3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end3)
4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end4)
4.1 Exploring Incentive Pay
4/15/20, 8:49 PM
Page 1 ...
38 u December 2017 January 2018The authorities beli.docxlorainedeserre
38 u December 2017 / January 2018
T
he authorities believe he slipped across the United States-Mexico
border sometime during the summer of 2016, likely deep in the
night. He carried no papers. The crossing happened in the rugged
backcountry of southeastern Arizona, where the main deterrent to
trespassers is the challenging nature of the terrain—not the metal
walls, checkpoints, and aerial surveillance that dominate much of the border.
But the border crosser was des-
ert-hardy and something of an expert
at camouflage. No one knows for cer-
tain how long he’d been in the United
States before a motion-activated cam-
era caught him walking a trail in the
Dos Cabezas Mountains on the night
of November 16. When a government
agency retrieved the photo in late Feb-
ruary, the image was plastered across
Arizona newspapers, causing an imme-
diate sensation.
The border crosser was a jaguar.
Jaguars once roamed throughout
the southwestern United States, but
are now quite rare. A core population
resides in the mountains of northern
Mexico, and occasionally an adventur-
ous jaguar will venture north of the bor-
der. When one of these elusive, graceful
cats makes an appearance stateside,
Mrill Ingram is The Progressive’s online media editor.
‘The Border Is
a Beautiful Place’
For Many, Both Sides of the
Arizona-Mexico Border Are Home
B
O
R
D
ER
A
R
TS
C
O
R
R
ID
O
R
By Mrill Ingram
Artists Ana Teresa Fernández in Agua Prieta, Mexico, and Jenea Sanchez in Douglas, Arizona, worked with dozens of community members to paint sections
of the border fence sky blue, “erasing” it as a symbolic act of resistance against increasing violence and oppression of human rights along the border.
https://apnews.com/79c83219af724016b8cfa2c505018ac4/agency-reports-rare-jaguar-sighting-mountains-arizona
The Progressive u 39
usually via a motion-triggered camera,
it may get celebrity status.
“We’ve had positive identifications
of seven cats, alive and well, in the last
twenty years in the United States,” says
Diana Hadley of the Mexico-based
Northern Jaguar Project, which works
with people in both countries to pro-
tect the big cat. One of those cats be-
came known as El Jefe, after he took
up residence in 2011 in the Santa Rita
Mountains south of Tucson, Arizona.
His presence was proof that the United
States still had enough wild habitat to
support a jaguar.
The new cat was especially excit-
ing because, based on size and shape,
observers initially thought it might
be female. “A lot of people in Arizona
would be very happy to have jaguars
from Mexico breeding in Arizona,” re-
marks Hadley.
In September 2017, the Arizo-
na-based Center for Biological Di-
versity released new video of the cat,
apparently a male, caught on a mo-
tion-triggered camera ambling through
the oak scrub forest in the Chiricahua
Mountains. He’s been named Sombra,
or Shadow, by schoolkids in Tucson.
Such things will no longer ...
3Prototypes of Ethical ProblemsObjectivesThe reader shou.docxlorainedeserre
3
Prototypes of Ethical Problems
Objectives
The reader should be able to:
• Recognize an ethical question and distinguish it from a strictly clinical or legal one.
• Identify three component parts of any ethical problem.
• Describe what an agent is and, more importantly, what it is to be a moral agent.
• Name two prototypical ethical problems.
• Distinguish between two varieties of moral distress.
• Compare the fundamental difference between moral distress and an ethical dilemma.
• Describe the role of emotions in moral distress and ethical dilemmas.
• Describe a type of ethical dilemma that challenges a professional’s desire (and duty) to treat everyone fairly and equitably.
• Discuss the role of locus of authority considerations in ethical problem solving.
• Identify four criteria to assist in deciding who should assume authority for a specific ethical decision to achieve a caring response.
• Describe how shared agency functions in ethical problem solving.
NEW TERMS AND IDEAS YOU WILL ENCOUNTER IN THIS CHAPTER
legal question
disability benefits
ethical question
prototype
clinical question
agent
moral agent
locus of authority
shared agency
moral distress
moral residue
ethical dilemma
Topics in this chapter introduced in earlier chapters
Topic
Introduced in chapter
Ethical problem
1
Integrity
1
Interprofessional care team
1
Professional responsibility
2
A caring response
2
Accountability
2
Social determinants of care
2
Justice
2
Introduction
You have come a long way already and are prepared to take the next steps toward becoming skilled in the art of ethical decision making. The first part of this chapter guides you through an inquiry regarding how to know when you are faced with an ethical question instead of (or in addition to) a clinical or legal question. A further question is raised: How do you know whether the situation that raised the question is a problem that requires your involvement? This chapter helps you prepare to answer that question too. You will learn the basic components of an ethical problem and be introduced to two prototypes of ethical problems. We start with the story of Bill Boyd and Kate Lindy.
 The Story of Bill Boyd and Kate Lindy
Bill Boyd is a 25-year-old soldier who lives in a large city. Bill served in the U.S. Army for more than 6 years and was deployed to both Iraq and Afghanistan for multiple military missions in the past 4 years. During his final deployment, Bill suffered a blast injury in which he sustained significant shoulder and neck trauma and a mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) and posttraumatic stress. He was treated in an inpatient military hospital and transitioned back to his hometown, where he moved into his childhood home with his mother.
Kate Lindy is the outpatient psychologist who has been treating Bill for pain and posttraumatic stress. Bill is in a structured civilian reentry program. This competitive program is administered by a government subcontractor; its goal is to help in ...
4-5 Annotations and Writing Plan - Thu Jan 30 2111Claire Knaus.docxlorainedeserre
4-5 Annotations and Writing Plan - Thu Jan 30 21:11
Claire Knaus
Annotations:
Bekalu, M. A., McCloud, R. F., & Viswanath, K. (2019). Association of Social Media Use With Social Well-Being, Positive Mental Health, and Self-Rated Health: Disentangling Routine Use From Emotional Connection to Use. Health Education & Behavior, 46(2_suppl), 69S-80S. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198119863768
It seems that this source is arguing the effect of social media on mental health. This source uses this evidence to support the argument: Provided studies focusing on why individuals use social media, types of social network platforms, and the value of social capital. A counterargument for this source is: Studies that focus more on statistical usage rather than emotion connection. Personally, I believe the source is doing a good job of supporting its arguments because it provides an abundance of study references and clearly portrays the information and intent. I think this source will be very helpful in supporting my argument because of the focus on emotional connection to social media and its effects on mental health.
Matsakis, L. (2019). How Pro-Eating Disorder Posts Evade Filters on Social Media. In Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. (Reprinted from How Pro-Eating Disorder Posts Evade Filters on Social Media, Wired, 2018, June 13) Retrieved from https://link-gale-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/apps/doc/UAZKKH366290962/OVIC?u=nhc_main&sid=OVIC&xid=2c90b7b5
It seems that this source is arguing that social media platforms are not doing enough to eliminate harmful pro-ED posts. This source uses this evidence to support the argument: Information about specific platforms and what they have done to moderate content, links for more information, and what constitutes as harmful content. A counterargument for this source is that it is too difficult for platforms to remove the content and to even find it. In addition, it is believed there may be harmful effects on vulnerable people posting this type of content. Personally, I believe the source is doing a good job of supporting its arguments because it provides opposing viewpoints as well as raising awareness of some of the dangers of social media posts. I think this source will be very helpful in supporting my argument because it provides information on specifically what is being done to moderate this type of content on social media, and what some of the difficulties in moderating are.
Investigators at University of Leeds Describe Findings in Eating Disorders (Pro-ana versus Pro-recovery: A Content Analytic Comparison of Social Media Users' Communication about Eating Disorders on Twitter and Tumblr). (2017, September 4). Mental Health Weekly Digest, 38. Retrieved from https://link-gale-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/apps/doc/A502914419/OVIC?u=nhc_main&sid=OVIC&xid=5e60152f
It seems that this source is arguing that there are more positive, anti-anorexia posts on social media than harmful, pro-ED content. ...
3NIMH Opinion or FactThe National Institute of Mental Healt.docxlorainedeserre
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NIMH: Opinion or Fact
The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) was formed in 1946 and is one of 27 institutes that form the National Institute of Health (NIH) (NIMH, 2019). The mission of the NIMH is “To transform the understanding and treatment of mental illnesses through basic and clinical research, paving the way for prevention, recovery, and cure.” (NIMH, 2019). There are many different mental illnesses discussed on the NIMH website to include Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The NIMH website about ADHD is effective at providing the public general information and meets the criteria of authority, objectivity, and currency.
The NIMH website about ADHD provides an overview of ADHD, discusses signs and symptoms, and risk factors. The NIMH continues with information about treatment and therapies. Information provided by the NIMH is intended for both children and adults. The NIMH concludes on the page with studies the public can join and more resources for the public such as booklets, brochures, research and clinical trials.
As described by Jim Kapoun authority can be identified by who or what institution/organization published the document and if the information in the document is cited correctly (Cornell, 2020). The information on the website is published by the NIMH which is the lead research institute related to mental health for the last 70 plus years (NIMH, 2019). On the page related to ADHD the NIMH references the program of Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD) and provides a hyperlink to access the resources available with the agency (NIMH,2019). This link can be found under the support groups section in the treatment and therapies. On the website to the right of the area describing inattention the NIMH has a section on research. In this block there is a link to “PubMed: Journal Articles about Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)” which will take you to a search of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) published by PubMed on ADHD (NIMH, 2019). Throughout the entire page the NIMH provides sources and hyperlinks to the sources as citations. Based on the reputation of the NIMH and the citations to the source material the website meets the criteria of authority.
According to Kapoun objectivity can be identified looking for areas where the author expresses his or her opinion (Cornell, 2020). Information provided on the NIMH page about ADHD does not express the opinion of the author. The author produces only factual information based on research. The NIMH makes it a point not to mention the names of medications when discussing treatments and only explains the medications fall in two categories stimulants and non-stimulants (NIMH, 2019). In this same area the NIMH provides hyperlinks to the NIMH Mental Health Medication and FDA website for information about medication. The extent at which the NIMH goes to not provide an opinion on the website meet ...
4.1
Updated April-09
Lecture Notes
Chapter 4
Enterprise Excellence
Implementation
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE
4.2
Updated April-09
Learning Objectives
• Management & Operations Plans
• Enterprise Excellence Projects
• Enterprise Excellence Project decision Process
• Planning the Enterprise Excellence Project
• Tollgate Reviews
• Project Notebook
4.3
Updated April-09
MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONS PLANS
• The scope and complexity of the
implementation projects will vary from the
executive level, to the management level, to
the operational level
• Each plan, as it is developed and deployed,
will include projects to be accomplished
• Conflicts typically will occur amongst
requirements of quality, cost, and schedule
when executing a project
4.4
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECTS
• An Enterprise Excellence project will be one of three
types:
1. Technology invention or innovation
2. New product, service, or process development
3. Product, service, or process improvement
• Enterprise Excellence uses the scientific method
• The scientific method is a process of organizing
empirical facts and their interrelationships in a
manner that allows a hypothesis to be developed and
tested
4.5
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECTS
• The scientific method consists of the
following steps:
1. Observe and describe the situation
2. Formulate a hypothesis
3. Use the hypothesis to predict results
4. Perform controlled tests to confirm the hypothesis
4.6
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECTS
• Figure 4.1 shows the project decision process
4.7
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECT
DECISION PROCESS
• Inventing/Innovating Technology:
Technology development is accomplished using
system engineering
This system approach enables critical functional
parameters and responses to be quickly transferred
into now products, services, and processes
The process is a four-phase process (I2DOV):
Invention & Innovation – Develop – Optimize – Verify
4.8
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECT
DECISION PROCESS
• Development of Products, Services, and
Processes
The Enterprise Excellence approach for developing
products, services, and processes is the Design for
Lean Six Sigma strategy.
This strategy helps to incorporate customer
requirements and expectations into the product
and/or service.
Concept – Design – Optimize - Verify (CDOV) is a
specific sequential design & development process
used to execute the design strategy.
4.9
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECT
DECISION PROCESS
• Improving Products, Services, and Processes:
Improving products, services and processes usually
involves the effectiveness and efficiency of operations.
A product or service is said to be effective when it meets
all of its customer requirements.
Effectiveness can be simply expressed as "doing the
right things the first time ...
3Type your name hereType your three-letter and -number cours.docxlorainedeserre
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Type your name here
Type your three-letter and -number course code here
The date goes here
Type instructor’s name here
Your Title Goes Here
This is an electronic template for papers written in GCU style. The purpose of the template is to help you follow the basic writing expectations for beginning your coursework at GCU. Margins are set at 1 inch for top, bottom, left, and right. The first line of each paragraph is indented a half inch (0.5"). The line spacing is double throughout the paper, even on the reference page. One space after punctuation is used at the end of a sentence. The font style used in this template is Times New Roman. The font size is 12 point. When you are ready to write, and after having read these instructions completely, you can delete these directions and start typing. The formatting should stay the same. If you have any questions, please consult with your instructor.
Citations are used to reference material from another source. When paraphrasing material from another source (such as a book, journal, website), include the author’s last name and the publication year in parentheses.When directly quoting material word-for-word from another source, use quotation marks and include the page number after the author’s last name and year.
Using citations to give credit to others whose ideas or words you have used is an essential requirement to avoid issues of plagiarism. Just as you would never steal someone else’s car, you should not steal his or her words either. To avoid potential problems, always be sure to cite your sources. Cite by referring to the author’s last name, the year of publication in parentheses at the end of the sentence, such as (George & Mallery, 2016), and page numbers if you are using word-for-word materials. For example, “The developments of the World War II years firmly established the probability sample survey as a tool for describing population characteristics, beliefs, and attitudes” (Heeringa, West, & Berglund, 2017, p. 3).
The reference list should appear at the end of a paper (see the next page). It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text. A sample reference page is included below; this page includes examples (George & Mallery, 2016; Heeringa et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2018; “USA swimming,” 2018; Yu, Johnson, Deutsch, & Varga, 2018) of how to format different reference types (e.g., books, journal articles, and a website). For additional examples, see the GCU Style Guide.
References
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2016). IBM SPSS statistics 23 step by step: A simple guide and reference. New York, NY: Routledge.
Heeringa, S. G., West, B. T., & Berglund, P. A. (2017). Applied survey data analysis (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press.
Smith, P. D., Martin, B., Chewning, B., ...
3Welcome to Writing at Work! After you have completed.docxlorainedeserre
3
Welcome to Writing at Work! After you have completed the reading for the week, write an email to introduce yourself to your peers. The name of your thread should be what you would include in the subject of the email.
As you compose your email, keep in mind the following:
· You are addressing a group you will work with in a professional capacity for at least 15 weeks. Let us know something about you, but don't share anything you wouldn't want repeated.
· You should include what you perceive to be your relative strengths with regard to writing at work. What types of tasks would you feel most comfortable taking on?
· You should also include what aspects of writing at work make you feel least comfortable. What types of tasks would you not be as suited for?
· What do you hope to learn in the next several months?
Next, in an attachment, choose one of the following two prompts and write a letter, taking into account the purpose, audience, and appropriate style for the task.
1. Your organization has been contracted to complete a project for an important client, and you were charged with managing the project. It has unfortunately become clear that your team will not meet the deadline. Your supervisor has told you to contact the client in writing to alert them to the situation and wants to be cc'd on the message. Write a letter, which you will send via email, addressing the above.
2. After a year-long working relationship, your organization will no longer be making use of a freelancer's services due to no fault of their own. Write a letter alerting them to this fact.
Name:
HRT 4760 Assignment 01
Timeliness
First, you will choose one particular organization where you will conduct each of your 15 different observational assignments. Stick with this same organization throughout your coursework. (Do not switch around assignment locations at different organizations or locations.) The reason for continuing your observational assignments at the same organization is to give you a deeper understanding of this particular organization across the 15 different assignments. As you read on, you will get a more complete understanding as to how these 15 assignments come together.
Tip: Many students choose the organization where they are currently working. This works particularly well. If you are working there, you have much opportunity to gain access to the areas that will give you a more complete understanding of the quality of entire service package (the 15 different elements) that the organization offers to its customers.
This is one of a package of 15 different assignments that comprise the Elements of Service, which you will study this term. For this assignment, you will observe elements of service in almost any particular service establishment. A few examples of service establishments would include, but not be limited to these: Hotel, resort, private club, restaurant, airline, cruise line, grocery store, doctor’s office, coffee house, and scores of oth ...
3JWI 531 Finance II Assignment 1TemplateHOW TO USE THIS TEMP.docxlorainedeserre
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JWI 531 Finance II Assignment 1Template
HOW TO USE THIS TEMPLATE:
This is a template and checklist corresponding to your Assignment 1 paper: Enterprise Risk Management and Moat Strength. See below for an explanation of the color-coding in this template:
· All green text includes instructions to support your writing. You should delete all green text before submitting your final paper.
· All blue text indicates areas where you need to replace text with your own information. Replace the blue text with your own words in black.
· Headings and subheadings are written in black, bold type. Keep these in your paper.
TIPS:
· Write in the third person, using “he” or “she” or “they”, or using specific names. Do not use the second person “you”.
· The body of this paper has one-inch margins and uses a professional font (size 10-12); we recommend Arial or Times New Roman fonts.
· The Assignment template is already formatted with all needed specifications like margins, appropriate font, and double spacing.
· Before submitting your paper, use Grammarly to check for punctuation and usage errors and make the required corrections. Then read aloud to edit for tone and flow.
· You should also run your paper through SafeAssign to ensure that it meets the required standards for originality.
FINALIZING YOUR PAPER
Your submission should be a maximum of 4 pages in length. The page count doesnotinclude the Cover Page at the beginning and the References page at the end. The final paper that you submit for grading should be in black text only with all remaining green text and blue text removed. Assignment 1: Enterprise Risk Analysis and Moat Strength
Author’s Name
Jack Welch Management Institute
Professor’s Name
JWI 531
Date
Introduction
An Introduction should be succinct and to the point. Start your Introduction with a general and brief observation about the paper’s topic. Write a thesis statement, which is the “road map” for your paper - it helps your reader to navigate your work. In your thesis statement, be specific about the major areas you plan to address in your paper.
The headings below should guide your introduction, since they identify the topics to be addressed in your paper. The introduction is not a graded part of your rubric but it helps your reader to understand what your assignment will be about. We recommend that you write this part of your Introduction after you complete the other sections of your paper. It only needs to be one paragraph in length.
Analysis and Recommendations
You must answer each of the following questions in your paper. Keep your responses focused on the topic. Straying off into additional areas, even if they are interesting, will not earn additional marks, and may actually detract from the clarity of your responses.
I. Where is each company in its corporate lifecycle (startup, growth, maturity or decline)? Explain.
Before writing your response to this question, make sure you understand what characterizes ea ...
3Big Data Analyst QuestionnaireWithin this document are fo.docxlorainedeserre
3
Big Data Analyst Questionnaire
Within this document are four different questions. Each question is structured in the following manner:
1) Premise
- Contains any needed background information
2) Request
- The actual question, what you are to solve
3) Notes
- A space if you feel like including notes of any kind for the given question
Please place your answer for each question in a separate file, following this naming convention:
Name_Qn.docx, where n = the question number (i.e., 1, 2 ...). So the file for the first question should be named ‘Name_Q1.docx’.
When complete, please package everything together and send email responses to the designated POCs.
Page | 1
Premise:
You have a table named “TRADES” with the following six columns:
Column Name
Data Type
Description
Date
DATE
The calendar date on which the trade took place.
Firm
VARCHAR(255)
A symbol representing the Broker/Dealer who conducted the trade.
Symbol
VARCHAR(10)
The security traded.
Side
VARCHAR(1)
Denotes whether the trade was a buy (purchase) or a sell (sale) of a security.
Quantity
BIGINT
The number of shares involved in the trade.
Price
DECIMAL(18,8)
The dollar price per share traded.
You write a query looking for all trades in the month of August 2019. The query returns the following:
DATE
FIRM
SYMBOL
SIDE
QUANTITY
PRICE
8/5/2019
ABC
123
B
200
41
8/5/2019
CDE
456
B
601
60
8/5/2019
ABC
789
S
600
70
8/5/2019
CDE
789
S
600
70
8/5/2019
FGH
456
B
200
62
8/6/2019
3CDE
456
X
300
61
8/8/2019
ABC
123
B
300
40
8/9/2019
ABC
123
S
300
30
8/9/2019
FGH
789
B
2100
71
8/10/2019
CDE
456
S
1100
63
Questions:
1) Conduct an analysis of the data set returned by your query. Write a paragraph describing your analysis. Please also note any questions or assumptions made about this data.
2) Your business user asks you to show them a table output that includes an additional column categorizing the TRADES data into volume based Tiers, with a column named ‘Tier’. Quantities between 0-250 will be considered ‘Small’, quantities greater than ‘Small’ but less than or equal to 500 will be considered ‘Medium’, quantities greater than ‘Medium’ but less than or equal to 500 will be considered ‘Large’, and quantities greater than ‘Tier 3’ will be considered ‘Very Large’ .
a. Please write the SQL query you would use to add the column to the table output.
b. Please show the exact results you expect based on your SQL query.
3) Your business user asks you to show them a table output summarizing the TRADES data (Buy and Sell) on week-by-week basis.
a. Please write the SQL query you would use to query this table.
b. Please show the exact results you expect based on your SQL query.
Notes:
1
Premise:
You need to describe in writing how to accomplish a task. Your audience has never completed this task before.
Question:
In a few paragraphs, please describe how to complete a task of your choice. You may choose a task of your own liking or one of the sample tasks below:
1) How to make a p ...
3HR StrategiesKey concepts and termsHigh commitment .docxlorainedeserre
3
HR Strategies
Key concepts and terms
High commitment management •
High performance management •
HR strategy •
High involvement management •
Horizontal fi t •
Vertical fi t •
On completing this chapter you should be able to defi ne these key concepts.
You should also understand:
Learning outcomes
T • he purpose of HR strategy
Specifi c HR strategy areas •
How HR strategy is formulated •
How the vertical integration of •
business and HR strategies is
achieved
How HR strategies can be set out •
General HR strategy areas •
The criteria for a successful HR •
strategy
The fundamental questions on •
the development of HR strategy
How horizontal fi t (bundling) is •
achieved
How HR strategies can be •
implemented
47
48 Human Resource Management
Introduction
As described in Chapter 2, strategic HRM is a mindset that leads to strategic actions and reac-
tions, either in the form of overall or specifi c HR strategies or strategic behaviour on the part
of HR professionals. This chapter focuses on HR strategies and answers the following ques-
tions: What are HR strategies? What are the main types of overall HR strategies? What are the
main areas in which specifi c HR strategies are developed? What are the criteria for an effective
HR strategy? How should HR strategies be developed? How should HR strategies be
implemented?
What are HR strategies?
HR strategies set out what the organization intends to do about its human resource manage-
ment policies and practices and how they should be integrated with the business strategy and
each other. They are described by Dyer and Reeves (1995) as ‘internally consistent bundles of
human resource practices’. Richardson and Thompson (1999) suggest that:
A strategy, whether it is an HR strategy or any other kind of management strategy must
have two key elements: there must be strategic objectives (ie things the strategy is sup-
posed to achieve), and there must be a plan of action (ie the means by which it is pro-
posed that the objectives will be met).
The purpose of HR strategies is to articulate what an organization intends to do about its
human resource management policies and practices now and in the longer term, bearing in
mind the dictum of Fombrun et al (1984) that business and managers should perform well in
the present to succeed in the future. HR strategies aim to meet both business and human needs
in the organization.
HR strategies may set out intentions and provide a sense of purpose and direction, but they are
not just long-term plans. As Gratton (2000) commented: ‘There is no great strategy, only great
execution.’
Because all organizations are different, all HR strategies are different. There is no such thing as
a standard strategy and research into HR strategy conducted by Armstrong and Long (1994)
and Armstrong and Baron (2002) revealed many variations. Some strategies are simply very
general declarations of intent. Others go into much more detail. ...
3Implementing ChangeConstruction workers on scaffolding..docxlorainedeserre
3
Implementing Change
Construction workers on scaffolding.
hxdbzxy/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Summarize the nine steps in Ackerman and Anderson’s road map for change.
Analyze Cummings and Worley’s five dimensions of leading and managing change.
Describe how to align an organization with its new vision and future state.
Explain how roles/relationships and interventions are used to implement change.
Examine ways to interact with and influence stakeholders.
Change is the law of life and those who look only to the past or present are certain to miss the future.
—John F. Kennedy
Alan Mulally was selected to lead Ford in 2006 after he was bypassed as CEO at Boeing, where he had worked and was expected to become CEO. Insiders and top-level managers at Ford, some of whom had expected to become CEO, were initially suspicious and then outraged when Mulally was hired. They questioned what someone from the airplane industry would know about the car business (Kiley, 2009).
Chair William (Bill) Clay Ford, Jr.—who selected Mulally as CEO—told Ford’s officers that the company needed a fresh perspective and a shake-up, especially since it had lost $14.8 billion in 2008—the most in its 105-year history—and had burned through $21.2 billion, or 61%, of its cash (Kiley, 2009). Because Ford knew that the company’s upper echelon culture was closed, bureaucratic, and rejected outsiders and new ways of thinking, he was not surprised by his officers’ reactions. However, Ford’s managers had no idea that the company was fighting for its life. To succeed, Mulally would need Chair Ford’s full endorsement and support, and he got it.
The company’s biggest cultural challenge was to break down the silos that various executives had built. As we will discuss more in Chapter 4, silos are specific processes or departments in an organization that work independently of each other without strong communication between or among them. A lack of communication can often stifle productivity and innovation, and this was exactly what was happening at Ford.
Mulally devised a turnaround strategy and developed it into the Way Forward Plan. The plan centralized and modernized plants to handle several models at once, to be sold in several markets. The plan was designed to break up the fiefdoms of isolated cultures, in which leaders independently developed and decided where to sell cars. Mulally’s plan also kept managers in positions for longer periods of time to deepen their expertise and improve consistency of operations. The manager who ran the Mazda Motor affiliate commented, “I’m going into my fourth year in the same job. I’ve never had such consistency of purpose before” (as cited in Kiley, 2009, “Meetings About Meetings,” para. 2).
Mulally’s leadership style involved evaluating and analyzing a situation using data and facts and then earning individuals’ support with his determinatio ...
3Assignment Three Purpose of the study and Research Questions.docxlorainedeserre
3
Assignment Three: Purpose of the study and Research Questions
RES 9300
Recently, Autism has become a serious health concern to parents. According to Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2018), about one in fifty nine United States children has been identified with autism spectrum disorder with one in six children developing developmental disability ranging from mild disabilities such as speech and language impairments to serious developmental disabilities, such as intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, and autism (CDC,2018). World Health Organization (2019) estimates that 1 in 160 children globally has autism making it one of the most prevalent diseases. Despite the disease prevalence, most population has little knowledge about the disease. Many health practitioners have proposed early care as a means to control the disease effects.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to determine whether early intervention services can help improve the development of children suffering from autism. This study also aims to explore the general public awareness and perception about autism disorder.
Research Questions
(1) How should service delivery for autistic patients be improved to promote their health? (2) What impact does early intervention services have on development of children suffering from autism? (3) How can public knowledge on autism improve support and care for autistic patients? (4) What effect will early intervention have on patient’s social skills?
References
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Data & Statistics. Retrieved From https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html
World Health Organization. (2019). Autism Spectrum Disorders. Fact Sheet. Retrieved From https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders
3
Assignment Two: Theoretical Perspective and Literature Review
RES 9300
Literature Map
Parenting an Autism Child
(Dependent Variable)
9
Mothers/Father Role
Education
Religious Beliefs
Gender/Age
Financial Resources
Maternal Relationship
Region
Public Awareness
Support
Ethnicity
Independent Variables
Secondary Source I Will Be Using In My Literature Review
Mother/Father Roles
Glynn, K. A. (2015). Predictors of parenting practices in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder.
Religious Beliefs
Huang, C. Y., Yen, H. C., Tseng, M. H., Tung, L. C., Chen, Y. D., & Chen, K. L. (2014). Impacts of autistic behaviors, emotional and behavioral problems on parenting stress in caregivers of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(6), 1383-1390.
Education
Brezis, R. S., Weisner, T. S., Daley, T. C., Singhal, N., Barua, M., & Chollera, S. P. (2015). Parenting a child with autism in India: Narratives before and after a parent–child intervention program. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 39(2), 277-298.
Financial Resources
Zaidm ...
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Interpretations of Iron Age Architecture Brochs in Society/Social Identity
Archaeology is a historical field which has advanced over the years based on more discoveries still being experienced by the archaeologists who seek them. According to Kelly and Thomas (2010; p.5), the concession that life existed in more ancient times than stipulated by biblical scholars and human culture allowed the archaeologists to dig deeper into genealogical data. Iron Age architecture and social/society identity relate to one another. For instance, the population, based on their identity and perception will construct buildings that directly reflect their beliefs. This essay will discuss these archaeological concepts of Iron Age architecture and society/social identity. Need a paragraph on brochs and how many and where they are across Scotland with patcialur focus on the atlantc region, this is not relevant for masters essay. Must define broch from its architecture and how long it would take to build and note famous ones and note the ones that will be referred to in this essay – this could be Perhaps incorpated into the next paragraph.
Iron Age architecture has over the years been dominated by differing archaeological concepts and debates. It was defined by settlements and settlement structures such as duns, brochs, wheelhouses, hillforts, stone-built round houses and timber. The social and societal identity which is identified through material remains indicates aspects of differentiation, regional patterns and segregation. According to Kelly and Thomas (2010; p.28), people who existed in Iron Age Scotland were isolated. This is demonstrated by the presence of a burial followed by an assembled chariot at Newbridge. Northern and western Scotland have been the source of the well-structured developments that have provided cultural, architectural and social data over time. Maes Howe, which is the largest Orkney burial cairn, located between Stromne ...
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Integrative Personality Theory 1
Integrative Personality Theory 6
Integrative Personality Theory
Tameka Bowen
Tolanda Martin
PSY 330-Theories of Personality
September 18, 2016
Major Concepts
The psychodynamic model
The psychodynamic model consists of concepts by Sigmund Freud that explains most aspects of personality. These theories were based on Sigmund’s the patients’ therapy whereby he was able to collect many theories and later became the psychodynamic approach to personality.
Throughout the years, these theories have become of much importance in the field of psychology. They have been widely used by therapists to treat patients suffering from depression and anxiety disorders.
The psychodynamic approach assumes that the behavior and feelings of a person are highly affected by their unconscious motives (Henning, Cilliers, 2012). For adults, their behavior and feelings are developed from their childhood experience. According to Freud, personality consists of three parts namely; the id, super-ego, and super-id. These three sections are shaped differently based on one’s childhood experiences during the psychosexual development stage. The unconscious mind consists of the super-ego and the id while as the conscious mind is the ego. These three parts are in constant conflicts that result to anxiety. This anxiety can be dealt with by the ego using defense mechanisms.
The neurobiological model
The neurobiological approach deals with the functioning of the neurons. In psychology, this approach is more concerned with how the neurotransmitters affect the behavior of a person. For instance, when trying to understand mental illness, an analysis on how biological aspects influence the human behavior is necessary. This will focus much on how learning and information processing occur in people.
Since this approach deals with how individual think, relates to others and perceive external events, it is very much related the antisocial personality. People suffering from neuron related disorders do not consider what is right or wrong when making decisions. According to neurobiological approach, the functioning of the effect neural functioning of the morally emotionally (Dodman et al., 2016).
According to this model, components that affect the way people behave are; the level of knowledge and skills, environmental constraints such as attitude, habits, and norms. This theory tries to explain how the mind affects the body and how the body affect the mind resulting in certain behaviors from a person.
Excluded Concepts
While discussing the psychodynamic model, there were some assumptions made. One of the assumptions made is that every behavior has a cause. By making this assumption, aspects such as feelings, thoughts and behavior are taken to be as a result of a certain cause either genetically or environmental. Other assumptions made are t.
4.1 EXPLORING INCENTIVE PAY4-1 Explore the incentive pay a.docxlorainedeserre
4.1 EXPLORING INCENTIVE PAY
4-1 Explore the incentive pay approach.
Incentive pay
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/bm01#bm01goss212) or
variable pay
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/bm01#bm01goss462)
rewards employees for partially or completely attaining a predetermined work objective.
Incentive or variable pay is defined as compensation, other than base wages or salaries that
fluctuate according to employees’ attainment of some standard, such as a preestablished
formula, individual or group goals, or company earnings.
Effective incentive pay systems are based on three assumptions:
Individual employees and work teams differ in how much they contribute to the
company, both in what they do as well as in how well they do it.
The company’s overall performance depends to a large degree on the performance of
individuals and groups within the company.
To attract, retain, and motivate high performers and to be fair to all employees, a
company needs to reward employees on the basis of their relative performance.
Much like seniority and merit pay approaches, incentive pay augments employees’ base pay,
but incentive pay appears as a one-time payment. Employees usually receive a combination
of recurring base pay and incentive pay, with base pay representing the greater portion of
core compensation. More employees are presently eligible for incentive pay than ever before,
as companies seek to control costs and motivate personnel continually to strive for exemplary
performance. Companies increasingly recognize the importance of applying incentive pay
programs to various kinds of employees as well, including production workers, technical
employees, and service workers.
Some companies use incentive pay extensively. Lincoln Electric Company, a manufacturer of
welding machines and motors, is renowned for its use of incentive pay plans. At Lincoln
Electric, production employees receive recurring base pay as well as incentive pay. The
company determines incentive pay awards according to five performance criteria: quality,
output, dependability, cooperation, and ideas. The company has awarded incentive payments
every year since 1934, through prosperous and poor economic times. In 2014, the average
profit sharing payment per employee was $33,984.
Coupled with average base
pay, total core compensation for Lincoln employees was $82,903. Over the past 10 years,
Lincoln’s profit-sharing payments averaged approximately 40 percent of annual salary.
1
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end1)
2
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end2)
3
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end3)
4
(http://content.thuzelearning.com/books/Martocchio.7916.16.1/sections/ch04lev1sec11#ch04end4)
4.1 Exploring Incentive Pay
4/15/20, 8:49 PM
Page 1 ...
38 u December 2017 January 2018The authorities beli.docxlorainedeserre
38 u December 2017 / January 2018
T
he authorities believe he slipped across the United States-Mexico
border sometime during the summer of 2016, likely deep in the
night. He carried no papers. The crossing happened in the rugged
backcountry of southeastern Arizona, where the main deterrent to
trespassers is the challenging nature of the terrain—not the metal
walls, checkpoints, and aerial surveillance that dominate much of the border.
But the border crosser was des-
ert-hardy and something of an expert
at camouflage. No one knows for cer-
tain how long he’d been in the United
States before a motion-activated cam-
era caught him walking a trail in the
Dos Cabezas Mountains on the night
of November 16. When a government
agency retrieved the photo in late Feb-
ruary, the image was plastered across
Arizona newspapers, causing an imme-
diate sensation.
The border crosser was a jaguar.
Jaguars once roamed throughout
the southwestern United States, but
are now quite rare. A core population
resides in the mountains of northern
Mexico, and occasionally an adventur-
ous jaguar will venture north of the bor-
der. When one of these elusive, graceful
cats makes an appearance stateside,
Mrill Ingram is The Progressive’s online media editor.
‘The Border Is
a Beautiful Place’
For Many, Both Sides of the
Arizona-Mexico Border Are Home
B
O
R
D
ER
A
R
TS
C
O
R
R
ID
O
R
By Mrill Ingram
Artists Ana Teresa Fernández in Agua Prieta, Mexico, and Jenea Sanchez in Douglas, Arizona, worked with dozens of community members to paint sections
of the border fence sky blue, “erasing” it as a symbolic act of resistance against increasing violence and oppression of human rights along the border.
https://apnews.com/79c83219af724016b8cfa2c505018ac4/agency-reports-rare-jaguar-sighting-mountains-arizona
The Progressive u 39
usually via a motion-triggered camera,
it may get celebrity status.
“We’ve had positive identifications
of seven cats, alive and well, in the last
twenty years in the United States,” says
Diana Hadley of the Mexico-based
Northern Jaguar Project, which works
with people in both countries to pro-
tect the big cat. One of those cats be-
came known as El Jefe, after he took
up residence in 2011 in the Santa Rita
Mountains south of Tucson, Arizona.
His presence was proof that the United
States still had enough wild habitat to
support a jaguar.
The new cat was especially excit-
ing because, based on size and shape,
observers initially thought it might
be female. “A lot of people in Arizona
would be very happy to have jaguars
from Mexico breeding in Arizona,” re-
marks Hadley.
In September 2017, the Arizo-
na-based Center for Biological Di-
versity released new video of the cat,
apparently a male, caught on a mo-
tion-triggered camera ambling through
the oak scrub forest in the Chiricahua
Mountains. He’s been named Sombra,
or Shadow, by schoolkids in Tucson.
Such things will no longer ...
3Prototypes of Ethical ProblemsObjectivesThe reader shou.docxlorainedeserre
3
Prototypes of Ethical Problems
Objectives
The reader should be able to:
• Recognize an ethical question and distinguish it from a strictly clinical or legal one.
• Identify three component parts of any ethical problem.
• Describe what an agent is and, more importantly, what it is to be a moral agent.
• Name two prototypical ethical problems.
• Distinguish between two varieties of moral distress.
• Compare the fundamental difference between moral distress and an ethical dilemma.
• Describe the role of emotions in moral distress and ethical dilemmas.
• Describe a type of ethical dilemma that challenges a professional’s desire (and duty) to treat everyone fairly and equitably.
• Discuss the role of locus of authority considerations in ethical problem solving.
• Identify four criteria to assist in deciding who should assume authority for a specific ethical decision to achieve a caring response.
• Describe how shared agency functions in ethical problem solving.
NEW TERMS AND IDEAS YOU WILL ENCOUNTER IN THIS CHAPTER
legal question
disability benefits
ethical question
prototype
clinical question
agent
moral agent
locus of authority
shared agency
moral distress
moral residue
ethical dilemma
Topics in this chapter introduced in earlier chapters
Topic
Introduced in chapter
Ethical problem
1
Integrity
1
Interprofessional care team
1
Professional responsibility
2
A caring response
2
Accountability
2
Social determinants of care
2
Justice
2
Introduction
You have come a long way already and are prepared to take the next steps toward becoming skilled in the art of ethical decision making. The first part of this chapter guides you through an inquiry regarding how to know when you are faced with an ethical question instead of (or in addition to) a clinical or legal question. A further question is raised: How do you know whether the situation that raised the question is a problem that requires your involvement? This chapter helps you prepare to answer that question too. You will learn the basic components of an ethical problem and be introduced to two prototypes of ethical problems. We start with the story of Bill Boyd and Kate Lindy.
 The Story of Bill Boyd and Kate Lindy
Bill Boyd is a 25-year-old soldier who lives in a large city. Bill served in the U.S. Army for more than 6 years and was deployed to both Iraq and Afghanistan for multiple military missions in the past 4 years. During his final deployment, Bill suffered a blast injury in which he sustained significant shoulder and neck trauma and a mild traumatic brain injury (TBI) and posttraumatic stress. He was treated in an inpatient military hospital and transitioned back to his hometown, where he moved into his childhood home with his mother.
Kate Lindy is the outpatient psychologist who has been treating Bill for pain and posttraumatic stress. Bill is in a structured civilian reentry program. This competitive program is administered by a government subcontractor; its goal is to help in ...
4-5 Annotations and Writing Plan - Thu Jan 30 2111Claire Knaus.docxlorainedeserre
4-5 Annotations and Writing Plan - Thu Jan 30 21:11
Claire Knaus
Annotations:
Bekalu, M. A., McCloud, R. F., & Viswanath, K. (2019). Association of Social Media Use With Social Well-Being, Positive Mental Health, and Self-Rated Health: Disentangling Routine Use From Emotional Connection to Use. Health Education & Behavior, 46(2_suppl), 69S-80S. https://doi.org/10.1177/1090198119863768
It seems that this source is arguing the effect of social media on mental health. This source uses this evidence to support the argument: Provided studies focusing on why individuals use social media, types of social network platforms, and the value of social capital. A counterargument for this source is: Studies that focus more on statistical usage rather than emotion connection. Personally, I believe the source is doing a good job of supporting its arguments because it provides an abundance of study references and clearly portrays the information and intent. I think this source will be very helpful in supporting my argument because of the focus on emotional connection to social media and its effects on mental health.
Matsakis, L. (2019). How Pro-Eating Disorder Posts Evade Filters on Social Media. In Gale Opposing Viewpoints Online Collection. Farmington Hills, MI: Gale. (Reprinted from How Pro-Eating Disorder Posts Evade Filters on Social Media, Wired, 2018, June 13) Retrieved from https://link-gale-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/apps/doc/UAZKKH366290962/OVIC?u=nhc_main&sid=OVIC&xid=2c90b7b5
It seems that this source is arguing that social media platforms are not doing enough to eliminate harmful pro-ED posts. This source uses this evidence to support the argument: Information about specific platforms and what they have done to moderate content, links for more information, and what constitutes as harmful content. A counterargument for this source is that it is too difficult for platforms to remove the content and to even find it. In addition, it is believed there may be harmful effects on vulnerable people posting this type of content. Personally, I believe the source is doing a good job of supporting its arguments because it provides opposing viewpoints as well as raising awareness of some of the dangers of social media posts. I think this source will be very helpful in supporting my argument because it provides information on specifically what is being done to moderate this type of content on social media, and what some of the difficulties in moderating are.
Investigators at University of Leeds Describe Findings in Eating Disorders (Pro-ana versus Pro-recovery: A Content Analytic Comparison of Social Media Users' Communication about Eating Disorders on Twitter and Tumblr). (2017, September 4). Mental Health Weekly Digest, 38. Retrieved from https://link-gale-com.ezproxy.snhu.edu/apps/doc/A502914419/OVIC?u=nhc_main&sid=OVIC&xid=5e60152f
It seems that this source is arguing that there are more positive, anti-anorexia posts on social media than harmful, pro-ED content. ...
3NIMH Opinion or FactThe National Institute of Mental Healt.docxlorainedeserre
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NIMH: Opinion or Fact
The National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH) was formed in 1946 and is one of 27 institutes that form the National Institute of Health (NIH) (NIMH, 2019). The mission of the NIMH is “To transform the understanding and treatment of mental illnesses through basic and clinical research, paving the way for prevention, recovery, and cure.” (NIMH, 2019). There are many different mental illnesses discussed on the NIMH website to include Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD). The NIMH website about ADHD is effective at providing the public general information and meets the criteria of authority, objectivity, and currency.
The NIMH website about ADHD provides an overview of ADHD, discusses signs and symptoms, and risk factors. The NIMH continues with information about treatment and therapies. Information provided by the NIMH is intended for both children and adults. The NIMH concludes on the page with studies the public can join and more resources for the public such as booklets, brochures, research and clinical trials.
As described by Jim Kapoun authority can be identified by who or what institution/organization published the document and if the information in the document is cited correctly (Cornell, 2020). The information on the website is published by the NIMH which is the lead research institute related to mental health for the last 70 plus years (NIMH, 2019). On the page related to ADHD the NIMH references the program of Children and Adults with Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (CHADD) and provides a hyperlink to access the resources available with the agency (NIMH,2019). This link can be found under the support groups section in the treatment and therapies. On the website to the right of the area describing inattention the NIMH has a section on research. In this block there is a link to “PubMed: Journal Articles about Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD)” which will take you to a search of the National Center for Biotechnology Information (NCBI) published by PubMed on ADHD (NIMH, 2019). Throughout the entire page the NIMH provides sources and hyperlinks to the sources as citations. Based on the reputation of the NIMH and the citations to the source material the website meets the criteria of authority.
According to Kapoun objectivity can be identified looking for areas where the author expresses his or her opinion (Cornell, 2020). Information provided on the NIMH page about ADHD does not express the opinion of the author. The author produces only factual information based on research. The NIMH makes it a point not to mention the names of medications when discussing treatments and only explains the medications fall in two categories stimulants and non-stimulants (NIMH, 2019). In this same area the NIMH provides hyperlinks to the NIMH Mental Health Medication and FDA website for information about medication. The extent at which the NIMH goes to not provide an opinion on the website meet ...
4.1
Updated April-09
Lecture Notes
Chapter 4
Enterprise Excellence
Implementation
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE
4.2
Updated April-09
Learning Objectives
• Management & Operations Plans
• Enterprise Excellence Projects
• Enterprise Excellence Project decision Process
• Planning the Enterprise Excellence Project
• Tollgate Reviews
• Project Notebook
4.3
Updated April-09
MANAGEMENT AND OPERATIONS PLANS
• The scope and complexity of the
implementation projects will vary from the
executive level, to the management level, to
the operational level
• Each plan, as it is developed and deployed,
will include projects to be accomplished
• Conflicts typically will occur amongst
requirements of quality, cost, and schedule
when executing a project
4.4
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECTS
• An Enterprise Excellence project will be one of three
types:
1. Technology invention or innovation
2. New product, service, or process development
3. Product, service, or process improvement
• Enterprise Excellence uses the scientific method
• The scientific method is a process of organizing
empirical facts and their interrelationships in a
manner that allows a hypothesis to be developed and
tested
4.5
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECTS
• The scientific method consists of the
following steps:
1. Observe and describe the situation
2. Formulate a hypothesis
3. Use the hypothesis to predict results
4. Perform controlled tests to confirm the hypothesis
4.6
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECTS
• Figure 4.1 shows the project decision process
4.7
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECT
DECISION PROCESS
• Inventing/Innovating Technology:
Technology development is accomplished using
system engineering
This system approach enables critical functional
parameters and responses to be quickly transferred
into now products, services, and processes
The process is a four-phase process (I2DOV):
Invention & Innovation – Develop – Optimize – Verify
4.8
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECT
DECISION PROCESS
• Development of Products, Services, and
Processes
The Enterprise Excellence approach for developing
products, services, and processes is the Design for
Lean Six Sigma strategy.
This strategy helps to incorporate customer
requirements and expectations into the product
and/or service.
Concept – Design – Optimize - Verify (CDOV) is a
specific sequential design & development process
used to execute the design strategy.
4.9
Updated April-09
ENTERPRISE EXCELLENCE PROJECT
DECISION PROCESS
• Improving Products, Services, and Processes:
Improving products, services and processes usually
involves the effectiveness and efficiency of operations.
A product or service is said to be effective when it meets
all of its customer requirements.
Effectiveness can be simply expressed as "doing the
right things the first time ...
3Type your name hereType your three-letter and -number cours.docxlorainedeserre
3
Type your name here
Type your three-letter and -number course code here
The date goes here
Type instructor’s name here
Your Title Goes Here
This is an electronic template for papers written in GCU style. The purpose of the template is to help you follow the basic writing expectations for beginning your coursework at GCU. Margins are set at 1 inch for top, bottom, left, and right. The first line of each paragraph is indented a half inch (0.5"). The line spacing is double throughout the paper, even on the reference page. One space after punctuation is used at the end of a sentence. The font style used in this template is Times New Roman. The font size is 12 point. When you are ready to write, and after having read these instructions completely, you can delete these directions and start typing. The formatting should stay the same. If you have any questions, please consult with your instructor.
Citations are used to reference material from another source. When paraphrasing material from another source (such as a book, journal, website), include the author’s last name and the publication year in parentheses.When directly quoting material word-for-word from another source, use quotation marks and include the page number after the author’s last name and year.
Using citations to give credit to others whose ideas or words you have used is an essential requirement to avoid issues of plagiarism. Just as you would never steal someone else’s car, you should not steal his or her words either. To avoid potential problems, always be sure to cite your sources. Cite by referring to the author’s last name, the year of publication in parentheses at the end of the sentence, such as (George & Mallery, 2016), and page numbers if you are using word-for-word materials. For example, “The developments of the World War II years firmly established the probability sample survey as a tool for describing population characteristics, beliefs, and attitudes” (Heeringa, West, & Berglund, 2017, p. 3).
The reference list should appear at the end of a paper (see the next page). It provides the information necessary for a reader to locate and retrieve any source you cite in the body of the paper. Each source you cite in the paper must appear in your reference list; likewise, each entry in the reference list must be cited in your text. A sample reference page is included below; this page includes examples (George & Mallery, 2016; Heeringa et al., 2017; Smith et al., 2018; “USA swimming,” 2018; Yu, Johnson, Deutsch, & Varga, 2018) of how to format different reference types (e.g., books, journal articles, and a website). For additional examples, see the GCU Style Guide.
References
George, D., & Mallery, P. (2016). IBM SPSS statistics 23 step by step: A simple guide and reference. New York, NY: Routledge.
Heeringa, S. G., West, B. T., & Berglund, P. A. (2017). Applied survey data analysis (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Chapman & Hall/CRC Press.
Smith, P. D., Martin, B., Chewning, B., ...
3Welcome to Writing at Work! After you have completed.docxlorainedeserre
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Welcome to Writing at Work! After you have completed the reading for the week, write an email to introduce yourself to your peers. The name of your thread should be what you would include in the subject of the email.
As you compose your email, keep in mind the following:
· You are addressing a group you will work with in a professional capacity for at least 15 weeks. Let us know something about you, but don't share anything you wouldn't want repeated.
· You should include what you perceive to be your relative strengths with regard to writing at work. What types of tasks would you feel most comfortable taking on?
· You should also include what aspects of writing at work make you feel least comfortable. What types of tasks would you not be as suited for?
· What do you hope to learn in the next several months?
Next, in an attachment, choose one of the following two prompts and write a letter, taking into account the purpose, audience, and appropriate style for the task.
1. Your organization has been contracted to complete a project for an important client, and you were charged with managing the project. It has unfortunately become clear that your team will not meet the deadline. Your supervisor has told you to contact the client in writing to alert them to the situation and wants to be cc'd on the message. Write a letter, which you will send via email, addressing the above.
2. After a year-long working relationship, your organization will no longer be making use of a freelancer's services due to no fault of their own. Write a letter alerting them to this fact.
Name:
HRT 4760 Assignment 01
Timeliness
First, you will choose one particular organization where you will conduct each of your 15 different observational assignments. Stick with this same organization throughout your coursework. (Do not switch around assignment locations at different organizations or locations.) The reason for continuing your observational assignments at the same organization is to give you a deeper understanding of this particular organization across the 15 different assignments. As you read on, you will get a more complete understanding as to how these 15 assignments come together.
Tip: Many students choose the organization where they are currently working. This works particularly well. If you are working there, you have much opportunity to gain access to the areas that will give you a more complete understanding of the quality of entire service package (the 15 different elements) that the organization offers to its customers.
This is one of a package of 15 different assignments that comprise the Elements of Service, which you will study this term. For this assignment, you will observe elements of service in almost any particular service establishment. A few examples of service establishments would include, but not be limited to these: Hotel, resort, private club, restaurant, airline, cruise line, grocery store, doctor’s office, coffee house, and scores of oth ...
3JWI 531 Finance II Assignment 1TemplateHOW TO USE THIS TEMP.docxlorainedeserre
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JWI 531 Finance II Assignment 1Template
HOW TO USE THIS TEMPLATE:
This is a template and checklist corresponding to your Assignment 1 paper: Enterprise Risk Management and Moat Strength. See below for an explanation of the color-coding in this template:
· All green text includes instructions to support your writing. You should delete all green text before submitting your final paper.
· All blue text indicates areas where you need to replace text with your own information. Replace the blue text with your own words in black.
· Headings and subheadings are written in black, bold type. Keep these in your paper.
TIPS:
· Write in the third person, using “he” or “she” or “they”, or using specific names. Do not use the second person “you”.
· The body of this paper has one-inch margins and uses a professional font (size 10-12); we recommend Arial or Times New Roman fonts.
· The Assignment template is already formatted with all needed specifications like margins, appropriate font, and double spacing.
· Before submitting your paper, use Grammarly to check for punctuation and usage errors and make the required corrections. Then read aloud to edit for tone and flow.
· You should also run your paper through SafeAssign to ensure that it meets the required standards for originality.
FINALIZING YOUR PAPER
Your submission should be a maximum of 4 pages in length. The page count doesnotinclude the Cover Page at the beginning and the References page at the end. The final paper that you submit for grading should be in black text only with all remaining green text and blue text removed. Assignment 1: Enterprise Risk Analysis and Moat Strength
Author’s Name
Jack Welch Management Institute
Professor’s Name
JWI 531
Date
Introduction
An Introduction should be succinct and to the point. Start your Introduction with a general and brief observation about the paper’s topic. Write a thesis statement, which is the “road map” for your paper - it helps your reader to navigate your work. In your thesis statement, be specific about the major areas you plan to address in your paper.
The headings below should guide your introduction, since they identify the topics to be addressed in your paper. The introduction is not a graded part of your rubric but it helps your reader to understand what your assignment will be about. We recommend that you write this part of your Introduction after you complete the other sections of your paper. It only needs to be one paragraph in length.
Analysis and Recommendations
You must answer each of the following questions in your paper. Keep your responses focused on the topic. Straying off into additional areas, even if they are interesting, will not earn additional marks, and may actually detract from the clarity of your responses.
I. Where is each company in its corporate lifecycle (startup, growth, maturity or decline)? Explain.
Before writing your response to this question, make sure you understand what characterizes ea ...
3Big Data Analyst QuestionnaireWithin this document are fo.docxlorainedeserre
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Big Data Analyst Questionnaire
Within this document are four different questions. Each question is structured in the following manner:
1) Premise
- Contains any needed background information
2) Request
- The actual question, what you are to solve
3) Notes
- A space if you feel like including notes of any kind for the given question
Please place your answer for each question in a separate file, following this naming convention:
Name_Qn.docx, where n = the question number (i.e., 1, 2 ...). So the file for the first question should be named ‘Name_Q1.docx’.
When complete, please package everything together and send email responses to the designated POCs.
Page | 1
Premise:
You have a table named “TRADES” with the following six columns:
Column Name
Data Type
Description
Date
DATE
The calendar date on which the trade took place.
Firm
VARCHAR(255)
A symbol representing the Broker/Dealer who conducted the trade.
Symbol
VARCHAR(10)
The security traded.
Side
VARCHAR(1)
Denotes whether the trade was a buy (purchase) or a sell (sale) of a security.
Quantity
BIGINT
The number of shares involved in the trade.
Price
DECIMAL(18,8)
The dollar price per share traded.
You write a query looking for all trades in the month of August 2019. The query returns the following:
DATE
FIRM
SYMBOL
SIDE
QUANTITY
PRICE
8/5/2019
ABC
123
B
200
41
8/5/2019
CDE
456
B
601
60
8/5/2019
ABC
789
S
600
70
8/5/2019
CDE
789
S
600
70
8/5/2019
FGH
456
B
200
62
8/6/2019
3CDE
456
X
300
61
8/8/2019
ABC
123
B
300
40
8/9/2019
ABC
123
S
300
30
8/9/2019
FGH
789
B
2100
71
8/10/2019
CDE
456
S
1100
63
Questions:
1) Conduct an analysis of the data set returned by your query. Write a paragraph describing your analysis. Please also note any questions or assumptions made about this data.
2) Your business user asks you to show them a table output that includes an additional column categorizing the TRADES data into volume based Tiers, with a column named ‘Tier’. Quantities between 0-250 will be considered ‘Small’, quantities greater than ‘Small’ but less than or equal to 500 will be considered ‘Medium’, quantities greater than ‘Medium’ but less than or equal to 500 will be considered ‘Large’, and quantities greater than ‘Tier 3’ will be considered ‘Very Large’ .
a. Please write the SQL query you would use to add the column to the table output.
b. Please show the exact results you expect based on your SQL query.
3) Your business user asks you to show them a table output summarizing the TRADES data (Buy and Sell) on week-by-week basis.
a. Please write the SQL query you would use to query this table.
b. Please show the exact results you expect based on your SQL query.
Notes:
1
Premise:
You need to describe in writing how to accomplish a task. Your audience has never completed this task before.
Question:
In a few paragraphs, please describe how to complete a task of your choice. You may choose a task of your own liking or one of the sample tasks below:
1) How to make a p ...
3HR StrategiesKey concepts and termsHigh commitment .docxlorainedeserre
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HR Strategies
Key concepts and terms
High commitment management •
High performance management •
HR strategy •
High involvement management •
Horizontal fi t •
Vertical fi t •
On completing this chapter you should be able to defi ne these key concepts.
You should also understand:
Learning outcomes
T • he purpose of HR strategy
Specifi c HR strategy areas •
How HR strategy is formulated •
How the vertical integration of •
business and HR strategies is
achieved
How HR strategies can be set out •
General HR strategy areas •
The criteria for a successful HR •
strategy
The fundamental questions on •
the development of HR strategy
How horizontal fi t (bundling) is •
achieved
How HR strategies can be •
implemented
47
48 Human Resource Management
Introduction
As described in Chapter 2, strategic HRM is a mindset that leads to strategic actions and reac-
tions, either in the form of overall or specifi c HR strategies or strategic behaviour on the part
of HR professionals. This chapter focuses on HR strategies and answers the following ques-
tions: What are HR strategies? What are the main types of overall HR strategies? What are the
main areas in which specifi c HR strategies are developed? What are the criteria for an effective
HR strategy? How should HR strategies be developed? How should HR strategies be
implemented?
What are HR strategies?
HR strategies set out what the organization intends to do about its human resource manage-
ment policies and practices and how they should be integrated with the business strategy and
each other. They are described by Dyer and Reeves (1995) as ‘internally consistent bundles of
human resource practices’. Richardson and Thompson (1999) suggest that:
A strategy, whether it is an HR strategy or any other kind of management strategy must
have two key elements: there must be strategic objectives (ie things the strategy is sup-
posed to achieve), and there must be a plan of action (ie the means by which it is pro-
posed that the objectives will be met).
The purpose of HR strategies is to articulate what an organization intends to do about its
human resource management policies and practices now and in the longer term, bearing in
mind the dictum of Fombrun et al (1984) that business and managers should perform well in
the present to succeed in the future. HR strategies aim to meet both business and human needs
in the organization.
HR strategies may set out intentions and provide a sense of purpose and direction, but they are
not just long-term plans. As Gratton (2000) commented: ‘There is no great strategy, only great
execution.’
Because all organizations are different, all HR strategies are different. There is no such thing as
a standard strategy and research into HR strategy conducted by Armstrong and Long (1994)
and Armstrong and Baron (2002) revealed many variations. Some strategies are simply very
general declarations of intent. Others go into much more detail. ...
3Implementing ChangeConstruction workers on scaffolding..docxlorainedeserre
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Implementing Change
Construction workers on scaffolding.
hxdbzxy/iStock/Thinkstock
Learning Objectives
After reading this chapter, you should be able to do the following:
Summarize the nine steps in Ackerman and Anderson’s road map for change.
Analyze Cummings and Worley’s five dimensions of leading and managing change.
Describe how to align an organization with its new vision and future state.
Explain how roles/relationships and interventions are used to implement change.
Examine ways to interact with and influence stakeholders.
Change is the law of life and those who look only to the past or present are certain to miss the future.
—John F. Kennedy
Alan Mulally was selected to lead Ford in 2006 after he was bypassed as CEO at Boeing, where he had worked and was expected to become CEO. Insiders and top-level managers at Ford, some of whom had expected to become CEO, were initially suspicious and then outraged when Mulally was hired. They questioned what someone from the airplane industry would know about the car business (Kiley, 2009).
Chair William (Bill) Clay Ford, Jr.—who selected Mulally as CEO—told Ford’s officers that the company needed a fresh perspective and a shake-up, especially since it had lost $14.8 billion in 2008—the most in its 105-year history—and had burned through $21.2 billion, or 61%, of its cash (Kiley, 2009). Because Ford knew that the company’s upper echelon culture was closed, bureaucratic, and rejected outsiders and new ways of thinking, he was not surprised by his officers’ reactions. However, Ford’s managers had no idea that the company was fighting for its life. To succeed, Mulally would need Chair Ford’s full endorsement and support, and he got it.
The company’s biggest cultural challenge was to break down the silos that various executives had built. As we will discuss more in Chapter 4, silos are specific processes or departments in an organization that work independently of each other without strong communication between or among them. A lack of communication can often stifle productivity and innovation, and this was exactly what was happening at Ford.
Mulally devised a turnaround strategy and developed it into the Way Forward Plan. The plan centralized and modernized plants to handle several models at once, to be sold in several markets. The plan was designed to break up the fiefdoms of isolated cultures, in which leaders independently developed and decided where to sell cars. Mulally’s plan also kept managers in positions for longer periods of time to deepen their expertise and improve consistency of operations. The manager who ran the Mazda Motor affiliate commented, “I’m going into my fourth year in the same job. I’ve never had such consistency of purpose before” (as cited in Kiley, 2009, “Meetings About Meetings,” para. 2).
Mulally’s leadership style involved evaluating and analyzing a situation using data and facts and then earning individuals’ support with his determinatio ...
3Assignment Three Purpose of the study and Research Questions.docxlorainedeserre
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Assignment Three: Purpose of the study and Research Questions
RES 9300
Recently, Autism has become a serious health concern to parents. According to Center for Disease Control and Prevention (2018), about one in fifty nine United States children has been identified with autism spectrum disorder with one in six children developing developmental disability ranging from mild disabilities such as speech and language impairments to serious developmental disabilities, such as intellectual disabilities, cerebral palsy, and autism (CDC,2018). World Health Organization (2019) estimates that 1 in 160 children globally has autism making it one of the most prevalent diseases. Despite the disease prevalence, most population has little knowledge about the disease. Many health practitioners have proposed early care as a means to control the disease effects.
Purpose Statement
The purpose of this study is to determine whether early intervention services can help improve the development of children suffering from autism. This study also aims to explore the general public awareness and perception about autism disorder.
Research Questions
(1) How should service delivery for autistic patients be improved to promote their health? (2) What impact does early intervention services have on development of children suffering from autism? (3) How can public knowledge on autism improve support and care for autistic patients? (4) What effect will early intervention have on patient’s social skills?
References
Center for Disease Control and Prevention. (2018). Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD). Data & Statistics. Retrieved From https://www.cdc.gov/ncbddd/autism/data.html
World Health Organization. (2019). Autism Spectrum Disorders. Fact Sheet. Retrieved From https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/autism-spectrum-disorders
3
Assignment Two: Theoretical Perspective and Literature Review
RES 9300
Literature Map
Parenting an Autism Child
(Dependent Variable)
9
Mothers/Father Role
Education
Religious Beliefs
Gender/Age
Financial Resources
Maternal Relationship
Region
Public Awareness
Support
Ethnicity
Independent Variables
Secondary Source I Will Be Using In My Literature Review
Mother/Father Roles
Glynn, K. A. (2015). Predictors of parenting practices in parents of children with autism spectrum disorder.
Religious Beliefs
Huang, C. Y., Yen, H. C., Tseng, M. H., Tung, L. C., Chen, Y. D., & Chen, K. L. (2014). Impacts of autistic behaviors, emotional and behavioral problems on parenting stress in caregivers of children with autism. Journal of Autism and Developmental Disorders, 44(6), 1383-1390.
Education
Brezis, R. S., Weisner, T. S., Daley, T. C., Singhal, N., Barua, M., & Chollera, S. P. (2015). Parenting a child with autism in India: Narratives before and after a parent–child intervention program. Culture, Medicine, and Psychiatry, 39(2), 277-298.
Financial Resources
Zaidm ...
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Interpretations of Iron Age Architecture Brochs in Society/Social Identity
Archaeology is a historical field which has advanced over the years based on more discoveries still being experienced by the archaeologists who seek them. According to Kelly and Thomas (2010; p.5), the concession that life existed in more ancient times than stipulated by biblical scholars and human culture allowed the archaeologists to dig deeper into genealogical data. Iron Age architecture and social/society identity relate to one another. For instance, the population, based on their identity and perception will construct buildings that directly reflect their beliefs. This essay will discuss these archaeological concepts of Iron Age architecture and society/social identity. Need a paragraph on brochs and how many and where they are across Scotland with patcialur focus on the atlantc region, this is not relevant for masters essay. Must define broch from its architecture and how long it would take to build and note famous ones and note the ones that will be referred to in this essay – this could be Perhaps incorpated into the next paragraph.
Iron Age architecture has over the years been dominated by differing archaeological concepts and debates. It was defined by settlements and settlement structures such as duns, brochs, wheelhouses, hillforts, stone-built round houses and timber. The social and societal identity which is identified through material remains indicates aspects of differentiation, regional patterns and segregation. According to Kelly and Thomas (2010; p.28), people who existed in Iron Age Scotland were isolated. This is demonstrated by the presence of a burial followed by an assembled chariot at Newbridge. Northern and western Scotland have been the source of the well-structured developments that have provided cultural, architectural and social data over time. Maes Howe, which is the largest Orkney burial cairn, located between Stromne ...
39Chapter 7Theories of TeachingIntroductionTheories of l.docxlorainedeserre
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Chapter 7
Theories of Teaching
Introduction
Theories of learning are typically only useful to adult learning practitioners when they are applied to the facilitation of learning—a function assigned usually in our society to a person designated as teacher or trainer.
A distinction must be made between theories of learning and theories of teaching. Theories of learning deal with the ways in which people learn, whereas theories of teaching deal with the ways in which one person influences others to learn (Gage, 1972, p. 56).
Presumably, the learning theory subscribed to by a teacher will influence his or her teaching theory.
Early on, Hilgard resisted this fragmentation of learning theory. He identified 20 principles he believed to be universally acceptable from three different families of theories: Stimulus–Response (S–R) theory, cognitive theory, and motivation and personality theory. These principles are summarized in Table 7.1.
Hilgard’s conviction in his belief that his 20 principles would be “in large part acceptable to all parties” was grounded in his limited verification process. The “parties” with whom he checked out these principles were control-oriented theorists. In spite of their differences about the internal mechanics of learning, these theorists are fairly close in their conceptualization of the role of the teacher.
Table 7.1 Summary of Hilgard’s principles
Teaching Concepts Based on Animal and Child Learning Theories
Let’s examine the concepts of a variety of theories about the nature of teaching and the role of the teacher. First, we’ll look at the members of Hilgard’s jury. These include Thorndike, Guthrie, Skinner, Hull, Tolman, and Gagné.
Thorndike
Thorndike essentially saw teaching as the control of learning by the management of reward. The teacher and learner must know the characteristics of a good performance in order that practice may be appropriately arranged. Errors must be diagnosed so that they will not be repeated. The teacher is not primarily concerned with the internal states of the organism, but with structuring the situation so that rewards will operate to strengthen desired responses. The learner should be interested, problem-oriented, and attentive. However, the best way to obtain these conditions is to manipulate the learning situation so that the learner accepts the problem posed because of the rewards involved. Attention is maintained and appropriate S–R connections are strengthened through the precise application of rewards toward the goals set by the teacher. A teacher’s role is to cause appropriate S–R bonds to be built up in the learner’s behavior repertoire (Hilgard and Bower, 1966, pp. 22–23; Pittenger and Gooding, 1971, pp. 82–83).
Guthrie
Guthrie’s suggestions for teaching are summarized as follows:
1. If you wish to encourage a particular kind of behavior or discourage another, discover the cues leading to the behavior in question. In the one case, arrange the situation so that the desired be ...
38 Monthly Labor Review • June 2012TelecommutingThe.docxlorainedeserre
38 Monthly Labor Review • June 2012
Telecommuting
The hard truth about telecommuting
Telecommuting has not permeated the American workplace, and
where it has become commonly used, it is not helpful in reducing
work-family conflicts; telecommuting appears, instead, to have
become instrumental in the general expansion of work hours,
facilitating workers’ needs for additional worktime beyond the
standard workweek and/or the ability of employers to increase or
intensify work demands among their salaried employees
Mary C. Noonan
and
Jennifer L. Glass
Mary C. Noonan is an Associate
Professor at the Department of
Sociology, The University of Iowa;
Jennifer L. Glass is the Barbara
Bush Regents Professor of Liberal
Arts at the Department of Sociol-
ogy and Population Research
Center, University of Texas at
Austin. Email: [email protected]
uiowa.edu or [email protected]
austin.utexas.edu.
Telecommuting, defined here as work tasks regularly performed at home, has achieved enough
traction in the American workplace to
merit intensive scrutiny, with 24 percent
of employed Americans reporting in recent
surveys that they work at least some hours
at home each week.1 The definitions of
telecommuting are quite diverse. In this ar-
ticle, we define telecommuters as employ-
ees who work regularly, but not exclusively,
at home. In our definition, at-home work
activities do not need to be technologically
mediated nor do telecommuters need a
formal arrangement with their employer to
work at home.
Telecommuting is popular with policy
makers and activists, with proponents
pointing out the multiple ways in which
telecommuting can cut commuting time
and costs,2 reduce energy consumption
and traffic congestion, and contribute to
worklife balance for those with caregiving
responsibilities.3 Changes in the structure
of jobs that enable mothers to more effec-
tively compete in the workplace, such as
telecommuting, may be needed to finally
eliminate the gender gap in earnings and
direct more earned income to children,
both important public policy goals.4
Evidence also reveals that an increasing num-
ber of jobs in the American economy could be
performed at home if employers were willing
to allow employees to do so.5 Often, employees
can perform jobs at home without supervision
in the “high-tech” sector, in the financial sector,
and many in the communication sector that are
technology dependent. The obstacles or barriers
to telecommuting seem to be more organiza-
tional, stemming from the managers’ reluctance
to give up direct supervisory control of workers
and from their fears of shirking among workers
who telecommute.6
Where the impact of telecommuting has
been empirically evaluated, it seems to boost
productivity, decrease absenteeism, and increase
retention.7 But can telecommuting live up to its
promise as an effective work-family policy that
helps employees meet their nonwork responsi-
bilities? To do so, tel ...
Model Attribute Check Company Auto PropertyCeline George
In Odoo, the multi-company feature allows you to manage multiple companies within a single Odoo database instance. Each company can have its own configurations while still sharing common resources such as products, customers, and suppliers.
The Art Pastor's Guide to Sabbath | Steve ThomasonSteve Thomason
What is the purpose of the Sabbath Law in the Torah. It is interesting to compare how the context of the law shifts from Exodus to Deuteronomy. Who gets to rest, and why?
Ethnobotany and Ethnopharmacology:
Ethnobotany in herbal drug evaluation,
Impact of Ethnobotany in traditional medicine,
New development in herbals,
Bio-prospecting tools for drug discovery,
Role of Ethnopharmacology in drug evaluation,
Reverse Pharmacology.
This is a presentation by Dada Robert in a Your Skill Boost masterclass organised by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan (EFSS) on Saturday, the 25th and Sunday, the 26th of May 2024.
He discussed the concept of quality improvement, emphasizing its applicability to various aspects of life, including personal, project, and program improvements. He defined quality as doing the right thing at the right time in the right way to achieve the best possible results and discussed the concept of the "gap" between what we know and what we do, and how this gap represents the areas we need to improve. He explained the scientific approach to quality improvement, which involves systematic performance analysis, testing and learning, and implementing change ideas. He also highlighted the importance of client focus and a team approach to quality improvement.
Palestine last event orientationfvgnh .pptxRaedMohamed3
An EFL lesson about the current events in Palestine. It is intended to be for intermediate students who wish to increase their listening skills through a short lesson in power point.
The Roman Empire A Historical Colossus.pdfkaushalkr1407
The Roman Empire, a vast and enduring power, stands as one of history's most remarkable civilizations, leaving an indelible imprint on the world. It emerged from the Roman Republic, transitioning into an imperial powerhouse under the leadership of Augustus Caesar in 27 BCE. This transformation marked the beginning of an era defined by unprecedented territorial expansion, architectural marvels, and profound cultural influence.
The empire's roots lie in the city of Rome, founded, according to legend, by Romulus in 753 BCE. Over centuries, Rome evolved from a small settlement to a formidable republic, characterized by a complex political system with elected officials and checks on power. However, internal strife, class conflicts, and military ambitions paved the way for the end of the Republic. Julius Caesar’s dictatorship and subsequent assassination in 44 BCE created a power vacuum, leading to a civil war. Octavian, later Augustus, emerged victorious, heralding the Roman Empire’s birth.
Under Augustus, the empire experienced the Pax Romana, a 200-year period of relative peace and stability. Augustus reformed the military, established efficient administrative systems, and initiated grand construction projects. The empire's borders expanded, encompassing territories from Britain to Egypt and from Spain to the Euphrates. Roman legions, renowned for their discipline and engineering prowess, secured and maintained these vast territories, building roads, fortifications, and cities that facilitated control and integration.
The Roman Empire’s society was hierarchical, with a rigid class system. At the top were the patricians, wealthy elites who held significant political power. Below them were the plebeians, free citizens with limited political influence, and the vast numbers of slaves who formed the backbone of the economy. The family unit was central, governed by the paterfamilias, the male head who held absolute authority.
Culturally, the Romans were eclectic, absorbing and adapting elements from the civilizations they encountered, particularly the Greeks. Roman art, literature, and philosophy reflected this synthesis, creating a rich cultural tapestry. Latin, the Roman language, became the lingua franca of the Western world, influencing numerous modern languages.
Roman architecture and engineering achievements were monumental. They perfected the arch, vault, and dome, constructing enduring structures like the Colosseum, Pantheon, and aqueducts. These engineering marvels not only showcased Roman ingenuity but also served practical purposes, from public entertainment to water supply.
How to Make a Field invisible in Odoo 17Celine George
It is possible to hide or invisible some fields in odoo. Commonly using “invisible” attribute in the field definition to invisible the fields. This slide will show how to make a field invisible in odoo 17.
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.15 Social-
Cognitive Theories
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Social-Cognitive Theories
How do social-cognitive theorists view personality
development, and how do they
explore behavior?
The social-cognitive perspective on personality, proposed by
Albert Bandura (1986,
2006, 2008), emphasizes the interaction of our traits with our
situations. Much as
nature and nurture always work together, so do individuals and
their situations.
The point to remember Behavior emerges from the interplay of
external and internal
influences.
Social-cognitive theorists believe we learn many of our
behaviors either through
2. conditioning or by observing and imitating others. (That’s the
“social” part.) They also
emphasize the importance of mental processes: What we think
about a situation affects
our behavior in that situation. (That’s the “cognitive” part.)
Instead of focusing solely on
how our environment controls us (behaviorism), social-
cognitive theorists focus on how
we and our environment interact: How do we interpret and
respond to external events?
How do our schemas, our memories, and our expectations
influence our behavior
patterns?
Reciprocal Influences
Bandura (1986, 2006) views the person-environment interaction
as reciprocal
determinism. “Behavior, internal personal factors, and
environmental influences,” he
said, “all operate as interlocking determinants of each other”
(Figure 8). We can see this
interaction in people’s relationships. For example, Rosa’s
romantic history (past
behavior) influences her attitudes toward new relationships
(internal factor), which
affects how she now responds to Ryan (environmental factor).
Figure 8
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Reciprocal Determinism
Circular illustration of how internal personal factors, behavior,
and environmental factors
interact. Illustration contains three text boxes forming a
triangle, with two-sided arrows
pointing between each text box. The first box contains internal
personal factors, like
thoughts and feelings about risky activities. The second box
contains behavior, like
learning to rock climb, and the third box contains environmental
factors, like rock-
climbing friends.
Courtesy of Joslyn Brugh
Multiple-Choice Question
How does the social-cognitive approach differ from the other
perspectives
on personality discussed in this chapter?
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of internal
dispositions to a
greater extent than do the other perspectives.
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of inner conflicts
to a greater
extent than do the other perspectives.
The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of the
environment to a greater
extent than do the other perspectives.
4. The social-cognitive view emphasizes the role of the
unconscious to a greater
extent than do the other perspectives.
Correct. More so than other personality perspectives, the social-
cognitive view focuses
on how our environment interacts with our traits. It suggests
that our behaviors are
influenced by social factors (like conditioning) and by cognitive
factors (like what we
think about a situation).
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Consider three specific ways in which individuals and
environments interact:
1. Different people choose different environments. The schools
we attend,
the reading we do, the movies we watch, the music we listen to,
the friends we
associate with—all are part of an environment we have chosen,
based partly on our
dispositions (Funder, 2009; Ickes et al., 1997). We choose our
environment and it
then shapes us.
5. 2. Our personalities shape how we interpret and react to events.
Anxious
people tend to attend and react strongly to relationship threats
(Campbell &
Marshall, 2011). If we perceive the world as threatening, we
will watch for threats
and be prepared to defend ourselves.
3. Our personalities help create situations to which we react.
How we view
and treat people influences how they then treat us. If we expect
that others will not
like us, our desperate attempts to seek their approval might
cause them to reject
us. Depressed people often engage in this excessive reassurance
seeking, which
may confirm their negative self-views (Coyne, 1976a,b).
In addition to the interaction of internal personal factors, the
environment, and our
behaviors, we also experience gene-environment interaction.
Our genetically
influenced traits evoke certain responses from others, which
may nudge us in one
direction or another. In one classic study, those with the
interacting factors of (1) having
a specific gene associated with aggression and (2) being raised
in a difficult
environment were most likely to demonstrate adult antisocial
behavior (Caspi et al.,
2002).
In such ways, we are both the products and the architects of our
environments:
Behavior emerges from the interplay of external and internal
influences. Boiling water
6. turns an egg hard and a potato soft. A threatening environment
turns one person into a
hero, another into a scoundrel. Extraverts enjoy greater well-
being in an extraverted
culture than in an introverted one (Fulmer et al., 2010). At
every moment, our behavior
is influenced by our biology, our social and cultural
experiences, and our cognition and
dispositions (Figure 9).
Figure 9
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The Biopsychosocial Approach to the Study of Personality
Illustration depicting the biological, psychological, and social-
cultural influences on
personality. Biological influences include genetically
determined temperament, autonomic
nervous system reactivity, and brain activity. Psychological
influences include learned
responses, unconscious thought processes, and expectations and
interpretations. Social-
cultural influences include childhood experiences, influence of
the situation, cultural
expectations, and social support.
As with other psychological phenomena, personality is
7. fruitfully studied at multiple levels.
close
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Psychology
Course Notes
Personality
On this page, you’ll read about some additional concepts that
you should note to
succeed in this course.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.11 Course
Notes: Personality
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We recognize that biological factors and experience, together,
shape our personality.
Earlier in this chapter, we learned how we all follow a similar
path as we physically and
psychologically develop from infancy through adulthood. But
how does our personality
interact with our development? Now we turn to descriptions of
our differences and the
individual personalities that arise from our unique biological
and situational
8. experiences. On this Course Notes page, we’ll learn about the
historical and biological
foundations of the personality traits that will be discussed later
in this chapter. In
addition, we’ll consider whether personality can change.
Assessing Personality Traits
Look around your personal spaces, such as your home, car, or
social media profile. How
do these spaces reflect your personality? If a few strangers
spent 10 minutes examining
one of these spaces, would they be able to develop a good sense
of who you are? How
well would they be able to predict your behavior? What can we
know about someone’s
personality through such a brief snapshot?
Psychologists describe personality in terms of fundamental
traits—people’s
characteristic behaviors and conscious motives—rather than in
terms of broad “types.”
Traits allow us to describe the multiple dimensions of our
personalities. In the 1960s,
British psychologists Hans Eysenck and Sybil Eysenck [EYE-
zink] administered one of
the first large-scale personality tests. They used a statistical
technique called factor
analysis to identify clusters (or factors) of test questions that
essentially asked about
the same dimensions. For example, if the same people who say
they enjoy reading for
pleasure also describe themselves as quiet and reserved, then
these responses represent
a factor—introversion. Ultimately, the Eysencks’ factor analysis
led them to propose
9. that our personality can be distilled down to two or three
dimensions, including
extraversion–introversion and emotional stability–instability
(Figure 6).
Figure 6
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Two Personality Dimensions
Circle divided into four sections along north-south and east-
west axes, each section
containing personality traits that represent a combination of
stability or instability and
extraversion or introversion. In the upper left quadrant, which
represents instability and
introversion, the traits listed are: moody, anxious, rigid, sober,
pessimistic, reserved,
unsociable, and quiet. The upper right quadrant, instability and
extraversion, contains
these traits: touchy, restless, aggressive, excitable, changeable,
impulsive, optimistic, and
active. The lower left quadrant, introversion and stability,
contains these traits: passive,
careful, thoughtful, peaceful, controlled, reliable, even-
tempered, and calm. The lower
right quadrant, extraversion and stability, contains these traits:
10. sociable, outgoing,
talkative, responsive, easygoing, lively, carefree, and
leadership. To the left of this circle is
a photograph of Jane Goodall kissing a monkey on the head, and
to the right of it is a
photograph of Bill Clinton laughing with two athletes.
Mapmakers can tell us a lot by using two axes (north–south and
east–west). Two primary
personality factors (extraversion–introversion and stability–
instability) are similarly
useful as axes for describing personality variation. Varying
combinations define other,
more specific traits (from Eysenck & Eysenck, 1963). Those
who are naturally introverted,
such as primatologist Jane Goodall, may be particularly gifted
in field studies. Successful
politicians, including former U.S. President Bill Clinton, are
often natural extraverts.
Jean-Marc Bouju/AP Photo; Andrew Innerarity/Reuters/Landov
Biological Influences on Personality Traits
Biology and physiology influence our personality traits. Infant
temperament sets the
stage for the development of personality. Calm and social
babies are more likely to grow
up to be emotionally stable; sensitive and intense babies who
are difficult to soothe are
likely to grow up to experience greater anxiety. Studies have
shown that differences in
children’s autonomic nervous systems’ response to stress can
influence the amount of
11. shyness and fear that a child typically displays (Kagan, 2010).
Brain scans, too, show
that compared with introverts, extraverts have low brain
arousal—which may cause
them to seek out more stimulation—and that their dopamine
levels and dopamine-
related activity tend to be higher (Kim et al., 2008; Wacker et
al., 2006).
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Can Your Personality Change?
Psychologists define personality as our characteristic pattern of
thinking, feeling, and
acting. These patterns can be observed across multiple
situations, but it is important to
note that situations can create changes in behavior that are not
indicative of personality
trait change. We may be quite talkative when eating lunch with
our close friends but
quiet and reserved when first meeting the parents of someone
we just started dating.
This distinction does not mean that our personality has changed;
it just means that we
have adjusted our behavior based on the setting or people.
Similarly, personality is distinct from moods. A mood is a
temporary physiological and
emotional response. When we’re in a “bad mood,” we might not
12. act like our
characteristic self, but our personality traits haven’t changed.
When the bad mood ends,
our normal patterns of thinking and acting return. For these
reasons, psychologists
would discourage you from trying to predict a classmate’s
future behavior based on
what you observe in just one situation.
Although personality is a relatively stable pattern of thinking,
feeling, and behavior,
major life changes—such as becoming a parent or experiencing
a religious conversion—
can change or create new behaviors. These events do not simply
change our mood; they
change our habits and often our identities. A personality change
happens over time, as
new patterns of behavior are established and our traits are
revised.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following BEST describes an individual’s
characteristic
pattern of thinking, feeling, and acting?
mood
schema
self-esteem
personality
Correct. Psychologists define personality as our characteristic
pattern of thinking,
feeling, and acting.
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13. close
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.10 Cognitive
Development in
Adulthood
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Cognitive Development in Adulthood
Aging and Memory
How does memory change with age?
Among the most intriguing developmental psychology questions
is whether adult
cognitive abilities, such as memory, intelligence, and creativity,
parallel the gradually
accelerating decline of physical abilities.
As we age, we remember some things well. Looking back in
later life, adults asked to
recall the one or two most important events over the last half-
century tend to name
events from their teens or twenties (Conway et al., 2005; Rubin
14. et al., 1998). They also
display this “reminiscence bump” when asked to name their all-
time favorite music,
movies, and athletes (Janssen et al., 2011). Whatever people
experience around this
time of life—the Vietnam War, the 9/11 terrorist attacks, the
election of the first Black
U.S. president—becomes pivotal (Pillemer, 1998; Schuman &
Scott, 1989). Our teens
and twenties hold so many memorable “firsts”—first kiss, first
job, first day at college or
university, first meeting in-laws.
The point to remember If the information is meaningful, older
people’s rich web of
existing knowledge will help them to hold it.
Early adulthood is indeed a peak time for some types of
learning and remembering. In
one test of recall, people watched video clips as 14 strangers
said their names, using a
common format: “Hi, I’m Larry” (Crook & West, 1990). Then
those strangers
reappeared and gave additional details. For example, they said,
“I’m from
Philadelphia,” providing more visual and voice cues for
remembering the person’s
name. As Figure 4 shows, after a second and third replay of the
introductions, everyone
remembered more names, but younger adults consistently
surpassed older adults. How
well older people remember depends in part on the task. In
another experiment, when
asked to recognize 24 words they had earlier tried to memorize,
people showed only a
minimal decline in memory. When asked to recall that
15. information without clues,
however, the decline was greater (Figure 5).
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Figure 4
Tests of Recall
Chart showing the percentage of names recalled after one, two,
and three introductions at
various ages. People who received three introductions recalled
the most names, but all
three groups steadily declined as they grew older.
Recalling new names introduced once, twice, or three times is
easier for younger adults
than for older ones. (Data from Crook & West, 1990.)
Figure 5
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Recall and Recognition in Adulthood
This chart shows that the number of words recognized is stable
with age, but the number
of words recalled declines with age.
In this experiment, the ability to recall new information
declined during early and middle
adulthood, but the ability to recognize new information did not.
(Data from Schonfield &
Robertson, 1966.)
In our capacity to learn and remember, as in other areas of
development, we show
individual differences. Younger adults vary in their abilities to
learn and remember, but
70-year-olds vary much more. “Differences between the most
and least able 70-year-
olds become much greater than between the most and least able
50-year-olds,” reports
Oxford researcher Patrick Rabbitt (2006). Some 70-year-olds
perform below nearly all
20-year-olds; other 70-year-olds match or outdo the average 20-
year-old.
No matter how quick or slow we are, remembering seems also to
depend on the type of
information we are trying to retrieve. If the information is
meaningless—nonsense
syllables or unimportant events—then the older we are, the
more errors we are likely to
make. If the information is meaningful, older people’s rich web
17. of existing knowledge
will help them to hold it. But they may take longer than younger
adults to produce the
words and things they know. Older adults also more often
experience tip-of-the-tongue
memories (Ossher et al., 2012). Quick-thinking game show
winners are usually young
or middle-aged adults (Burke & Shafto, 2004).
Multiple-Choice Question
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A 20-year-old is MOST likely to outperform a 70-year-old on
which of the
following tasks?
recognizing previously presented names of fruits and vegetables
recalling memorable personal experiences
recalling previously presented nonsense syllables
recognizing previously presented foreign-language words
Correct. The ability to recall nonsense syllables declines with
age.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Sustaining Mental Abilities
18. Psychologists who study the aging mind debate whether “brain
fitness” computer
training programs can build mental muscles and stave off
cognitive decline. Our brains
remain plastic throughout life (Gutchess, 2014). So, can
exercising our brains on a
“cognitive treadmill”—with memory, visual tracking, and
problem-solving exercises—
avert losing our minds? “At every point in life, the brain’s
natural plasticity gives us the
ability to improve...function,” said one neuroscientist-
entrepreneur (Merzenich, 2007).
One 5-year study of nearly 3000 people found that 10 one-hour
cognitive training
sessions, with follow-up booster sessions, led to improved
cognitive scores on tests
related to their training (Boron et al., 2007; Willis et al., 2006).
Other studies with
children and adults also found that brain-training exercises can
sharpen the mind
(Anguera et al., 2013; Jonides et al., 2012; Karr et al., 2014).
Based on such findings, some computer game makers are
marketing daily brain-
exercise programs for older adults. But other researchers, after
reviewing all the
available studies, advise caution (Melby-Lervåg & Hulme,
2013; Redick et al., 2013;
Salthouse, 2010; Shipstead et al., 2012a,b). The available
evidence, they argue, suggests
that brain training can produce short-term gains, but mostly on
the trained tasks and
not for cognitive ability in general (Berkman et al., 2014;
Harrison et al., 2013; Karbach
& Verhaeghen, 2014). A British study of 11,430 people, who for
6 weeks either
19. completed brain training activities or a control task, confirmed
the limited benefits.
Although the training improved the practiced skills, it did not
boost overall cognitive
fitness (Owen et al., 2010). “Play a video game and you’ll get
better at that video game,
and maybe at very similar video games,” observes researcher
David Hambrick (2014),
but not at driving a car or filling out your tax return.
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.9 The Aging
Brain
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20. The Aging Brain
Up to the teen years, we process information with greater and
greater speed (Fry &
Hale, 1996; Kail, 1991). But compared with teens and young
adults, older people take a
bit more time to react, to solve perceptual puzzles, even to
remember names (Bashore et
al., 1997; Verhaeghen & Salthouse, 1997). The neural
processing lag is greatest on
complex tasks (Cerella, 1985; Poon, 1987). At video games,
most 70-year-olds are no
match for a 20-year-old.
Slower neural processing combined with diminished sensory
abilities can increase
accident risks. As Figure 3 indicates, fatal accident rates per
mile driven increase
sharply after age 75. By age 85, they exceed the 16-year-old
level. Older drivers appear
to focus well on the road ahead, but attend less to vehicles
approaching from the side
(Pollatsek et al., 2012). Nevertheless, because older people
drive less, they account for
fewer than 10 percent of crashes (Coughlin et al., 2004).
The point to remember The aging brain is plastic, and partly
compensates for what it
loses by recruiting and reorganizing neural networks.
Brain regions important to memory begin to atrophy during
aging (Fraser et al., 2015;
Schacter, 1996). The blood-brain barrier also breaks down
beginning in the
hippocampus, which furthers cognitive decline (Montagne et al.,
2015). No wonder
21. adults, after taking a memory test, feel older. “[It’s like] aging
5 years in 5 minutes,”
jested one research report (Hughes et al., 2013). In early
adulthood, a small, gradual net
loss of brain cells begins, contributing by age 80 to a brain-
weight reduction of 5
percent or so. Earlier, we noted that late-maturing frontal lobes
help account for teen
impulsivity. Late in life, some of that impulsiveness seems to
return as inhibition-
controlling frontal lobes begin to atrophy (von Hippel, 2007).
This helps explain older
people’s occasional blunt questions and comments (“Have you
put on weight?”). But
good news: The aging brain is plastic, and partly compensates
for what it loses by
recruiting and reorganizing neural networks (Park &
McDonough, 2013). During
memory tasks, for example, the left frontal lobes are especially
active in young adult
brains, while older adult brains use both left and right frontal
lobes.
Figure 3
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Age and Driver Fatalities
22. Chart showing the rate of fatal accidents per 10,000 drivers and
per 100 million miles.
Fatal accidents per 10,000 drivers start at about 6 at age 16 to
19, level off at about 2 from
roughly age 30 to 60, and increase to almost 4 from age 75 on.
Fatal accidents per 100
million miles start at about 9 at age 16 to 19, drop to about 2
from roughly age 30 to 60,
and rise to about 5 for age 70 to 74 and then spike to almost 12
from age 75 on.
Slowing reactions contribute to increased accident risks among
those 75 and older, and
their greater fragility increases their risk of death when
accidents happen (NHTSA, 2000).
Would you favor driver exams based on performance, not age,
to screen out those whose
slow reactions or sensory impairments indicate accident risk?
Exercise and Aging
Exercise helps counteract some effects of aging. Physical
exercise not only enhances
muscles, bones, and energy and helps to prevent obesity and
heart disease, it also
stimulates brain cell development and neural connections,
thanks perhaps to increased
oxygen and nutrient flow (Erickson et al., 2013; Fleischman et
al., 2015; Pereira et al.,
2007). Exercise aids memory by stimulating the development of
neural connections and
by promoting neurogenesis, the birth of new hippocampus nerve
cells. And it increases
the cellular mitochondria that help power both muscles and
23. brain cells (Steiner et al.,
2011).
Sedentary older adults randomly assigned to aerobic exercise
programs exhibit
enhanced memory, sharpened judgment, and reduced risk of
significant cognitive
decline (DeFina et al., 2013; Liang et al., 2010; Nagamatsu et
al., 2013). Exercise also
helps maintain the telomeres (Leslie, 2011). These tips of
chromosomes wear down with
age, much as the end of a shoelace frays. Telomere wear and
tear is accelerated by
smoking, obesity, and stress. Children who suffer frequent
abuse or bullying exhibit
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shortened telomeres as biological scars (Shalev et al., 2013). As
telomeres shorten,
aging cells may die without being replaced by perfect genetic
replicas (Epel, 2009).
The message is clear: We are more likely to rust from disuse
than to wear out from
overuse. Fit bodies support fit minds.
Multiple-Choice Question
The aging brain partly compensates for a loss of brain cells by
24. recruiting
and reorganizing existing neural networks. Which of the
following BEST
illustrates this ability?
neurogenesis
plasticity
atrophy
telomere shortening
Correct. Plasticity refers to the ability of the brain to continue
to grow new neural
networks or reorganize existing networks; it is one way that the
aging brain
compensates for the loss of brain cells.
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3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 - Page 3.4 - Adolescence
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.4 Adolescence
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Adolescence
How is adolescence defined, and how do physical changes affect
25. developing teens?
Many psychologists once believed that childhood sets our traits.
Today’s developmental
psychologists see development as lifelong. As this life-span
perspective emerged,
psychologists began to look at how maturation and experience
shape us not only in
infancy and childhood, but also in adolescence and beyond.
Adolescence—the years
spent morphing from child to adult—starts with the physical
beginnings of sexual
maturity and ends with the social achievement of independent
adult status. In some
cultures, where teens are self-supporting, this means that
adolescence hardly exists.
G. Stanley Hall (1904), one of the first psychologists to
describe adolescence, believed
that the tension between biological maturity and social
dependence creates a period of
“storm and stress.” Indeed, after age 30, many who grow up in
independence-fostering
Western cultures look back on their teenage years as a time they
would not want to
relive, a time when their peers’ social approval was imperative,
their sense of direction
in life was in flux, and their feeling of alienation from their
parents was deepest (Arnett,
1999; Macfarlane, 1964).
But for many, adolescence is a time of vitality without the cares
of adulthood, a time of
rewarding friendships, heightened idealism, and a growing
sense of life’s exciting
possibilities.
26. Physical Development
Adolescence begins with puberty, the time when we mature
sexually. Puberty follows a
surge of hormones, which may intensify moods and which
trigger a series of bodily
changes.
Early Versus Late Maturing
Just as in the earlier life stages, the sequence of physical
changes in puberty (for
example, breast buds and visible pubic hair before menarche—
the first menstrual
period) is far more predictable than their timing. Some girls
start their growth spurt at
9, some boys as late as age 16. Though such variations have
little effect on height at
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maturity, they may have psychological consequences: It is not
only when we mature
that counts, but how people react to our physical development.
For boys, early maturation has mixed effects. Boys who are
stronger and more athletic
27. during their early teen years tend to be more popular, self-
assured, and independent,
though also more at risk for alcohol use, delinquency, and
premature sexual activity
(Conley & Rudolph, 2009; Copeland et al., 2010; Lynne et al.,
2007). For girls, early
maturation can be a challenge (Mendle et al., 2007). If a young
girl’s body and
hormone-fed feelings are out of sync with her emotional
maturity and her friends’
physical development and experiences, she may begin
associating with older
adolescents or may suffer teasing or sexual harassment (Ge &
Natsuaki, 2009). She may
also be somewhat more vulnerable to an anxiety disorder
(Weingarden & Renshaw,
2012).
The Teenage Brain
An adolescent’s brain is also a work in progress. Until puberty,
brain cells increase their
connections, like trees growing more roots and branches. Then,
during adolescence,
comes a selective pruning of unused neurons and connections
(Blakemore, 2008).
What we don’t use, we lose.
The point to remember Teens find rewards more exciting than
adults do. So they seek
thrills and rewards, without a fully developed brake pedal
controlling their impulses.
As teens mature, their frontal lobes also continue to develop.
The growth of myelin, the
fatty tissue that forms around axons and speeds
28. neurotransmission, enables better
communication with other brain regions (Kuhn, 2006; Silveri et
al., 2006). These
developments bring improved judgment, impulse control, and
long-term planning.
Maturation of the frontal lobes nevertheless lags behind that of
the emotional limbic
system. Puberty’s hormonal surge and limbic system
development help explain teens’
occasional impulsiveness, risky behaviors, and emotional
storms—slamming doors and
turning up the music (Casey et al., 2008, 2013). No wonder
younger teens (whose
unfinished frontal lobes aren’t yet fully equipped for making
long-term plans and
curbing impulses) may succumb to the tobacco corporations,
which most adult smokers
could tell them they will later regret. Teens actually don’t
underestimate the risks of
smoking—or fast driving or unprotected sex. They just, when
reasoning from their gut,
weigh the immediate benefits more heavily (Reyna & Farley,
2006; Steinberg, 2007,
2010). Teens find rewards more exciting than adults do. So they
seek thrills and
rewards, without a fully developed brake pedal controlling their
impulses (Figure 2).
Figure 2
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Impulse Control Lags Reward Seeking
National surveys of more than 7000 American 12- to 24-year-
olds reveal that sensation
seeking peaks in the mid-teens, with impulse control developing
more slowly as frontal
lobes mature. (National Longitudinal Study of Youth and
Children and Young Adults
survey data presented by Steinberg, 2013.)
So, when Junior drives recklessly and struggles academically,
should his parents
reassure themselves that “he can’t help it; his frontal cortex
isn’t yet fully grown”? They
can take hope: Brain changes underlie teens’ new self-
consciousness about what others
are thinking and their valuing of risky rewards (Barkley-
Levenson & Galván, 2014;
Somerville et al., 2013). And the brain with which Junior begins
his teens differs from
the brain with which he will end his teens. Unless he slows his
brain development with
heavy drinking—leaving him prone to impulsivity and
addiction—his frontal lobes will
continue maturing until about age 25 (Crews et al., 2007; Giedd,
2015). They will also
become better connected with the limbic system, enabling better
emotion regulation
(Steinberg, 2012).
In 2004, the American Psychological Association (APA) joined
seven other medical and
30. mental health associations in filing U.S. Supreme Court briefs
arguing against the death
penalty for 16- and 17-year-olds. The briefs documented the
teen brain’s immaturity “in
areas that bear upon adolescent decision making.” Brain scans
of young teens reveal
that frontal lobe immaturity is most evident among juvenile
offenders and drug users
(Shannon et al., 2011; Whelan et al., 2012). Thus, teens are
“less guilty by reason of
adolescence,” suggested psychologist Laurence Steinberg and
law professor Elizabeth
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Scott (2003; Steinberg et al., 2009). In 2005, by a 5-to-4
margin, the Court concurred,
declaring juvenile death penalties unconstitutional. In 2012, the
APA offered similar
arguments against sentencing juveniles to life without parole
(Banville, 2012; Steinberg,
2013). Once again, the Court, by a narrow 5-to-4 vote,
concurred.
Multiple-Choice Question
People develop improved judgment, impulse control, and the
ability to plan
for the future during their teens and early twenties, largely as a
result of
31. which of the following?
development of the parietal lobes of the brain
growth in the number of neurons and their connections
development of the frontal lobes of the brain
a surge of hormones beginning in puberty
Correct. Along with the myelin growth that speeds up our
brain’s communications, the
development of our frontal lobes leads to a marked
improvement in things like
judgment and long-term foresight.
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3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 - Page 3.13 - Evaluating Trait
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3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.13 Evaluating
Trait Theories
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Evaluating Trait Theories
Does research support the consistency of personality traits over
time and across
32. situations?
Are our personality traits stable and enduring? Or does our
behavior depend on where
and with whom we find ourselves? In some ways, our
personality seems stable.
Cheerful, friendly children tend to become cheerful, friendly
adults. At a recent college
reunion, I [DM] was amazed to find that my jovial former
classmates were still jovial,
the shy ones still shy, the happy-seeming people still smiling
and laughing—50 years
later. But it’s also true that a fun-loving jokester can suddenly
turn serious and
respectful at a job interview. And the personality traits we
express can change from one
situation to another. Major life events, such as becoming
unemployed, can shift our
personality from agreeable to slightly rude (Boyce et al., 2015).
The Person-Situation Controversy
Our behavior is influenced by the interaction of our inner
disposition with our
environment. Still, the question lingers: Which is more
important? When we explore
this person-situation controversy, we look for genuine
personality traits that persist
over time and across situations. Are some people dependably
conscientious and others
unreliable? Some cheerful and others dour? Some friendly and
outgoing and others
shy? If we are to consider friendliness a trait, friendly people
must act friendly at
different times and places. Do they?
33. The point to remember As people grow older their personality
stabilizes.
In considering research that has followed lives through time,
some scholars (especially
those who study infants) are impressed with personality change;
others are struck by
personality stability during adulthood. As Figure 7 illustrates,
data from 152 long-term
studies reveal that personality trait scores are positively
correlated with scores obtained
seven years later, and that as people grow older their
personality stabilizes. Interests
may change—the avid tropical-fish collector may become an
avid gardener. Careers may
change—the determined salesperson may become a determined
social worker.
Relationships may change—the hostile spouse may start over
with a new partner. But
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most people recognize their traits as their own, as Robert
McCrae and Paul Costa noted
(1994), “and it is well that they do. A person’s recognition of
the inevitability of his or
her one and only personality is...the culminating wisdom of a
34. lifetime.”
Figure 7
Personality stability
Chart depicting trait score correlations over seven years for
children, collegians, 30-year-
olds, and 50- to 70-year-olds. Trait score correlation between
children was about 0.3. For
collegians it was a little over 0.5; for 30-year-olds, it was a
little over 0.6; and for 50- to
70-year-olds, it was a little over 0.7.
With age, personality traits become more stable, as reflected in
the stronger correlation of
trait scores with follow-up scores 7 years later. (Data from
Roberts & DelVecchio, 2000.)
So most people—including most psychologists—would probably
presume the stability of
personality traits. Moreover, our traits are socially significant.
They influence our
health, our thinking, and our job choices and performance
(Deary & Matthews, 1993;
Hogan, 1998; Jackson et al., 2012; Sutin et al., 2011). Studies
that follow lives through
time show that personality traits rival socioeconomic status and
cognitive ability as
predictors of mortality, divorce, and occupational attainment
(Roberts et al., 2007).
Any of these tendencies, taken to an extreme, become
maladaptive. Agreeableness
ranges from cynical combativeness at its low extreme to gullible
subservience at its high
35. extreme. Conscientiousness ranges from irresponsible
negligence to workaholic
perfectionism (Widiger & Costa, 2012).
Multiple-Choice Question
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Which person’s personality traits would be MOST stable and
predictable
over the next 7 years?
a 3-year-old
a 20-year-old
a 10-year-old
a 40-year-old
Correct. As we get older, our personality traits become more
stable and predictable.
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3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 - Page 3.2 - Developmental
Psychology’s Major Issues
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.2
Developmental Psychology’s Major
Issues
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Developmental Psychology’s Major Issues
What three issues have engaged developmental psychologists?
Researchers find human development interesting for the same
reasons most of the rest
of us do—they are eager to understand more about how we’ve
become our current
selves, and how we may change in the years ahead.
Developmental psychology
examines our physical, cognitive, and social development across
the life span, with a
focus on three major issues:
1. Nature and nurture: How does our genetic inheritance (our
nature) interact
with our experiences (our nurture) to influence our
development? How have your
nature and your nurture influenced your life story?
2. Continuity and stages: What parts of development are gradual
and
continuous, like riding an escalator? What parts change abruptly
in separate
stages, like climbing rungs on a ladder?
37. 3. Stability and change: Which of our traits persist through life?
How do we
change as we age?
Nature and Nurture
The unique gene combination created when our mother’s egg
engulfed our father’s
sperm helped form us, as individuals. Genes predispose both our
shared humanity and
our individual differences.
But our experiences also shape us. Our families and peer
relationships teach us how to
think and act. Even differences initiated by our nature may be
amplified by our nurture.
We are not formed by either nature or nurture, but by the
interaction between them.
Biological, psychological, and social-cultural forces interact.
Mindful of how others differ from us, however, we often fail to
notice the similarities
stemming from our shared biology. Regardless of our culture,
we humans share the
same life cycle. We speak to our infants in similar ways and
respond similarly to their
coos and cries (Bornstein et al., 1992a,b). All over the world,
the children of warm and
supportive parents feel better about themselves and are less
hostile than are the
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children of punishing and rejecting parents (Rohner, 1986; Scott
et al., 1991). Although
ethnic groups have differed in some ways, including average
school achievement, the
differences are “no more than skin deep.” To the extent that
family structure, peer
influences, and parental education predict behavior in one of
these ethnic groups, they
do so for the others as well. Compared with the person-to-
person differences within
groups, between-group differences are small.
Continuity and Stages
Do adults differ from infants as a giant redwood differs from its
seedling—a difference
created by gradual, cumulative growth? Or do they differ as a
butterfly differs from a
caterpillar—a difference of distinct stages?
Researchers who emphasize experience and learning typically
see development as a
slow, continuous shaping process. Those who emphasize
biological maturation tend to
see development as a sequence of genetically predisposed stages
or steps: Although
progress through the various stages may be quick or slow,
everyone passes through the
stages in the same order.
39. Are there clear-cut stages of psychological development, as
there are physical stages
such as walking before running? The stage theories we will
consider—of Jean Piaget on
cognitive development, Lawrence Kohlberg on moral
development, and Erik Erikson on
psychosocial development—propose developmental stages
(summarized in Figure 1).
But as we will also see, some research casts doubt on the idea
that life proceeds through
neatly defined age-linked stages. Young children have some
abilities Piaget attributed to
later stages. Kohlberg’s work reflected an individualist
worldview and emphasized
thinking over acting. And adult life does not progress through a
fixed, predictable series
of steps. Chance events can influence us in ways we would
never have predicted.
Figure 1
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Comparing the Stage Theories
Illustration of the stage theories of Lawrence Kohlberg, Erik
Erikson, and Jean Piaget.
Kohlberg’s theory contains three stages: preconventional
40. morality, conventional morality,
and postconventional morality. Erikson’s theory contains eight
stages: Basic trust,
autonomy, initiative, competence, identity, intimacy,
generativity, and integrity. Piaget’s
theory contains four stages: sensorimotor, preoperational,
concrete operational, and
formal operational. In the illustration, the stages of these
theories are presented
sequentially on a timeline that starts at birth and ends at death.
(With thanks to Dr. Sandra Gibbs, Muskegon Community
College, for inspiring this
illustration.)
Although many modern developmental psychologists do not
identify as stage theorists,
the stage concept remains useful. The human brain does
experience growth spurts
during childhood and puberty that correspond roughly to
Piaget’s stages (Thatcher et
al., 1987). And stage theories contribute a developmental
perspective on the whole life
span, by suggesting how people of one age think and act
differently when they arrive at
a later age.
Stability and Change
As we follow lives through time, do we find more evidence for
stability or change? If
reunited with a long-lost grade-school friend, do we instantly
realize that “it’s the same
old Andy”? Or do people we befriend during one period of life
seem like strangers at a
later period? (At least one acquaintance of mine [DM’s] would
41. choose the second
option. He failed to recognize a former classmate at his 40-year
college reunion. The
aghast classmate was his long-ago first wife.)
Research reveals that we experience both stability and change.
Some of our
characteristics, such as temperament, are very stable:
One research team that studied 1000 people from ages 3 to 38
was struck by the
consistency of temperament and emotionality across time
(Moffitt et al., 2013;
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Slutske et al., 2012). Out-of-control 3-year-olds were the most
likely to become
teen smokers or adult criminals or out-of-control gamblers.
Other studies have found that hyperactive, inattentive 5-year-
olds required more
teacher effort at age 12 (Houts et al., 2010); that 6-year-old
Canadian boys with
conduct problems were four times more likely than other boys
to be convicted of a
violent crime by age 24 (Hodgins et al., 2013); and that
extraversion among British
16-year-olds predicted their future happiness as 60-year-olds
(Gale et al., 2013).
42. Another research team interviewed adults who, 40 years earlier,
had their
talkativeness, impulsiveness, and humility rated by their
elementary school
teachers (Nave et al., 2010). To a striking extent, their traits
persisted.
“As at 7, so at 70,” says a Jewish proverb. People predict that
they will not change much
in the future (Quoidbach et al., 2013). In some ways they are
correct. The widest smilers
in childhood and college photos are, years later, the ones most
likely to enjoy enduring
marriages (Hertenstein et al., 2009).
We cannot, however, predict all aspects of our future selves
based on our early life. Our
social attitudes, for example, are much less stable than our
temperament (Moss &
Susman, 1980). Older children and adolescents learn new ways
of coping. Although
delinquent children have elevated rates of later problems, many
confused and troubled
children blossom into mature, successful adults (Moffitt et al.,
2002; Roberts et al.,
2013; Thomas & Chess, 1986). The struggles of the present may
be laying a foundation
for a happier tomorrow. Life is a process of becoming.
In some ways, we all change with age. Most shy, fearful
toddlers begin opening up by
age 4, and most people become more conscientious, stable,
agreeable, and self-
confident in the years after adolescence (Lucas & Donnellan,
2009; Roberts & Mroczek,
2008; Shaw et al., 2010). Many irresponsible 18-year-olds have
43. matured into 40-year-
old business or cultural leaders. (If you are the former, you
aren’t done yet.) Openness,
self-esteem, and agreeableness often peak in midlife (Lucas &
Donnellan, 2011; Orth et
al., 2012, 2015; Specht et al., 2011). Such changes can occur
without changing a person’s
position relative to others of the same age. The hard-driving
young adult may mellow
by later life, yet still be a relatively driven senior citizen.
Life requires both stability and change. Stability provides our
identity. It enables us to
depend on others and be concerned about children’s healthy
development. Our
potential for change gives us our hope for a brighter future. It
motivates our concerns
about present influences and lets us adapt and grow with
experience.
Multiple-Choice Question
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A research team is interviewing a man who, 40 years ago, was
chatty,
proud, and spontaneous. What will they likely discover about
the man’s
current temperament?
44. His temperament will be very similar to what it was 40 years
ago.
His youthful pride will have increased with age and
accomplishment.
His temperament will be very different from what it was 40
years ago.
Some of his youthful spontaneity will have diminished with age.
Correct. Temperament seems to be one of our most tenacious
characteristics, changing
very little over time, so it’s highly likely that this man’s
temperament will be the same or
similar after 40 years.
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.1 Introduction
Introduction
How do personality and development influence decision making
and problem
solving?
45. This week, Dr. Greenberg focused on how digital devices and
platforms influence and
place pressures on teenagers’ social and emotional development.
Clark and Company/Getty Images
We’ll talk a lot about teenagers this week. Like many people,
psychologists tend to
think teenagers are fascinating, if also a bit frustrating.
Research in the field of
developmental psychology sheds some light on why teenagers
are often impulsive and
moody—in part, it’s because they are still developing their self
and social awareness.
In this week’s Talk, Dr. Barbara Greenberg focused on how cell
phones and social
media influence and place pressures on teenagers’ social and
emotional development.
How exactly are these digital experiences shaping teenagers’
development and
brains?
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This chapter will build on the biological foundation of
psychology established in
Chapter 2. You’ll examine how a person develops from
46. childhood through adulthood
—not only how the brain changes but also how thinking and
personality develop.
Reflecting on these concepts will give you a better
understanding of your self and
social awareness skill. You’ll also explore the personality traits
that describe each
person’s individuality and the development of the ability to
make decisions, which is a
component of your problem solving skill. Specifically, you’ll
learn about the following
topics:
Big issues in developmental psychology. You will consider the
three major
issues in this branch of psychology: nature versus nurture, the
continuity and
stages of development, and the stability of traits.
Cognitive development. Every decision you make is influenced
by the
schemas, or mental categories, you use to understand the world.
You will learn
about how these schemas develop starting in infancy.
The developing teen brain. In this chapter, and especially in the
investigation, you will examine how the brain is still developing
in adolescence
and explore how that affects teenagers’ ability to make
decisions and solve
problems.
Adulthood. You’ll also read about how development continues
throughout
adulthood and how physical and mental abilities change with
age. For example,
you can develop and use your self and social awareness
throughout all stages of
your life.
47. Personality traits. You will examine the five basic personality
traits that
influence who people are and what decisions they make in life.
Social-cognitive theories. In addition to focusing on traits,
you’ll explore how
experience and context affect the way people choose to respond
to their
environment.
Weekly Tip!
Near the end of this chapter, you’ll work on your first
investigation! This is a three-
page assignment that reviews what you’ve learned over the past
three weeks and gives
you a chance to apply your problem solving skill to a real-life
situation. To do well on
this assignment, you’ll want to set aside additional time to
preview the Investigation
pages and review the content from Chapters 1–3. Unlike the
questions you’ve
completed in the webtext so far, the questions on Investigation
pages can be reset
only once, so take your time and answer thoughtfully.
close
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48. Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.5 Cognitive
Development in
Adolescence
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Cognitive Development in Adolescence
How did Piaget, Kohlberg, and later researchers describe
adolescent cognitive and
moral development?
During the early teen years, reasoning is often self-focused.
Adolescents may think their
private experiences are unique, something parents just could not
understand: “But,
Mom, you don’t really know how it feels to be in love” (Elkind,
1978). Capable of
thinking about their own thinking, and about other people’s
thinking, they also begin
imagining what others are thinking about them. (They might
worry less if they
understood their peers’ similar self-absorption.) Gradually,
though, most begin to
reason more abstractly.
Developing Reasoning Power
When adolescents achieve the intellectual summit that Jean
Piaget called formal
operations, they apply their new abstract reasoning tools to the
world around them.
They may think about what is ideally possible and compare that
with the imperfect
49. reality of their society, their parents, and themselves. They may
debate human nature,
good and evil, truth and justice. Their sense of what’s fair
changes from simple equality
to equity—to what’s proportional to merit (Almås et al., 2010).
Having left behind the
concrete images of early childhood, they may now seek a deeper
conception of God and
existence (Boyatzis, 2012; Elkind, 1970). Reasoning
hypothetically and deducing
consequences also enables adolescents to detect inconsistencies
and spot hypocrisy in
others’ reasoning, sometimes leading to heated debates with
parents and silent vows
never to lose sight of their own ideals (Peterson et al., 1986).
Developing Morality
Two crucial tasks of childhood and adolescence are discerning
right from wrong and
developing character—the psychological muscles for controlling
impulses. To be a
moral person is to think morally and act accordingly. Jean
Piaget and Lawrence
Kohlberg proposed that moral reasoning guides moral actions. A
more recent view
builds on psychology’s game-changing new recognition that
much of our functioning
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occurs not on the “high road” of deliberate, conscious thinking
but on the “low road,”
unconscious and automatic. Our morality provides another
demonstration of our two-
track mind.
Moral Reasoning
The point to remember A big part of moral development is the
self-discipline needed to
restrain one’s own impulses.
Piaget (1932) believed that children’s moral judgments build on
their cognitive
development. Agreeing with Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg (1981,
1984) sought to describe
the development of moral reasoning, the thinking that occurs as
we consider right and
wrong. Kohlberg posed moral dilemmas (for example, whether a
person should steal
medicine to save a loved one’s life) and asked children,
adolescents, and adults whether
the action was right or wrong. His analysis of their answers led
him to propose three
basic levels of moral thinking: preconventional, conventional,
and postconventional
(Table 2). Kohlberg claimed these levels form a moral ladder.
As with all stage theories,
the sequence is unvarying. We begin on the bottom rung and
later ascend to varying
heights, where we may place others’ comfort above our own
(Crockett et al., 2014).
51. Preschoolers, typically identifying with their cultural group,
conform to and enforce its
moral norms (Haun et al., 2014; Schmidt & Tomasello, 2012).
When those norms
reward kind actions, preschoolers help others (Carragan &
Dweck, 2014). Kohlberg’s
critics have noted that his postconventional stage is culturally
limited, appearing mostly
among people who prize individualism (Eckensberger, 1994;
Miller & Bersoff, 1995).
Table 2
Kohlberg’s Levels of Moral Thinking
Level (Approximate
Age) Focus Example
Preconventional
morality (before age 9)
Self-interest; obey rules to avoid
punishment or gain concrete
rewards.
“If you save your dying wife,
you’ll be a hero.”
Conventional morality
(early adolescence)
Uphold laws and rules to gain
social approval or maintain
social order.
“If you steal the drug for her,
52. everyone will think you’re a
criminal.”
Postconventional
morality (adolescence
and beyond)
Actions reflect belief in basic
rights and self-defined ethical
principles.
“People have a right to live.”
Moral Action
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Our moral thinking and feeling surely affect our moral talk. But
sometimes talk is cheap
and emotions are fleeting. Morality involves doing the right
thing, and what we do also
depends on social influences. As political theorist Hannah
Arendt (1963) observed,
many Nazi concentration camp guards during World War II
were ordinary “moral”
people who were corrupted by a powerfully evil situation.
Today’s character education programs tend to focus on the
whole moral package—
53. thinking, feeling, and doing the right thing. In service-learning
programs, where teens
have tutored, cleaned up their neighborhoods, and assisted older
adults, their sense of
competence and desire to serve has increased, and their school
absenteeism and drop-
out rates have diminished (Andersen, 1998; Piliavin, 2003).
Moral action feeds moral
attitudes.
A big part of moral development is the self-discipline needed to
restrain one’s own
impulses—to delay small gratifications now to enable bigger
rewards later. One of
psychology’s best-known experiments was inspired by Walter
Mischel (1988, 1989,
2014) observing his three preschool daughters’ “remarkable
progression” in self-
control. To explore this phenomenon, Mischel gave Stanford
nursery school 4-year-olds
a choice between one marshmallow now, or two marshmallows
when he returned a few
minutes later. The children who had the willpower to delay
gratification went on to have
higher college completion rates and incomes, and less often
suffered addiction
problems. Moreover, when a sample of Mischel’s marshmallow
alums were retested on
a new willpower test 40 years later, their differences persisted
(Casey et al., 2011).
Our capacity to delay gratification—to decline small rewards
now for bigger rewards
later—is basic to our future academic, vocational, and social
success. Teachers and
parents rate children who delay gratification on a marshmallow-
54. like test as more self-
controlled (Duckworth et al., 2013). A preference for large-later
rather than small-now
rewards minimizes one’s risk of problem gambling, smoking,
and delinquency (Callan
et al., 2011; Ert et al., 2013; van Gelder et al., 2013). The moral
of the story: Delaying
gratification—living with one eye on the future—fosters
flourishing.
Multiple-Choice Question
How is Mischel’s marshmallow test related to moral
development?
The marshmallow test measures whether children can think
logically about
moral situations and act according to that logic.
The marshmallow test measures whether a child can hold
another person’s
perspective in mind when deciding how to act.
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The marshmallow test seems to measure impulse control and the
ability to
delay gratification, both of which are important in moral action.
The marshmallow test measures whether a child is acting based
on self-
55. defined ethical principles.
Correct. The children who were able to resist the temptation of
the marshmallow went
on to have greater willpower and impulse control as adults and
have fewer issues with
addiction or school attendance.
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3/13/2020 PSY105 & PSY101 - Page 3.17 - Helping Teens
Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
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Psychology
Investigation
Helping Teens Make Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
For this three-part investigation, you’ll apply concepts of brain
function and
development to the issue of teen decision making.
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.17
Investigation: Helping Teens Make
Decisions (Part 1 of 3)
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You can no longer reset the questions on this page.
56. Objective: Determine how adolescent brain development affects
decision making.
Teenagers are capable of much more higher-order thinking than
children, but their brains
still lag behind adults’ in their ability to make good decisions,
like what media to watch.
Stocksy
How Can We Help Teens Make Good Decisions?
If your teenage daughter attends a party, will you know how to
help her navigate the
decisions she’ll need to make? How do a complex social
environment and the
development of the teenage brain influence her ability to
consider risks? In this three-
part investigation, we’ll bring together the concepts from the
last three chapters and
determine how to use them to help teens make good decisions.
You’ll also have an
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opportunity to practice your decision making by examining a
problem and determining
57. evidence-based solutions—important parts of your problem
solving skill.
In addition, you’ll learn why it’s often difficult for developing
teenagers to make good
decisions. This knowledge will improve your self and social
awareness, especially when
you’re interacting with teenagers.
Part 1: We’ll begin by reviewing psychological concepts from
the last three
chapters and then gather more information about adolescent
brain development
and how it affects decision making.
Part 2: On the next page, we’ll take a closer look at how teens’
social environment
and desire to take risks influence their decisions.
Part 3: On the last page, we’ll use all of this information to
determine how to help
the teens in our lives make good decisions.
Take a Look Back
In this section, you will check your understanding of the
psychological concepts
referenced in this investigation.
You’ve learned quite a lot in the first three chapters of this
webtext. In Chapter 1, you
read about how psychologists think and how they study the
mind and behavior. In
Chapter 2, you learned about the structure and function of the
brain and neurons. And
in this chapter, you read about personality and development
over the life span. You’ve
also come to understand how these concepts affect your problem
58. solving skill and your
self and social awareness.
Over the next two pages, we will investigate how the concepts
from these three chapters
can be applied to understand how teenagers make decisions.
Before we do so, let’s
check your understanding of a few of these key concepts. If
you’re unsure of the answer
to any of the following five questions, go back and review the
page noted in the
question.
Multiple-Choice Question
What substance forms around the axons of neurons and results
in faster
communication among brain regions? (Review page 2.2.)
lobes
testosterone
myelin
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dopamine
Correct. The development of myelin, a fatty tissue that
surrounds and insulates axons,
59. allows for faster communication among brain cells and regions
and is an integral part of
“brain development.”
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Multiple-Choice Question
Which area of the brain is linked to emotions such as fear or
pleasure?
(Review pages 2.5–2.10.)
brainstem
parietal lobes
limbic system
cerebral cortex
Correct. The limbic system includes the hippocampus,
hypothalamus, and amygdala
and is associated with the processing of emotions.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Someone who studies how social media use affects teenagers’
brain activity
is working from which perspective? (Review page 1.3.)
the psychodynamic perspective
the neuroscience perspective
the evolutionary perspective
the behavioral perspective
Correct. Because the neuroscience perspective studies how
different parts of the brain
process information and produce reactions or behaviors, it
would help someone
60. understand the brain activity of teenagers who use social media.
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Multiple-Choice Question
The social-cognitive perspective emphasizes how our behaviors
result from
interactions between our personality traits and which of the
following?
(Review page 3.15.)
biology
cerebral cortex
situations
limbic system
Correct. According to the social-cognitive theory of personality,
our personality traits
and situations have reciprocal influences on our behavior and on
each other.
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Multiple-Choice Question
Sixteen-year-old Brenda questions her parents’ values but does
not fully
61. accept her friends’ standards either. According to Erikson’s
stages of
development, Brenda’s confusion about what she really wants
and values in
life suggests that she is struggling with which of the following
issues?
(Review pages 3.4–3.6.)
integrity
autonomy
initiative
identity
Correct. Identity development is the main issue of adolescent
emotional development,
according to Erikson. Adolescents must consider their different
roles and eventually
determine their own identity.
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The Teenage Brain
In this section, you will learn about the biology of adolescent
brain development.
Preview the questions and then use the information in the video
clips to answer them.
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62. The following video clips, taken from a longer TED Talk, offer
insight into the biology of
the teenage brain. Thanks to powerful brain imaging technology
that developed in the
last two decades, neuroscientists can now see the brain as it
develops throughout
adolescence and can compare teen brain activity to adult brain
activity. The speaker, Dr.
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore, will use terms you learned in Chapters
2 and 3 as she discusses
specific areas of the brain that are still developing well into
adolescence.
The Mysterious Workings of the Adolescent Brain (Clip 1 of 2)
YouTube video clip (1:39–4:17).
https://youtu.be/6zVS8HIPUng. Uploaded September
17, 2012, by TED. To activate captions, first click the play
button and then click the CC
button in the embedded player. For a text transcript, follow the
link below.
Read Text Transcript
Multiple-Choice Question
What kind of processing primarily occurs in the prefrontal
cortex of the
brain?
planning and decision making
sensory touch
movement control
vision
63. Sarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the
adolescent brSarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings
of the adolescent br……
https://youtu.be/6zVS8HIPUng
https://s3.amazonaws.com/assets.soomopublishing.com/courses/
Psych/Sarah_Jayne_Blakemore_Mysterious_Adolescent_Brain_
Transcript_Part1.docx
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zVS8HIPUng
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Correct. The prefrontal cortex is considered the CEO of the
brain and is responsible for
executive functions such as organization, planning, and decision
making.
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Multiple-Choice Question
What happens to the prefrontal cortex in early adolescence?
Neural communication slows.
Gray matter peaks in volume.
“Pruning” becomes impaired.
Gray matter is reduced.
Correct. Just before puberty, the volume of gray matter in the
prefrontal cortex peaks.
64. Last saved 2 months ago.
Multiple-Choice Question
Which term describes the process by which unused or unwanted
neurons
and synapses are eliminated?
synaptic pruning
neural reduction
limbic maturation
synaptic termination
Correct. Synaptic pruning is the process by which unused
neurons and synapses are
eliminated.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Now watch another clip from the same speaker. In this clip, she
describes an
experiment designed to study how adolescents and adults make
decisions that involve
another person. This insight into social decision making, along
with information
presented in Part 2 of this investigation, will help us understand
why teens often make
poor decisions when they’re with their friends. Remember to
preview the questions and
rewatch the clip as many times as you need to ensure you
understand the experiment
described by the speaker.
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The Mysterious Workings of the Adolescent Brain (Clip 2 of 2)
YouTube video clip (6:52–10:12).
https://youtu.be/6zVS8HIPUng. Uploaded September
17, 2012, by TED. To activate captions, first click the play
button and then click the CC
button in the embedded player. For a text transcript, follow the
link below.
Read Text Transcript
Multiple-Choice Question
Which of the following conclusions BEST interprets the data in
the bar
graph titled “Percentage Errors in Director and No-Director
Tasks”?
Adolescents make significantly fewer errors than adults when
they have to
keep the “director’s” perspective in mind.
Adolescents do not differ at all from adults in the ability to take
someone else’s
perspective.
Adolescents make significantly more errors than adults when
they have to
keep the “director’s” perspective in mind.
Adolescents make errors approximately 50 percent of the time,
regardless of
66. the “director” or “no-direction” condition.
Correct. Although adolescents do better than 7- to 9-year-olds
on this task, they still
make far more errors than adults do when required to take
someone else’s perspective.
Sarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings of the
adolescent brSarah-Jayne Blakemore: The mysterious workings
of the adolescent br……
https://youtu.be/6zVS8HIPUng
https://s3.amazonaws.com/assets.soomopublishing.com/courses/
Psych/Sarah_Jayne_Blakemore_Mysterious_Adolescent_Brain_
Transcript_Part2.docx
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6zVS8HIPUng
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Multiple-Choice Question
In the “no-director” condition of the experiment, adolescents
can
remember the rule to not move objects with a dark gray
background just as
well as adults can. What does Dr. Blakemore conclude about
this fact?
Adolescents choose to ignore the rule when it is imposed by an
67. authority
figure, such as in the “director” condition.
Adolescents’ ability to take other people’s perspectives into
account does not
improve after age 13.
Adolescents are capable of knowing a rule, but they still
struggle to make
decisions that require considering someone else’s perspective.
Adolescents are too distracted by the rule when they try to make
decisions that
require considering someone else’s perspective.
Correct. While a 16-year-old will be better at considering
another perspective than a 9-
year-old will be, teenagers make more errors than adults do
when they view a problem
from someone else’s perspective.
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.3 Cognitive
Development in Childhood
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68. Cognitive Development in Childhood
From the perspectives of Piaget and today’s researchers, how
does a child’s mind
develop?
Somewhere on your life journey, you became conscious. When
was that? Jean Piaget
[pee-ah-ZHAY] was a pioneering developmental psychologist
who spent his life
searching for the answers to such questions. He studied
children’s cognitive
development—all the mental activities associated with thinking,
knowing,
remembering, and communicating. His interest began in 1920,
when he was in Paris
developing questions for children’s intelligence tests. While
administering the tests,
Piaget became intrigued by children’s wrong answers, which
were often strikingly
similar among same-age children. Where others saw childish
mistakes, Piaget saw
intelligence at work. Such accidental discoveries are among the
fruits of psychological
science.
The point to remember Piaget’s core idea was that our
intellectual progression reflects
an unceasing struggle to make sense of our experiences.
A half-century spent with children convinced Piaget that a
child’s mind is not a
miniature model of an adult’s. Thanks partly to his careful
observations, we now
understand that children reason differently than adults, in
69. “wildly illogical ways about
problems whose solutions are self-evident to adults” (Brainerd,
1996).
Piaget’s studies led him to believe that a child’s mind develops
through a series of stages
(Table 1), in an upward march from the newborn’s simple
reflexes to the adult’s abstract
reasoning power. Thus, an 8-year-old can comprehend things a
toddler cannot, such as
the analogy that “getting an idea is like having a light turn on in
your head,” or that a
miniature slide is too small for sliding, and a miniature car is
much too small to get
into.
Table 1
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Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development
Typical Age
Range
Description of Stage
Developmental
70. Phenomena
Birth to nearly 2
years
Sensorimotor: Experiencing the world
through senses and actions (looking,
hearing, touching, mouthing, and grasping)
-Object permanence
-Stranger anxiety
About 2 to about
6 or 7 years
Preoperational: Representing things with
words and images; using intuitive rather
than logical reasoning
-Pretend play
-Egocentrism
About 7 to 11
years
Concrete operational: Thinking logically
about concrete events; grasping concrete
analogies and performing arithmetical
operations
-Conservation
-Mathematical
transformations
About 12 through
adulthood
71. Formal operational: Abstract reasoning
-Abstract logic
-Potential for mature
moral reasoning
Piaget’s core idea was that our intellectual progression reflects
an unceasing struggle to
make sense of our experiences. To this end, the maturing brain
builds schemas,
concepts or mental molds into which we pour our experiences.
By adulthood we have
built countless schemas, ranging from cats and dogs to our
concept of love.
To explain how we use and adjust our schemas, Piaget proposed
two more concepts.
First, we assimilate new experiences—we interpret them in
terms of our current
understandings (schemas). Having a simple schema for dog, for
example, a toddler may
call all four-legged animals dogs. But as we interact with the
world, we also adjust, or
accommodate, our schemas to incorporate information provided
by new experiences.
Thus, the child soon learns that the original dog schema is too
broad and
accommodates by refining the category. Many people whose
schema of marriage was a
union between a man and a woman have now accommodated
same-sex marriage, with a
broadened marriage concept.
Multiple-Choice Question
The first time that 4-year-old Sarah saw her older brother play a
72. flute, she
thought it was simply a large whistle. Sarah’s initial
understanding of the
flute best illustrates which of the following processes?
conservation
maturation
assimilation
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accommodation
Correct. When children see something totally new and try to
account for it by using a
current understanding (or schema), they are engaged in
assimilation. This is why Sarah
thought the flute was a large whistle.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Reflecting on Piaget’s Theory
What remains of Piaget’s ideas about the child’s mind? Plenty—
enough to merit his
being singled out by Time magazine as one of the twentieth
century’s 20 most
influential scientists and thinkers and his being rated in a
survey of British
73. psychologists as the last century’s greatest psychologist
(Psychologist, 2003). Piaget
identified significant cognitive milestones and stimulated
worldwide interest in how the
mind develops. His emphasis was less on the ages at which
children typically reach
specific milestones than on their sequence. Studies around the
globe, from aboriginal
Australia to Algeria to North America, have confirmed that
human cognition unfolds
basically in the sequence Piaget described (Lourenco &
Machado, 1996; Segall et al.,
1990).
However, today’s researchers see development as more
continuous than did Piaget. By
detecting the beginnings of each type of thinking at earlier ages,
they have revealed
conceptual abilities Piaget missed. Moreover, they see formal
logic as a smaller part of
cognition than he did. Piaget would not be surprised that today,
as part of our own
cognitive development, we are adapting his ideas to
accommodate new findings.
Implications for Parents and Teachers
Future parents and teachers, remember this: Young children are
incapable of adult
logic. Preschoolers who block one’s view of the TV simply have
not learned to take
another’s viewpoint. What seems simple and obvious to us—
getting off a teeter-totter
will cause a friend on the other end to crash—may be
incomprehensible to a 3-year-old.
Also remember that children are not passive receptacles waiting
74. to be filled with
knowledge. Better to build on what they already know, engaging
them in concrete
demonstrations and stimulating them to think for themselves.
Finally, accept children’s
cognitive immaturity as adaptive. It is nature’s strategy for
keeping children close to
protective adults and providing time for learning and
socialization (Bjorklund & Green,
1992).
close
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.6 Social
Development in Adolescence
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Social Development in Adolescence
What are the social tasks and challenges of adolescence?
Theorist Erik Erikson (1963) contended that each stage of life
has its own psychosocial
task, a crisis that needs resolution. Young children wrestle with
75. issues of trust, then
autonomy (independence), then initiative. School-age children
strive for competence,
feeling able and productive. The adolescent’s task is to
synthesize past, present, and
future possibilities into a clearer sense of self (Table 3).
Adolescents wonder, “Who am I
as an individual? What do I want to do with my life? What
values should I live by? What
do I believe in?” Erikson called this quest the adolescent’s
search for identity.
Table 3
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Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Stage
(Approximate
Age)
Issue Description of Task
Infancy (to 1
year)
76. Trust vs.
mistrust
If needs are dependably met, infants develop a sense of
basic trust.
Toddlerhood (1
to 3 years)
Autonomy
vs. shame
and doubt
Toddlers learn to exercise their will and do things for
themselves, or they doubt their abilities.
Preschool (3 to
6 years)
Initiative vs.
guilt
Preschoolers learn to initiate tasks and carry out plans, or
they feel guilty about their efforts to be independent.
Elementary
school (6 years
to puberty)
Competence
vs.
inferiority
Children learn the pleasure of applying themselves to tasks,
or they feel inferior.
77. Adolescence
(teen years into
20s)
Identity vs.
role
confusion
Teenagers work at refining a sense of self by testing roles
and then integrating them to form a single identity, or they
become confused about who they are.
Young
adulthood (20s
to early 40s)
Intimacy vs.
isolation
Young adults struggle to form close relationships and to
gain the capacity for intimate love, or they feel socially
isolated.
Middle
adulthood (40s
to 60s)
Generativity
vs.
stagnation
In middle age, people discover a sense of contributing to
the world, usually through family and work, or they may
feel a lack of purpose.
Late adulthood
78. (late 60s and
up)
Integrity vs.
despair
Reflecting on their lives, older adults may feel a sense of
satisfaction or failure.
Multiple-Choice Question
Jeremy is 16 years old and is trying different clothes and
hairstyles. His
father is confused and sometimes shocked by the earrings,
chains, hair
colors, and fashion choices. His mother, on the other hand, just
laughs
because she knows that Jeremy is in which stage of
development?
identity vs. role confusion
intimacy vs. isolation
initiative vs. guilt
generativity vs. stagnation
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Correct. In this stage, teenagers try to define and hone their
identity by “trying on”
79. many different roles or styles. Sometimes they are confused
about who they are, but this
is a totally normal stage of development.
Last saved 2 months ago.
Forming an Identity
To refine their sense of identity, adolescents in individualist
cultures usually try out
different “selves” in different situations. They may act out one
self at home, another
with friends, and still another at school or online. If two
situations overlap—as when a
teenager brings new friends home—the discomfort can be
considerable (Klimstra et al.,
2015). The teen asks, “Which self should I be? Which is the real
me?” The resolution is a
self-definition that unifies the various selves into a consistent
and comfortable sense of
who one is—an identity.
For both adolescents and adults, group identities are often
formed by how we differ
from those around us. When living in Britain, I [DM] become
conscious of my
Americanness. When spending time with collaborators in Hong
Kong, I [ND] become
conscious of my minority White race. When surrounded by
women, we are both
mindful of our male gender identity. For international students,
for those of a minority
ethnic group, for gay and transgender people, or for people with
a disability, a social
identity often forms around their distinctiveness.
80. Erikson noticed that some adolescents forge their identity early,
simply by adopting
their parents’ values and expectations. (Traditional, less
individualist cultures teach
adolescents who they are, rather than encouraging them to
decide on their own.) Other
adolescents may adopt the identity of a particular peer group—
jocks, preps, geeks, band
kids, debaters.
Most young people do develop a sense of contentment with their
lives. A question:
Which statement best describes you? “I would choose my life
the way it is right now” or,
“I wish I were somebody else”? When American teens
answered, 81 percent picked the
first, and 19 percent the second (Lyons, 2004). Reflecting on
their existence, 75 percent
of American collegians say they “discuss religion/spirituality”
with friends, “pray,” and
agree that “we are all spiritual beings” and “search for
meaning/purpose in life” (Astin
et al., 2004; Bryant & Astin, 2008). This would not surprise
Stanford psychologist
William Damon and his colleagues (2003), who have contended
that a key task of
adolescence is to achieve a purpose—a desire to accomplish
something personally
meaningful that makes a difference to the world beyond oneself.
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Several nationwide studies indicate that young Americans’ self-
esteem falls during the
early to mid-teen years, and, for girls, depression scores often
increase. But then self-
image rebounds during the late teens and twenties (Chung et al.,
2014; Orth et al., 2015;
Wagner et al., 2013). Late adolescence is also a time when
agreeableness and emotional
stability scores increase (Klimstra et al., 2009).
These are the years when many people in industrialized
countries begin exploring new
opportunities by attending college or working full time. Many
college seniors have
achieved a clearer identity and a more positive self-concept than
they had as first-year
students (Waterman, 1988). Collegians who have achieved a
clear sense of identity are
less prone to alcohol misuse (Bishop et al., 2005).
Erikson contended that adolescent identity formation (which
continues into adulthood)
is followed in young adulthood by a developing capacity for
intimacy, the ability to form
emotionally close relationships. When Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi
[chick-SENT-me-hi]
and Jeremy Hunter (2003) used a beeper to sample the daily
experiences of American
teens, they found them unhappiest when alone and happiest
when with friends.
Romantic relationships, which tend to be emotionally intense,
are reported by some two
in three North American 17-year-olds, but fewer among those in
82. collectivist countries
such as China (Collins et al., 2009; Li et al., 2010). Those who
enjoy high-quality
(intimate, supportive) relationships with family and friends tend
also to enjoy similarly
high-quality romantic relationships in adolescence, which set
the stage for healthy adult
relationships. Such relationships are, for most of us, a source of
great pleasure.
close
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Psychology
3 Personality and Human Development / Page 3.7 Parent and
Peer Relationships
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Parent and Peer Relationships
How do parents and peers influence adolescents?
As adolescents in Western cultures seek to form their own
identities, they begin to pull
away from their parents (Shanahan et al., 2007). The
preschooler who can’t be close
83. enough to her mother, who loves to touch and cling to her,
becomes the 14-year-old
who wouldn’t be caught dead holding hands with Mom. The
transition occurs gradually,
but this period is typically a time of diminishing parental
influence and growing peer
influence.
The point to remember Adolescence is typically a time of
diminishing parental influence
and growing peer influence.
As Aristotle long ago recognized, we humans are “the social
animal.” At all ages, but
especially during childhood and adolescence, we seek to fit in
with our groups (Harris,
1998, 2002). Teens who start smoking typically have friends
who model smoking,
suggest its pleasures, and offer cigarettes (J. S. Rose et al.,
1999; R. J. Rose et al., 2003).
Part of this peer similarity may result from a selection effect, as
kids seek out peers with
similar attitudes and interests. Those who smoke (or don’t) may
select as friends those
who also smoke (or don’t). Put two teens together and their
brains become
hypersensitive to reward (Albert et al., 2013). This increased
activation helps explain
why teens take more driving risks when with friends than they
do alone (Chein et al.,
2011).
By adolescence, parent-child arguments occur more often,
usually over mundane things
—household chores, bedtime, homework (Tesser et al., 1989).
Conflict during the
84. transition to adolescence tends to be greater with first-born than
with second-born
children, and greater with mothers than with fathers (Burk et
al., 2009; Shanahan et al.,
2007).
For a minority of parents and their adolescents, differences lead
to real splits and great
stress (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). But most disagreements are
at the level of harmless
bickering. With sons, the issues often are behavior problems,
such as acting out or
hygiene; for daughters, the issues commonly involve
relationships, such as dating and
friendships (Schlomer et al., 2011). Most adolescents—6000 of
them in 10 countries,
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from Australia to Bangladesh to Turkey—have said they like
their parents (Offer et al.,
1988). “We usually get along but...,” adolescents often reported
(Galambos, 1992;
Steinberg, 1987).
Positive parent-teen relations and positive peer relations often
go hand in hand. High
85. school girls who had the most affectionate relationships with
their mothers tended also
to enjoy the most intimate friendships with girlfriends (Gold &
Yanof, 1985). And teens
who felt close to their parents have tended to be healthy and
happy and to do well in
school (Resnick et al., 1997). Of course, we can state this
correlation the other way:
Misbehaving teens are more likely to have tense relationships
with parents and other
adults.
Although heredity does much of the heavy lifting in forming
individual temperament
and personality differences, parents and peers influence teens’
behaviors and attitudes.
When with peers, teens discount the future and focus more on
immediate rewards
(O’Brien et al., 2011). Most teens are herd animals, talking,
dressing, and acting more
like their peers than their parents. What their friends are, they
often become, and what
“everybody’s doing,” they often do.
Part of what everybody’s doing is networking—a lot. Teens
rapidly adopt social media.
U.S. teens typically send 30 text messages daily and average
145 Facebook friends
(Lenhart, 2015). They tweet, post videos to Snapchat, and share
pictures on Instagram.
Online communication stimulates intimate self-disclosure—both
for better (support
groups) and for worse (online predators and extremist groups)
(Subrahmanyam &
Greenfield, 2008; Valkenburg & Peter, 2009). Facebook, from a
86. study of all its English-
language users, reports this: Among parents and children, 371
days elapse, on average,
before they include each other in their circle of self-disclosure
(Burke et al., 2013).
For those who feel excluded by their peers, whether online or
face-to-face, the pain is
acute. “The social atmosphere in most high schools is
poisonously clique-driven and
exclusionary,” observed social psychologist Elliot Aronson
(2001). Most excluded
“students suffer in silence. . . . A small number act out in
violent ways against their
classmates.” Those who withdraw are vulnerable to loneliness,
low self-esteem, and
depression (Steinberg & Morris, 2001). Peer approval matters.
Parent approval may matter in other ways. Teens have seen their
parents as influential
in shaping their religious faith and in thinking about college and
career choices
(Emerging Trends, 1997). A Gallup Youth Survey revealed that
most shared their
parents’ political views (Lyons, 2005).
Howard Gardner (1998) has concluded that parents and peers
are complementary:
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Parents are more important when it comes to education,
discipline,
responsibility, orderliness, charitableness, and ways of
interacting with
authority figures. Peers are more important for learning
cooperation, for
finding the road to popularity, for inventing styles of interaction
among
people of the same age. Youngsters may find their peers more
interesting,
but they will look to their parents when contemplating their own
futures.
Moreover, parents [often] choose the neighborhoods and schools
that supply
the peers.
This power to select a child’s neighborhood and schools gives
parents an ability to
influence the culture that shapes the child’s peer group. And
because neighborhood
influences matter, parents may want to become involved in
intervention programs that
aim at a whole school or neighborhood. If the vapors of a toxic
climate are seeping into
a child’s life, that climate—not just the child—needs reforming.
Multiple-Choice Question
How can self-disclosure on social media affect adolescents’
peer
relationships?
It makes adolescents think more about the future than about the
present.