This document summarizes Peter Bloom's 1984 paper on the "2-Sigma Problem" regarding effective teaching of large groups. Bloom's study found that average students taught one-on-one (tutoring) performed 2 standard deviations above students in conventional large lectures (2-Sigma). Students in "Mastery Learning" classes, with formative testing, performed 1 standard deviation higher. The document then lists alterable educational variables by their effect size on student performance, with tutoring and feedback having the largest impact. Bloom aimed to solve the 2-Sigma problem by combining variables, though no single combination achieved tutoring levels of performance.
Standard of Practice-Professional Knowledge—Evidence for Problem-based Learni...Daniel Genesee
The article compares the effectiveness of problem-based learning (PBL) and traditional lecture-discussion instruction for teaching macroeconomics to high school students. Researchers found that PBL students performed significantly better on a knowledge test than students in traditional classes, with an effect size equivalent to a 4% difference in percentile grades. PBL was also more effective for students with high interest in economics and mid-to-low verbal ability, though both instructional methods led to similar outcomes for students with high verbal ability. The study provides support for using PBL to meet Ontario curriculum goals of developing inquiry, problem-solving and collaboration skills.
A case study of problem solving- Akram Jabar NajimAkramEnglish
1. The document summarizes a case study that explored the problem-solving strategies used by undergraduate science students in a chemistry problem-based learning task. Through observations and interviews, most students displayed novice-like problem-solving strategies and surface learning approaches. However, one group showed more expert-like problem-solving coupled with deep learning, and successfully solved the problem.
2. The study found students relied heavily on the internet for information. Students also recognized benefits of group work and social aspects of learning.
3. The implications are that teaching staff need to carefully scaffold problem-based tasks and provide opportunities for collaborative work and skill development, to help students fully benefit from more student-centered approaches like problem-based learning
The document discusses teaching metacognition to improve student learning. Metacognition involves planning, monitoring progress, and adapting learning strategies. There are three steps to teaching metacognition: 1) teaching students that their ability to learn is mutable, 2) teaching goal-setting and planning, and 3) giving students opportunities to practice self-monitoring and adapting. Wrappers, or activities that surround assignments, can be used to teach self-monitoring by having students assess their understanding before and after tasks and receiving feedback to improve accuracy. Teaching metacognition through these steps and techniques has been shown to boost student learning and performance.
1) The study examined the effectiveness of different teaching methods (lecture, lecture/discussion, jigsaw, case study, team project) in a large introductory retailing class. 2) Assessment of student learning found that the jigsaw method led to the greatest improvement, followed by case study and lecture. The team project method showed the least improvement. 3) A survey found that students most preferred the lecture/discussion method and least preferred the jigsaw and lecture methods.
The document summarizes an action research paper that examined the effectiveness of intensified grammar review in developing the writing skills of selected learners in Tañong Integrated School. Questionnaires were used to check learners' progress before and after several sessions of daily grammar review conducted by educators. The results showed a significant improvement in learners' grammar knowledge and writing outcomes after the intensified grammar review. It was concluded that intensifying grammar instruction through regular review is an effective way to help learners develop their writing and comprehension skills.
Learning how to learn problem based learning.molil
Problem based learning is an instructional, learner centred approach that empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem. (J.R Savery, 2006, p12)
PBL also has the potential to help learners to develop flexible understanding and lifelong learning skills. (C.E Hmelo-Silver, 2004, p235)
Students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order to solve a problem.
Students engage in self-directed learning and then apply their new knowledge to the problem, reflect on what they have learned and assess the effectiveness of the strategies employed. (C.E Hmelo-Silver, 2004, p235)
The teacher in PBL becomes a facilitator of the learning process rather than providing the knowledge.
Characteristics of PBL:
Students must have the responsibility for their own learning.
PBL is learner centred.
Problem simulations must be ‘ill-structured’.
Learning should be integrated from a wide range of disciplines or subjects.
Collaboration is essential.
Student learning through self-directed process must be applied back to the problem with analysis, resolution and discussion.
Peer and self-assessment should be carried out.
PBL activities must be those valued in the real world.
Student assessment should include measurement of student progress toward goals of student problem-solving capabilities.
PBL should be the pedagogical base in the curriculum and not a part of a didactic curriculum.
Expected outcomes:
Flexible knowledge
Effective problem-solving skills
Self-directed learning skills
Effective collaboration skills
Intrinsic motivation
Bloom's theory of mastery learning is described by Thomas R. Guskey in his article "Closing Achievement Gaps". The use of the mastery learning folder as a tool for differentiating student learning is described. Access to free foundational learning skill flashcards is provided.
Standard of Practice-Professional Knowledge—Evidence for Problem-based Learni...Daniel Genesee
The article compares the effectiveness of problem-based learning (PBL) and traditional lecture-discussion instruction for teaching macroeconomics to high school students. Researchers found that PBL students performed significantly better on a knowledge test than students in traditional classes, with an effect size equivalent to a 4% difference in percentile grades. PBL was also more effective for students with high interest in economics and mid-to-low verbal ability, though both instructional methods led to similar outcomes for students with high verbal ability. The study provides support for using PBL to meet Ontario curriculum goals of developing inquiry, problem-solving and collaboration skills.
A case study of problem solving- Akram Jabar NajimAkramEnglish
1. The document summarizes a case study that explored the problem-solving strategies used by undergraduate science students in a chemistry problem-based learning task. Through observations and interviews, most students displayed novice-like problem-solving strategies and surface learning approaches. However, one group showed more expert-like problem-solving coupled with deep learning, and successfully solved the problem.
2. The study found students relied heavily on the internet for information. Students also recognized benefits of group work and social aspects of learning.
3. The implications are that teaching staff need to carefully scaffold problem-based tasks and provide opportunities for collaborative work and skill development, to help students fully benefit from more student-centered approaches like problem-based learning
The document discusses teaching metacognition to improve student learning. Metacognition involves planning, monitoring progress, and adapting learning strategies. There are three steps to teaching metacognition: 1) teaching students that their ability to learn is mutable, 2) teaching goal-setting and planning, and 3) giving students opportunities to practice self-monitoring and adapting. Wrappers, or activities that surround assignments, can be used to teach self-monitoring by having students assess their understanding before and after tasks and receiving feedback to improve accuracy. Teaching metacognition through these steps and techniques has been shown to boost student learning and performance.
1) The study examined the effectiveness of different teaching methods (lecture, lecture/discussion, jigsaw, case study, team project) in a large introductory retailing class. 2) Assessment of student learning found that the jigsaw method led to the greatest improvement, followed by case study and lecture. The team project method showed the least improvement. 3) A survey found that students most preferred the lecture/discussion method and least preferred the jigsaw and lecture methods.
The document summarizes an action research paper that examined the effectiveness of intensified grammar review in developing the writing skills of selected learners in Tañong Integrated School. Questionnaires were used to check learners' progress before and after several sessions of daily grammar review conducted by educators. The results showed a significant improvement in learners' grammar knowledge and writing outcomes after the intensified grammar review. It was concluded that intensifying grammar instruction through regular review is an effective way to help learners develop their writing and comprehension skills.
Learning how to learn problem based learning.molil
Problem based learning is an instructional, learner centred approach that empowers learners to conduct research, integrate theory and practice, and apply knowledge and skills to develop a viable solution to a defined problem. (J.R Savery, 2006, p12)
PBL also has the potential to help learners to develop flexible understanding and lifelong learning skills. (C.E Hmelo-Silver, 2004, p235)
Students work in collaborative groups to identify what they need to learn in order to solve a problem.
Students engage in self-directed learning and then apply their new knowledge to the problem, reflect on what they have learned and assess the effectiveness of the strategies employed. (C.E Hmelo-Silver, 2004, p235)
The teacher in PBL becomes a facilitator of the learning process rather than providing the knowledge.
Characteristics of PBL:
Students must have the responsibility for their own learning.
PBL is learner centred.
Problem simulations must be ‘ill-structured’.
Learning should be integrated from a wide range of disciplines or subjects.
Collaboration is essential.
Student learning through self-directed process must be applied back to the problem with analysis, resolution and discussion.
Peer and self-assessment should be carried out.
PBL activities must be those valued in the real world.
Student assessment should include measurement of student progress toward goals of student problem-solving capabilities.
PBL should be the pedagogical base in the curriculum and not a part of a didactic curriculum.
Expected outcomes:
Flexible knowledge
Effective problem-solving skills
Self-directed learning skills
Effective collaboration skills
Intrinsic motivation
Bloom's theory of mastery learning is described by Thomas R. Guskey in his article "Closing Achievement Gaps". The use of the mastery learning folder as a tool for differentiating student learning is described. Access to free foundational learning skill flashcards is provided.
Action research for Strategic Intervention MaterialsKristine Barredo
This document discusses a study that evaluated the effectiveness of using strategic intervention materials to improve 4th grade students' academic performance in science. It found that students who were taught using the strategic materials performed better on pre- and post-tests compared to students taught using traditional methods. The study developed science intervention materials aimed at reteaching least mastered concepts and skills. It assessed 330 4th grade students, with some sections taught traditionally and others using the new materials. Students using the materials showed greater gains in science performance compared to those taught traditionally.
The effect of triangulation grouping to below average students in understandi...Melody Joy Mique
This document summarizes an action research study that investigated the effect of "triangulation grouping" on below average students' understanding of physics concepts. The study grouped below average, average, and above average students together, with the average and above average students tutoring the below average student before evaluations. Data collection included student surveys, test results, observations of student participation and attitudes. The results showed that both below average and above average students benefited from this grouping approach, with below average students demonstrating improved understanding of physics concepts.
(1) The study examined the impact of concept mapping and multiple exposures on fifth grade students' science vocabulary achievement compared to traditional instruction. (2) The treatment group used semantic mapping and multiple exposures while the comparison group used traditional definition-based instruction. (3) Results showed the treatment group had significantly higher gains from pre-to-posttest and higher knowledge ratings, indicating concept mapping and multiple exposures were more effective for learning vocabulary.
1. Effective use of teacher rating systems requires universities to educate interpreters, students, and faculty on how to use the ratings appropriately and understand their purpose and limitations.
2. While a teacher's effectiveness is tied to student learning, teachers have limited control over factors impacting learning and students share responsibility for their own learning. As a result, defining teacher effectiveness is complex.
3. Research finds that student ratings can provide a valid assessment of teaching effectiveness if they reflect views of many students across courses, especially when used alongside other evaluation methods. However, certain student and instructor factors like course level may minimally impact ratings.
This document summarizes and analyzes the evidence for the effectiveness of active learning approaches in engineering education. It defines key terms like active learning, collaborative learning, cooperative learning, and problem-based learning. It finds that introducing student activities and engagement into lectures can improve short-term retention of material. Putting students into groups for activities generally leads to better performance and problem-solving compared to individual work. Cooperative learning models that emphasize teamwork and accountability also show positive effects. While results are mixed, problem-based learning may enhance skills like problem-solving but could slightly reduce performance on exams.
Differentiation in the senior mathematics classroomrouwejan
The document discusses differentiation in the senior mathematics classroom. It explores using differentiation techniques, such as flexible grouping and varied tasks, to improve student achievement. The author found that differentiation created opportunities for both low and high achievers by providing instruction tailored to different learning levels. When the class was split into ability-based groups, student engagement and achievement increased, especially for lower-ability students. This reinforced the importance of delivering material at varied levels and incorporating differentiation principles.
This document discusses the importance of opening up classroom discourse to promote active, collaborative student learning. It argues that high-quality classroom discussions where teachers use open-ended questions and feedback to build on student responses provides a better learning environment. The document provides examples of question and feedback techniques teachers can use, and analyzes a transcript of a seminar discussion to illustrate these techniques in action. It concludes that teachers need to be aware of the role classroom talk plays in learning, and should work on using a variety of questioning and feedback strategies to encourage collaborative discussions between teachers and students.
This document discusses different teaching approaches used in mathematics education, including cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and case studies. Cooperative learning involves students working in small groups to achieve common goals, emphasizing positive interdependence, interaction, individual accountability, collaborative skills, and group processing. Problem-based learning frames instruction around non-routine problems that require students to discover new knowledge to solve. Case studies present real-world situations for students to analyze and resolve, applying theoretical concepts. These active learning strategies encourage students to directly engage with course content.
This document provides information about action research, including definitions, purposes, and the process. It defines action research as a systematic inquiry conducted by participants to solve practical problems and improve their practices. The key aspects of action research outlined are the reflective spiral process of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. Engaging in action research can help improve teaching practices, empower teachers as agents of change, and promote a culture of inquiry in schools. The document also compares action research to basic research and provides examples of research questions and sampling methods.
The document summarizes the mastery learning model of teaching. It defines mastery learning as an approach that helps students attain satisfactory performance in school subjects by breaking content into discrete units and requiring demonstration of mastery of one unit before advancing to the next. The key elements of the mastery learning model include planning for mastery, teaching for mastery, formative evaluation, providing remediation, and summative evaluation to assess mastery across units. Benefits include helping students identify their strengths and weaknesses, individualizing instruction, and reducing variation in achievement levels.
This document discusses a study on how agriculture teachers in Botswana use questioning techniques in their classrooms. The study observed 4 agriculture teachers over 80 minutes each to analyze their use of prompting, probing, redirection, and wait time. Interviews were also conducted to understand why teachers question students in certain ways. The results showed that teachers did not rephrase questions adequately, did not use follow up probes well, and applied a less strict form of redirection. However, teachers redirected questions effectively and allowed sufficient wait time. The study aims to provide insights to improve teacher training and support effective questioning practices in classrooms.
This document summarizes a research study conducted on the collocation ability of Grade 6 pupils at Caloocan North Elementary School in the Philippines. The study aimed to determine the pupils' ability to use collocations correctly based on Bloom's three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. A test was administered to 30 Grade 6 pupils to analyze their collocation errors and identify which domain of learning yielded the highest percentage of correct responses. The results showed issues with the pupils' collocation abilities. The researcher proposed incorporating classroom exercises and discussions to help students develop their awareness and knowledge of collocations.
The article examines the flawed approach of the "hand-off" method of disseminating educational innovations. It presents two case studies: (1) Ted, a professor who designed an active learning chemistry course that was highly effective, and (2) Peter, Ted's colleague who adapted Ted's course design. While Ted was successful, Peter experienced problems adapting the course and achieving the same outcomes. The article concludes that for successful dissemination, adapting faculty should choose innovations aligned with their goals, experiment gradually with support, not just replicate another's approach.
Atividades de Geografia para alunos portadores de necessidades especiais do 8...Camila Brito
1) The document summarizes a literature review on learning theories and how teaching technologies support different methodologies. It analyzes a case study of geography classes in Brazil that used online and classroom activities.
2) A flipped classroom approach based on constructivism had students analyze local news individually before class. In class, a mind map activity based on cognitive theory allowed collective discussion of different student perspectives.
3) Students then made topographic maps in groups, addressing multiple intelligences. A gamification activity at the end used behaviorist principles with rewards to motivate students.
4) The teaching practice aimed to give students autonomy while meeting curriculum through problem-based learning. Technologies allow diverse materials but internet access lack poses challenges
This research paper investigated teachers' attitudes toward the communicative language teaching approach through surveys and interviews. The study found that although teachers generally expressed positive attitudes toward communication approach principles in the surveys, observations of their classroom teaching showed they did not fully implement those principles and instead took an eclectic approach. Interviews revealed teachers had misunderstandings or misinterpretations of key communication approach concepts. The study concluded that teacher training is needed to help overcome discrepancies between teachers' expressed attitudes and actual classroom practices regarding new language teaching approaches.
This study examined the use of heuristic problem-solving strategies among 578 seventh-grade students under three conditions: individual work, small groups, and cooperative teams. The study found no significant differences in outcomes between the three conditions, but all three outperformed a control group. Thus, heuristic strategies may be effective across different instructional methods.
Assessing the Assessment: An Evaluation of a Self-Assessment of Class Partici...Eddy White, Ph.D.
Recently published online in the Asian EFL Journal (September, 2009), this article is part of my doctoral research into assessment for learning (AfL) in an EFL/ESL context with adult learners.
1) The document discusses several empirical studies on formative assessment and how it can improve student achievement when integrated into teaching.
2) One study from 1992 found that frequent testing led to better results for students taught by inexperienced teachers. However, the study had limitations as it only involved two teachers.
3) Other research emphasized the importance of using assessment to diagnose student learning difficulties and provide feedback to support learning improvements.
The document outlines plans to consolidate four key IT infrastructure services across the Commonwealth by December 2010. These include: data/telecommunications networks, data center services, website hosting and portal services, and email and directory services. The goals are to standardize resources, increase efficiencies, and improve security by moving from decentralized agency-level systems to a consolidated "network of networks" and two enterprise data centers governed at the Commonwealth level.
Action research for Strategic Intervention MaterialsKristine Barredo
This document discusses a study that evaluated the effectiveness of using strategic intervention materials to improve 4th grade students' academic performance in science. It found that students who were taught using the strategic materials performed better on pre- and post-tests compared to students taught using traditional methods. The study developed science intervention materials aimed at reteaching least mastered concepts and skills. It assessed 330 4th grade students, with some sections taught traditionally and others using the new materials. Students using the materials showed greater gains in science performance compared to those taught traditionally.
The effect of triangulation grouping to below average students in understandi...Melody Joy Mique
This document summarizes an action research study that investigated the effect of "triangulation grouping" on below average students' understanding of physics concepts. The study grouped below average, average, and above average students together, with the average and above average students tutoring the below average student before evaluations. Data collection included student surveys, test results, observations of student participation and attitudes. The results showed that both below average and above average students benefited from this grouping approach, with below average students demonstrating improved understanding of physics concepts.
(1) The study examined the impact of concept mapping and multiple exposures on fifth grade students' science vocabulary achievement compared to traditional instruction. (2) The treatment group used semantic mapping and multiple exposures while the comparison group used traditional definition-based instruction. (3) Results showed the treatment group had significantly higher gains from pre-to-posttest and higher knowledge ratings, indicating concept mapping and multiple exposures were more effective for learning vocabulary.
1. Effective use of teacher rating systems requires universities to educate interpreters, students, and faculty on how to use the ratings appropriately and understand their purpose and limitations.
2. While a teacher's effectiveness is tied to student learning, teachers have limited control over factors impacting learning and students share responsibility for their own learning. As a result, defining teacher effectiveness is complex.
3. Research finds that student ratings can provide a valid assessment of teaching effectiveness if they reflect views of many students across courses, especially when used alongside other evaluation methods. However, certain student and instructor factors like course level may minimally impact ratings.
This document summarizes and analyzes the evidence for the effectiveness of active learning approaches in engineering education. It defines key terms like active learning, collaborative learning, cooperative learning, and problem-based learning. It finds that introducing student activities and engagement into lectures can improve short-term retention of material. Putting students into groups for activities generally leads to better performance and problem-solving compared to individual work. Cooperative learning models that emphasize teamwork and accountability also show positive effects. While results are mixed, problem-based learning may enhance skills like problem-solving but could slightly reduce performance on exams.
Differentiation in the senior mathematics classroomrouwejan
The document discusses differentiation in the senior mathematics classroom. It explores using differentiation techniques, such as flexible grouping and varied tasks, to improve student achievement. The author found that differentiation created opportunities for both low and high achievers by providing instruction tailored to different learning levels. When the class was split into ability-based groups, student engagement and achievement increased, especially for lower-ability students. This reinforced the importance of delivering material at varied levels and incorporating differentiation principles.
This document discusses the importance of opening up classroom discourse to promote active, collaborative student learning. It argues that high-quality classroom discussions where teachers use open-ended questions and feedback to build on student responses provides a better learning environment. The document provides examples of question and feedback techniques teachers can use, and analyzes a transcript of a seminar discussion to illustrate these techniques in action. It concludes that teachers need to be aware of the role classroom talk plays in learning, and should work on using a variety of questioning and feedback strategies to encourage collaborative discussions between teachers and students.
This document discusses different teaching approaches used in mathematics education, including cooperative learning, problem-based learning, and case studies. Cooperative learning involves students working in small groups to achieve common goals, emphasizing positive interdependence, interaction, individual accountability, collaborative skills, and group processing. Problem-based learning frames instruction around non-routine problems that require students to discover new knowledge to solve. Case studies present real-world situations for students to analyze and resolve, applying theoretical concepts. These active learning strategies encourage students to directly engage with course content.
This document provides information about action research, including definitions, purposes, and the process. It defines action research as a systematic inquiry conducted by participants to solve practical problems and improve their practices. The key aspects of action research outlined are the reflective spiral process of planning, acting, observing, and reflecting. Engaging in action research can help improve teaching practices, empower teachers as agents of change, and promote a culture of inquiry in schools. The document also compares action research to basic research and provides examples of research questions and sampling methods.
The document summarizes the mastery learning model of teaching. It defines mastery learning as an approach that helps students attain satisfactory performance in school subjects by breaking content into discrete units and requiring demonstration of mastery of one unit before advancing to the next. The key elements of the mastery learning model include planning for mastery, teaching for mastery, formative evaluation, providing remediation, and summative evaluation to assess mastery across units. Benefits include helping students identify their strengths and weaknesses, individualizing instruction, and reducing variation in achievement levels.
This document discusses a study on how agriculture teachers in Botswana use questioning techniques in their classrooms. The study observed 4 agriculture teachers over 80 minutes each to analyze their use of prompting, probing, redirection, and wait time. Interviews were also conducted to understand why teachers question students in certain ways. The results showed that teachers did not rephrase questions adequately, did not use follow up probes well, and applied a less strict form of redirection. However, teachers redirected questions effectively and allowed sufficient wait time. The study aims to provide insights to improve teacher training and support effective questioning practices in classrooms.
This document summarizes a research study conducted on the collocation ability of Grade 6 pupils at Caloocan North Elementary School in the Philippines. The study aimed to determine the pupils' ability to use collocations correctly based on Bloom's three domains of learning: cognitive, affective, and psychomotor. A test was administered to 30 Grade 6 pupils to analyze their collocation errors and identify which domain of learning yielded the highest percentage of correct responses. The results showed issues with the pupils' collocation abilities. The researcher proposed incorporating classroom exercises and discussions to help students develop their awareness and knowledge of collocations.
The article examines the flawed approach of the "hand-off" method of disseminating educational innovations. It presents two case studies: (1) Ted, a professor who designed an active learning chemistry course that was highly effective, and (2) Peter, Ted's colleague who adapted Ted's course design. While Ted was successful, Peter experienced problems adapting the course and achieving the same outcomes. The article concludes that for successful dissemination, adapting faculty should choose innovations aligned with their goals, experiment gradually with support, not just replicate another's approach.
Atividades de Geografia para alunos portadores de necessidades especiais do 8...Camila Brito
1) The document summarizes a literature review on learning theories and how teaching technologies support different methodologies. It analyzes a case study of geography classes in Brazil that used online and classroom activities.
2) A flipped classroom approach based on constructivism had students analyze local news individually before class. In class, a mind map activity based on cognitive theory allowed collective discussion of different student perspectives.
3) Students then made topographic maps in groups, addressing multiple intelligences. A gamification activity at the end used behaviorist principles with rewards to motivate students.
4) The teaching practice aimed to give students autonomy while meeting curriculum through problem-based learning. Technologies allow diverse materials but internet access lack poses challenges
This research paper investigated teachers' attitudes toward the communicative language teaching approach through surveys and interviews. The study found that although teachers generally expressed positive attitudes toward communication approach principles in the surveys, observations of their classroom teaching showed they did not fully implement those principles and instead took an eclectic approach. Interviews revealed teachers had misunderstandings or misinterpretations of key communication approach concepts. The study concluded that teacher training is needed to help overcome discrepancies between teachers' expressed attitudes and actual classroom practices regarding new language teaching approaches.
This study examined the use of heuristic problem-solving strategies among 578 seventh-grade students under three conditions: individual work, small groups, and cooperative teams. The study found no significant differences in outcomes between the three conditions, but all three outperformed a control group. Thus, heuristic strategies may be effective across different instructional methods.
Assessing the Assessment: An Evaluation of a Self-Assessment of Class Partici...Eddy White, Ph.D.
Recently published online in the Asian EFL Journal (September, 2009), this article is part of my doctoral research into assessment for learning (AfL) in an EFL/ESL context with adult learners.
1) The document discusses several empirical studies on formative assessment and how it can improve student achievement when integrated into teaching.
2) One study from 1992 found that frequent testing led to better results for students taught by inexperienced teachers. However, the study had limitations as it only involved two teachers.
3) Other research emphasized the importance of using assessment to diagnose student learning difficulties and provide feedback to support learning improvements.
The document outlines plans to consolidate four key IT infrastructure services across the Commonwealth by December 2010. These include: data/telecommunications networks, data center services, website hosting and portal services, and email and directory services. The goals are to standardize resources, increase efficiencies, and improve security by moving from decentralized agency-level systems to a consolidated "network of networks" and two enterprise data centers governed at the Commonwealth level.
1) O tipo de trajetória de uma partícula sob força constante depende da orientação da velocidade inicial e força resultante. Se estiverem na mesma direção, a trajetória é retilínea, senão é curvilínea.
2) Uma bola em queda livre cai com movimento retilíneo uniformemente acelerado.
3) O movimento de um projétil é um caso particular de movimento sob força constante, quando a resistência do ar é desprezível.
Este documento presenta una ficha de práctica de laboratorio sobre soluciones. El objetivo es reforzar conceptos sobre soluciones como soluto, solvente, molaridad y porcentajes. El procedimiento incluye preparar una solución de cloruro de sodio al 5% y 0.1N, y alcohol al 20%. Se explican términos como dilución, isotónico y osmolar.
This document provides information about Aegean Hills, an exclusive luxury villa development located on the Bodrum Peninsula in Turkey. Some key details include:
- Aegean Hills consists of 34 award-winning villas nestled into the natural landscape, each with private pools and gardens.
- The development has won several awards and is considered a landmark in Turkey, providing a stylish haven with luxury amenities amid natural beauty.
- It is situated in the town of Yalıkavak on the northwest coast of the Bodrum Peninsula, known for its beaches, sailing, diving and upscale restaurants.
Dokumen tersebut membahasakan pengurusan tatatertib dalam perkhidmatan awam di Malaysia. Ia menjelaskan peraturan-peraturan yang perlu dipatuhi oleh pegawai awam termasuk memberikan taat setia kepada negara, tidak mencampuradukkan kepentingan peribadi dengan tugas rasmi, serta tidak melakukan perkara yang memburukkan nama baik perkhidmatan awam. Dokumen tersebut juga memberikan contoh pelanggaran peraturan dan
Not Just Gifted on Thursdays: Increasing Differentiation through Collaborativ...Liz Fogarty
This document provides information about co-teaching strategies that can be used to increase differentiation in the classroom. It defines co-teaching as two or more teachers sharing responsibility for planning, instruction, and assessment. The document outlines seven co-teaching strategies (one teach/one observe, one teach/one assist, station teaching, parallel teaching, supplemental teaching, alternative teaching, and team teaching) and provides examples and advantages of each. It also discusses benefits of co-teaching for students including increased engagement and individual attention.
The document summarizes a study that compared three learning conditions: conventional instruction, mastery learning, and one-on-one tutoring. It found that tutoring had the strongest results, with average students scoring two standard deviations above conventionally taught students. Mastery learning also improved results, with average students one standard deviation above conventional students. The document discusses various ways to improve group instruction so that more students can achieve higher levels typically only seen with tutoring.
1) The study examined the effectiveness of differentiated instruction in teaching English to Grade 4 students. Two classes were taught the same lessons for one week, with one class (the experimental group) receiving differentiated instruction and the other (the control group) receiving traditional single-style teaching.
2) Pre-test results showed that both groups had similar performance and heterogeneity in abilities. Post-test results showed that the experimental group taught with differentiated instruction performed significantly better than the control group.
3) Analysis of pre-test and post-test results found that more students in the experimental group improved to the above average classification compared to the control group. Differentiated instruction was found to more effectively address the diverse needs of students.
Approaches to Lesson Plan by Syeda Maham Asrar Lahore PakistanKashif Bukhari
The document discusses different approaches to lesson planning. It describes the Herbartian approach which involves 5 steps: introduction/motivation, presentation, comparison/association, generalization, application, and recapitulation. It also discusses Morrison's approach involving exploration, presentation, assimilation, organization, and recitation. Finally, it covers Bloom's approach which emphasizes formulating objectives, creating learning experiences, and evaluating behavioral changes. The document provides an overview of different frameworks for developing and structuring lesson plans.
This document provides information on interventions for struggling readers in upper elementary through high school. It finds that the most effective interventions target more than one area and involve reciprocal teaching. Reciprocal teaching involves students taking turns leading discussions about text using strategies like questioning, clarifying, predicting, and summarizing. Using this strategy has yielded comprehension growth for both struggling and non-struggling readers. The document also discusses accommodations, modifications, co-teaching, and resources for implementing interventions like graphic organizers, audio texts, and the Kansas Learning Strategies model.
Approaches To Assessment In CLIL Classrooms Two Case StudiesJoaquin Hamad
This document discusses two case studies that examine approaches to assessment in Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) classrooms. The first case study describes an approach using learning-oriented assessment that requires more engagement from learners and involves them in self-assessment and peer assessment. The second case study examines an approach using Dynamic Assessment where learners collaborate on projects and are responsible for self-assessment and peer assessment. Both aim to develop learner autonomy and collaboration skills through involvement in the assessment process. The document provides theoretical background on assessment, learner involvement, Dynamic Assessment, and good feedback practices to frame the case studies.
This study examined the effects of peer teaching on students' performance in mathematics. It involved two groups of college freshmen - an experimental group that received peer teaching and a control group that did not.
In Phase I, both groups took a pre-test on fundamental math operations. The experimental group was then divided into small groups led by top students acting as "little professors." After two weeks of peer teaching, both groups took a post-test.
In Phase II, both groups were tested on College Algebra during midterms and finals. The study aimed to determine if peer teaching improved the experimental group's math foundations and performance compared to the control group.
The researcher hypothesized that peer teaching would lead to significant
Angela peterson mastery learning final projectapeterson2011
Mastery learning is an instructional strategy that aims for all students to achieve lesson objectives with appropriate instruction and time. It combines tutoring and individualized instruction in a group format. The concept was introduced by John Carroll and fully developed by Benjamin Bloom, who found that nearly all students are capable of learning the same material to the same level of difficulty given sufficient time and quality instruction. Mastery learning involves formative assessments, individualized instruction, and ensuring students master basic material before moving to new topics through a cycle of review, instruction, practice, and feedback.
The document discusses classroom research, which involves teachers investigating what happens in their own classrooms. It defines classroom research as a tool for teachers to observe their classes and find what works best through case studies, interviews, and questionnaires. The goals of classroom research are to remedy problems, provide in-service training, and introduce new teaching approaches. Teachers play a key role by identifying issues, diagnosing problems, implementing solutions, and evaluating outcomes. Classroom research is significant because it aims to improve teaching and learning by addressing specific classroom problems and empowering teachers as agents of change.
This document discusses what makes an effective teacher. It begins by outlining the objectives of becoming an effective teacher and identifying their qualities. It then examines several definitions of an effective teacher, noting they must concern student learning outcomes and set up a good learning environment. Research identifies five important attributes for effective teaching: personality and will; intelligence; sympathy and tact; open-mindedness; and a sense of humor. To be effective, a teacher must teach to different learning styles, make connections between topics, teach in cycles with review, and focus on good teaching techniques rather than exhausting themselves.
This document discusses three hypotheses related to improving student learning:
1. Teachers who create a positive learning environment will positively impact student learning. A positive environment includes both physical (seating arrangements) and social elements.
2. Students who are more motivated will learn better. Intrinsic motivation leads to better outcomes than extrinsic motivation. Teachers can help develop student intrinsic motivation.
3. Learners learn best when teaching and learning styles are congruent. However, research findings are mixed and it is better for teachers to address a variety of styles through active learning.
The document analyzes each hypothesis, provides relevant research, and suggests recommendations for the teacher in the scenario to improve student learning based on the hypotheses
The inquiring teacher: Clarifying the concept of ‘teaching effectiveness’Richard Lloyd
The document discusses three views of teaching effectiveness: the style view, outcomes view, and inquiry view. It argues that the inquiry view offers the most valid conceptualization. The style view focuses on teacher actions but fails to consider student outcomes. The outcomes view determines effectiveness solely by student achievement but diminishes the role of other factors. The inquiry view sees teaching effectiveness as the relationship between actions and outcomes, using an ongoing cycle of questioning, evidence collection, and identifying possibilities for improvement based on various sources of knowledge.
This document provides an overview of the mastery learning model, which originated from the work of John B. Carrol and B.S. Bloom. The model aims for 100% of students to achieve mastery of content by providing sufficient time and individualized instruction. It involves dividing content into units, assessing student learning through formative tests, and providing remediation until mastery is achieved. The teacher takes an active role in planning instruction, diagnosing difficulties, and ensuring all students reach the objectives. The model requires flexibility in scheduling and extra support materials to accommodate individual pacing until mastery is demonstrated.
Measurement and evaluation are essential in education to determine if students are learning and progressing. Without assessing students' knowledge and abilities through tests, assignments, and evaluations, teachers do not know what students understand, where they struggle, and what their needs are. Evaluation identifies students' strengths and weaknesses so teachers can enhance areas of strength and provide remediation for difficulties. It also allows teachers, administrators, parents and students themselves to monitor growth and progress towards educational objectives. Overall, regular measurement and evaluation are necessary for effective teaching and learning.
Measurement and evaluation are essential in education to determine if students are learning and progressing. Without assessing students' knowledge and abilities through tests, assignments, and evaluations, teachers do not know what students understand, where they struggle, and what their needs are. Evaluation identifies students' strengths and weaknesses so teachers can enhance their skills or provide remediation where needed. It also motivates students by showing them their progress and encourages them to work harder. Overall, measurement and evaluation are critical tools for teachers, schools, parents, and administrators to effectively guide teaching and learning.
Constructivism is a teaching method based on the theory that learning occurs as learners construct meaning based on their previous experiences and interactions. Some key aspects of the constructivist teaching method include:
- Learners construct their own understanding and knowledge through experiences and reflecting on those experiences. The teacher's role is to guide and facilitate learning rather than directly teach facts.
- Learning occurs through hands-on activities rather than lectures and memorization. Students are actively engaged in problem solving activities.
- Collaboration and social interaction are emphasized as students share ideas and knowledge with peers.
- Students are assessed formatively based on their understanding rather than exclusively on tests. Teachers provide feedback to help students further develop concepts.
The document discusses research on the benefits of cooperative learning in classrooms. It finds that when students work in groups, they are more motivated, feel greater social cohesion, can personalize learning by addressing difficulties with peers, and think through ideas more cognitively. Two key elements for effective cooperative learning are establishing group goals and ensuring individual accountability. The document also provides examples of techniques teachers can use to implement cooperative learning, such as peer evaluation of homework, student reporters, and assigning students to help peers who have not learned the material.
the quality of learning or teaching is examined by degree of learning excellence. style of learning is different at different stages of life. This model deals with how the learer will acheave mastery but in this key role is played by the teacher i.e. the teaching style and the instructions. here the model is explained with different researches conducted.
3. Teacher's Guide to Differentiate InstructionsSunflower Chin
Differentiated instruction is an approach that assumes there is diversity among learners and aims to reach all students by using various teaching methods tailored to students' readiness levels, interests, and learning profiles. It involves modifying instruction, materials, student tasks, and assessments to address the needs of individual students. Effective differentiation requires teachers to understand the content, assess student knowledge and skills, and design interrelated activities at varying levels of difficulty using multiple materials and processes to help students master challenging content. While differentiation takes effort, it can help ensure equity in learning for all students when combined with other effective teaching practices.
This document discusses strategies for facilitating learner-centered teaching. It explores equipping pre-service teachers with fundamental principles of learner-centered education and differentiated instruction to meet students' diverse needs and backgrounds. The objectives are to train teachers to implement responsive teaching strategies and demonstrate knowledge of differentiating instruction. Various tactics for learner-centered classrooms are presented, such as asking questions instead of telling, focusing on students' experiences, promoting active learning, and giving students choices in their learning.
1. Michael Wood (EH4102 – Assignment 1)
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Teaching Large Groups: Revisiting Bloom’s 2-Sigma Problem
Part 1 - What keeps me awake at night?
I remember a presentation at the 2007 ALT Conference in Nottingham delivered by Dr Peter Norvig, the
Director of Research at Google. Norvig captured my attention as he discussed the problems faced when
teaching large groups and, in particular, the 2-Sigma Problem (see Bloom, 1984). Norvig showed the
following painting1
which sums up life in a lecture theatre.
The painting is circa 1530 and shows that little has changed during the last 500 years. A lecturer is
speaking to a group of students. One student can clearly be seen to be asleep; others are talking
amongst themselves; some are paying attention. Why Universities continue to teach large groups in
lecture theatres is another question but how could I efficiently and successfully teach large groups, thus
solving the 2-Sigma Problem?
How do I know that learning has taken place? How do I know that the students are listening? If students
are listening do they understand what I am talking about? As someone who has seen life in a lecture
theatre, both as a student and as a lecturer, I am interested in the answers to these questions. Is good
1
“Liber ethicorum des Henricus de Alemannia, Einzelblatt, Szene: Henricus de Alemannia vor seinen Schülern” by
Laurentius de Voltolina (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Laurentius_de_Voltolina_001.jpg)
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teaching totally dependent on good teachers or is it possible to factor out the lecturer? I know from my
own experience how variable the standard of teaching is.
As a mature student I was totally focused and determined to work hard and do well. I remember many
times thinking some lectures added no value to my learning experience and having to self-learn.
As a lecturer / trainer I am keen on doing all I can to help students / delegates learn. People have chosen
to attend my sessions, not been forced or coerced to do so, and deserve to get fully recompensed for
their time and effort.
Part 2 - Summary of Bloom’s Original Paper
In 1984 Benjamin Bloom published a landmark paper entitled ‘The 2-Sigma Problem: The Search for
Methods of Group Instruction as Effective as One-to-One Tutoring’. The paper was a response to two
student dissertations 2
which compared student learning under three different instructional methods.
1: Conventional – Large groups of students were taught in a lecture theatre with regular tests
and assessments given to assess them. This traditional University model was the control method
in the study.
2: Mastery Learning 3
– Large groups of students were taught in a lecture theatre with regular
formative 4
tests and assessments. The testing was used to identify any topic difficulties which
were then re-taught and re-tested until the students had mastered the material. The students
could not move on to the next topic until they had demonstrated mastery of the current topic.
Mastery Learning requires more teacher involvement and time and is more expensive than
conventional teaching. Guskey (2007, p8) argues that, initially, Mastery Learning takes longer
but this time can be recovered as students learn the principles.
3: Tutoring – One-to-one student instruction was followed by formative assessment. Feedback
was given with remedial actions if required and simultaneous formative testing. Remedial work
is generally minor when students are tutored. Obviously this is expensive and not sustainable in
a University.
Students were randomly allocated to one of the three groups. The students were a homogenous group
with similar test scores, interests, attitudes and knowledge. The amount of teaching time was the same
in each group apart from the remedial work in the mastery learning and tutor groups. The study was
repeated with four groups of students at different ages and taking two different subjects.
2 See Anania (1982, 1983) and Burke (1984)
3 See Guskey (2005, 2007)
4 See Boston (2002)
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The results of the study highlighted the large variations in achievement amongst the three groups of
students. Using the standard deviation (sigma) 5
of the control group as a base it was found that the
average student taught in the tutoring group was approximately two standard deviations (2-sigma)
above the average student in the control group. In other words the average student in the tutored
group was above 98% of the students in the control group. Likewise the average student taught in the
mastery learning group was approximately one standard deviation (1-sigma) above the average student
in the control group. In other words the average student in the mastery learning group was above 84%
of the students in the control group.
An alternative interpretation is that 90% of the tutored students and 70% of the mastery learning
students reached a level of achievement only attained by the top 20% of the control group.
The study showed that most students have the potential to do well if they are tutored. Unfortunately
individual tutoring is not a viable solution, either practically or financially, to the problem of successfully
teaching large groups of students. This is the 2-sigma problem. Can educators come up with methods of
teaching large groups of students in such a way as to enable them to reach the levels currently only
attainable to students who are tutored?
Bloom began his search for solutions by looking at research which contrasted a number of educational
variables, both alterable and constant. Alterable variables included the quality of teaching, the use of
time by teachers and students, student ability at course entry, formative testing, learning rates and the
student’s home environment. Constant or static variables included the personal qualities of the
teachers, summative testing and the socio-economic status of the student’s family.
Many of these variables affect learning but not all necessarily in the same way or to the same degree.
Bloom tried to focus on the variables which had the most impact. The results tried to take into account
the gender and age of the students, the sample size, and so on. Bloom produced a table summarising
the effects of the key alterable educational variables in order of significance. It is a matter for debate
whether Bloom’s numbers are accurate but the principle is certainly valid. The ‘Alterable Variable’ table
on the following page is adapted from Bloom’s table which was itself adapted from work done by
Walberg (1984).
To explain the data in the table you can see that the first entry refers to instruction by a tutor. The effect
size is 2.00 (i.e. 2-sigma) and the percentage equivalent of 98% shows that a student who has been
tutored will do better than 98% of the students in the control group.
The table also indicated the change driver - in other words who or what changed. The options are the
student (S), teacher (T), course material (M), home environment (H), or student peers (P).
5 The standard deviation measures the spread of the data about the mean.
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Table 1: Alterable Variables
Change
Driver
Alterable Variable
Effect
Size
Percentage
Equivalent
T Tutorial Instruction 2.00 98
T Positive Reinforcement & Praise 1.20 88
S Feedback-Corrective (Mastery Learning) 1.00 84
T Teaching Cues and Explanations 1.00 84
S / T Student Classroom Participation 1.00 84
S Student time on task 1.00 84
S Improved reading / study skills 1.00 84
H Cooperative / Group Learning 0.80 79
T Graded Homework 0.80 79
T Classroom Morale 0.60 73
S Initial Cognitive Pre-Requisites 0.60 73
H Home Environment Intervention 0.50 69
P / T Peer and Cross-Age Remedial Tutoring 0.40 66
T Assigned Homework 0.30 62
T Higher Order Questions 0.30 62
M / T New Course Materials 0.30 62
T Teacher Expectancy 0.30 62
P Peer Group Influence 0.20 58
Socio-Economic Status (Static Variable for contrast) 0.25 60
Having obtained this data Bloom assumed that two or three variables, with a different change driver,
would be required to solve the 2-sigma problem. These variables, when implemented simultaneously,
could have a cumulative effect on the learning experience. For example, Mastery Learning, which has
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the biggest affect on the learner, and changes in the Teaching Process, which have the greatest affect
on the teacher, does have a cumulative effect. Bloom also recognised that variables with the same
change driver would probably not have a cumulative effect.
Bloom assumed that Mastery Learning would be one of the variables and systematically tried other
variables in combination. However Bloom could not solve the 2-sigma problem using mastery learning
combined with just one of the other variables.
Bloom suggested that students could improve, irrespective of the teacher, by developing good study
habits, improving their reading skills, and allocating more time to their studies.
Improving Student Cognition
Mastery Learning improves student cognition by its very nature. Students cannot proceed to the next
topic until they have ‘mastered’ the current topic. As previously stated the average student taught in
the Mastery Learning group was approximately one standard deviation (1-sigma) above the average
student in the control group even when both groups were taught by the same teacher using the same
course materials. The key feature is that the students, by mastering a topic, have the cognitive
prerequisites for the next learning task. This leads to improved student confidence and more active
learning time.
Leyton (1983) suggested enhancing the students’ initial cognitive entry prerequisites at the start of a
program of study. In effect, diagnostic testing with remedial work using the Mastery Learning process.
Students who undertook this prerequisite work performed better than the control class by 0.7 sigma.
Those students who were also taught using Mastery Learning enjoyed a cumulative improvement of 1.6
sigma over the control class. There were also qualitative student improvements including a greater
interest in, and a desire to learn, the subject.
Other studies have indicated that peer support and study groups provide student encouragement and
help and are beneficial and effective (Slavin, 1980). Special study programs aimed at improving reading,
writing and study skills enable students to learn more effectively. (Pflaum et al, 1980).
Improving Teaching Materials
Improvements in course textbooks may have a marginal effect of 0.3. The improvements mainly relate
to the organisation of the material, chapter summaries, learning aids, etc. This change should add to the
overall cumulative improvement and can easily be implemented by the tutor.
Bloom would have been unaware of the plethora of online Computer Based Tools that are now available
at little or no cost. Motivated or interested students could take advantage of this material to reinforce
their learning. There is no data to quantify the effect of online materials but I estimate a cumulative
effect of 0.5 if improved teaching materials AND online testing are used.
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Home Life and Peer Groups
A number of studies6
have found that a good home life, coupled with encouragement and support from
family and friends, can have a positive impact on student achievement. The opposite is also true.
The key factors (in 1984) included:-
• Family stability with good routines in the home.
• Priority being given to homework.
• Academic help, guidance and support from the parents.
Recent data7
paints a different picture of family life.
• There are many single parent families, often with the lone parent at work.
• Students have more distractions (and possessions) – computers, TV’s, Mobile Phones, etc. Some
students are often left alone with little or no interaction with their parent(s).
• Widening Participation can mean that some parents cannot offer academic help. Many parents
do not have sufficient knowledge to help their children having never been to University.
The issue is how the current home life can be changed, if necessary, for the benefit of the student. I do
not propose to deal with the home-life factors but the creation of a study and / or a peer support group
is easy to implement although the effect is marginal at 0.2 sigma.
Improving Teaching
Having observed many teachers in the classroom Bloom wrote that some students were treated
differently to other students by some teachers. Bloom surmised that some teachers:-
• direct their teaching to some students and ignore others
• encourage some students more than others
• encourage active participation from some students and discourage others
• give more time and attention to the best students
This means that some students get more / better opportunities to learn than other students.8
This could
account for the fact that only 20% of students in the control group do as well as tutored students
despite the fact that most students have the potential to do well. In effect the top 20% are actually
receiving a form of tutoring despite being in a large class situation.
Bloom stated that many teachers were simply unaware of these findings and felt that they treated all
students the same. Reflection by the teacher, or lack of it, is a key factor here. Bloom finishes his paper
by discussing a number of studies aimed at improving teaching standards.
6
See Dave (1963)
7
For example see Gallop (2005)
8
See Brophy & Good (1970)
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Part 3 - Post-Bloom Literature
There are few articles offering solutions to the 2-sigma problem but numerous articles concerning the
learning environment variables highlighted by Bloom have been written.
Teacher Education
Matthew (2003) wonders whether I should be concerned with being an excellent teacher or concentrate
on creating excellent learners? Korthagen (2004) asks two key questions concerning teachers:-
1. What are the essential qualities of a good teacher?
2. How can we help teachers to become good teachers?
Am I a good teacher? How do I know? Korthagen argues that there are no definitive answers to these
questions - the answers differ according to context.
The qualities of a good teacher are often listed as a series of competencies (Brown 2003). Matthew
(2003) stated that good teaching ‘encourages high quality student learning. It discourages the superficial
approach to learning and encourages active engagement with the subject matter.’ Does my teaching
fall in line with this definition?
The Minus 2-Sigma Problem
Vockell (1994) wrote that bad teaching can have a negative effect on student learning just as good
teaching can have a positive effect. He produced a table of negative teaching strategies and their
effects. The data is hypothetic but does make a point. The percentile column shows the score of a
student who would normally score 50%.
Table 2: Effects of Negative Teaching Strategies
Strategy Effect Size Percentile
No sensible teaching at all -2.00 2
No corrective feedback -1.00 16
Making students think only when it is their turn to answer -1.00 16
Promoting rote learning -0.80 22
Not making subject matter interesting -0.80 22
Discouraging higher order thinking -0.80 22
Giving punishments unrelated to offenses -0.60 30
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Constructive Alignment
The principle behind ‘Constructive Alignment’ (Biggs, 1999) is that “the curriculum is designed so that the
learning activities and assessment tasks are aligned with the learning outcomes that are intended in the
course.” (Houghton, 2004) In summary:-
1. Students construct meaning from what they do to learn.
2. The teacher aligns the planned learning activities with the learning outcomes.
Houghton (2004) states that there are 3 steps to 'Constructively Aligning' a course:
1. Define the learning outcomes.
2. Select learning and teaching activities likely to enable the students to attain the outcomes.
3. Assess the students' outcomes and grade the students learning.
Cohen (1987) pointed out that alignment is more important to lower aptitude students than to higher
aptitude students. When undertaking difficult aligned tasks lower aptitude students performed better
than higher aptitude students undertaking non-aligned tasks. This indicates that lower aptitude
students can successfully perform highly cognitive tasks when instruction is aligned.
Cohen concludes his paper by stating; “Teaching what we assess, or assessing what we teach seems
embarrassingly obvious. The fundamental issue is: What’s worth teaching? ... What’s worth assessing?”
Mastery Learning
Benjamin Bloom observed that teachers tended to teach all their students in the same way, giving them
all the same amount of time to learn (Guskey 2007, p10). Teachers did not appear to take account of the
different ways that students learned. Some students did well because the teaching methodology suited
them but many did less well as the teaching methods were inappropriate. Bloom went on to say that
teachers must vary their teaching methods to suit more individual students’ learning styles. The
challenge is how to do this in a large group setting so that all students learn well.
Bloom (1968) suggested that course materials should be grouped into instructional units and each unit
assessed at the end of the unit rather than at the end of the academic year. The classroom would be
used as a place to provide feedback on learning progress and guidance on how to correct learning
errors. The assessments become part of the learning process rather than an end-of-year scorecard.
Bloom recommended that students undertake a second, slightly different, formative assessment
following any corrective work. This would confirm whether any corrective work has been successful and
also, assuming students pass this second assessment, provides students with encouragement and
motivation.
Bloom also recognised that that some students do really well at the first assessment and do not require
corrective help. Bloom suggested that ‘special enrichment activities’ be provided to broaden the
knowledge of these students.
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Bloom believed that this methodology would provide the stimulus required to enable all students to
master course material and simultaneously reduce the variations in student learning achievement levels.
Class Sizes
Oestmann and Oestmann (2005) were interested in the relationship between (online) class sizes and
learning outcomes. This research looked at the effectiveness of online Social Network Tools, in
particular threaded discussion type tools. Vygotsky’s (1987) Socio-Cultural Cognitive Theory claims that
increased social interaction between students increases cognitive development. Therefore, larger
(online) classes lead to more threaded discussions which facilitate improved learning. The fact that this
research is based on online teaching is largely irrelevant. Glahn and Gen (2002, p777) state that “Online
teaching is not better than face-to-face teaching, nor is it worse. It is simply different.”
Course Design: Student Learning Outcomes (SLO’s)
SLO’s describe the knowledge, skills, abilities and attitudes that students will possess at the end of a
particular course/module/assignment etc. The key focus is on what students can do with their
knowledge. At the end of the course students should possess integrated, higher learning skills which
they can demonstrate to others.
Teachers have to identify the specific SLO’s for their program and then design assessments which give
students an opportunity to demonstrate what they have learned. These assessments will also provide
the evidence necessary for course evaluation.
The theory is that students perform better when they know what is expected of them and this includes
knowledge of how they will be assessed. This is known as transparency and the students should have
the opportunity to practice these skills before they are formally assessed.
Employing the SLO method integrates course activities with what the students are actually learning,
their outcomes, and their assessments leading to a balanced and focused course.
Part 4 – A Suggested Solution to the 2-Sigma Problem
We know the simplest answer to the 2-Sigma Problem but we cannot afford it. As one-to-one tutoring is
not a realistic option one possible route that lecturers could implement is my proposed 6-Stage Model.
This Model alters at least 6 key variables with 4 different change drivers. I conservatively estimate that
fully implementing all six of these changes will have a cumulative effect in excess of 2-Sigma and
therefore ‘solve’ the 2-Sigma problem.
Having previously outlined Bloom’s original 2-sigma paper and then looked at the literature concerning
the alterable variables highlighted by Bloom the next question is ‘how do I apply this knowledge to my
own working practices?’
My problem is that I don’t personally teach a full module or course. However, I can apply this knowledge
vicariously as I am involved in course development and resource creation for other lecturers. I do teach
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occasionally and facilitate a variety of workshops and I can thus apply my findings to those sessions that
I do teach.
One of the key issues concerns resources. James, McInnis and Devlin (2002, p31) addressed the
challenges and solutions faced by teachers of large groups. Reducing workload is a key factor but many
of the 6-stages require an initial investment of time and potentially have cost implications. Creating
these resources should reduce marking time in the long run and produce consistency in the marking
process, especially when multiple markers are used.
My suggested solution to the 2-sigma problem is underpinned by Race (2006) who highlighted five
factors which are needed to optimise learning:
1. We can try to get our learners to want to learn.
2. We can help them learners the point, and take ownership of the need to learn.
3. We can keep learners busy, learning by doing, practice, trial and error, repetition.
4. We can help learners to make sense of what they are learning…
5. …particularly by making sure that learners get feedback on what they are doing and thinking.
Table 3: 6-Stage Solution to the 2-Sigma Problem
The ‘Change Driver’ options are the student (S), teacher (T), course material (M), or student peers (P).
Stage
Change
Driver
Alterable Variable
Estimated
Effect Size
1 S Initial Cognitive Pre-Requisites
0.60
2 S Improved reading / study skills
3 M / T
New Course Materials
0.80New Online Materials
(Auto) Graded Homework
4 S / T Feedback-Corrective (Mastery Learning)
1.00
5 S / T Student Classroom Participation
6 P Peer Tutoring/Support using Social Network Tools 0.40
Estimated Cumulative Effect 2.80
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For lecturers who want to implement this model there are many free online resources available which
can simply be ‘dropped’ into their course. Of course some resources will need to be created but these
resources could also potentially be free of charge if the lecturer chooses to seek help from centrally
available technical staff such as myself in the Learning Development Unit.
Time is always an issue but the long-term saving needs to be kept in mind and the lecturer may need to
‘bite the bullet’. I also believe that implementing this model can have positive effects on student
satisfaction and retention which, from a personal point of view, are unlikely to harm future job
prospects or security.
Stage 1 - Initial Cognitive Pre-Requisites
I suggest the use of QuestionMark Perception to provide diagnostic testing of the initial cognitive entry
prerequisites. The School of Built & Natural Environment at UCLan has successfully implemented this
strategy for students enrolled on different modules. Students undertook diagnostic Mathematics and
English tests and the majority of students passed both tests. For students who failed the School
arranged for ‘futures’9
to provide compulsory remedial help.10
Stage 2 - Improved reading / study skills
Lecturers should include special workshops which improve reading, writing and study skills such as those
provided by WISER11
. WISER facilitate a variety of workshops, one-to-one tutorials and bespoke
workshops for students.
It makes sense to take advantage of this type of expertise. I would envisage offering bespoke workshops
during the first few tutorial sessions or organize a specific ‘study skills development day’ for students.
The effect of implementing the first two stages is conservatively set at 0.60 as the students are seen to
be the main change driver in both stages. I see this as giving the students a massive confidence boost in
the early stages of their study program as well as providing them with a variety of transferable key skills.
Stage 3 – New Course & Online Materials and (Auto) Graded Homework
Lecturers should spend some time identifying good (or better) course materials and online resources
and then create resources to fill any gaps. Although this can be time consuming the benefits (0.80
sigma) are well worth the time outlay. Research shows that two thirds of academics do not take
advantage of this opportunity.
A recent ‘Digitally Enhanced Survey’12
highlighted the fact that approximately one third of respondents13
have no online assessment activities although they have made basic course information available online.
9
https://staff.uclan.ac.uk/12998.htm
10
Futures have also development of a series of psychometric tests to help with employability.
11
http://www.uclan.ac.uk/information/services/wiser/index.php
12
Undertaken by P Mahoney & M Wood, Learning Development Unit, UCLan, Summer 2010 (Data unpublished)
13
110 Course leaders completed the survey out of a possible 400+ who were invited.
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Another third said that they have some simple basic online activities such as the WebCT Assessment
Tool. The final third claimed to have significant online activities which the students must complete to
pass the module. This would include wikis, blogs, audio, video, and other interactive tools.
Using Questionmark Perception it is relatively easy to add graded (0.30 sigma) or auto-graded (0.80
sigma) homework assignments. I have not added the benefits of adding graded homework to the
cumulative score for this stage but expect empirical evidence to be forthcoming shortly as I am applying
this stage to a CEPS14
Statistics module which has a failure rate in excess of 50%.
Specifically I have, in partnership with a lecturer, created a bank of questions for each of eight topics.
Ten questions are randomly selected from the bank by Questionmark Perception and students are
tested online. Feedback for each wrong answer directs students to a PDF and a Video. Those students
who fail the test, having looked at the feedback resources, are then directed to a second quiz in line with
Bloom’s previously mentioned recommendations. The second quiz randomly selects another ten
questions from the bank. It is worth noting that each student is provided with a different random
selection of questions to prevent copying / cheating.
Stage 4 - Feedback-Corrective (Mastery Learning)
Lecturers should create corrective resources for each learning concept within an assessment. Students
only need to work on those skills which they haven’t mastered. The corrective resources can range from
something as simple as a web link, or a reference in a text book, to a DVD, video, or computerized
course. Other resources may include study guides, group / peer activities and so on. This is de facto
individual learning because each student knows what he or she needs to do to obtain the requisite skills
in a particular unit. This method also allows teachers to vary how they present material, thus appealing
to a variety of student learning styles.
The previously mentions CEPS Statistics module fits in perfectly with this stage. This also highlights how
resources can be used for multiple purposes within a course.
I need to create some additional resources for my Turnitin training course to reinforce the correct way
to interpret reports, particularly in the case of collusion.
Stage 5 - Student Classroom Participation
Microsoft Mouse Mischief15
or IML QuestionWizard16
are two excellent examples of technology which
the lecturer can use to promote active participation / learning and deliver lecture based formative
testing in the classroom.
14
Computing, Engineering & Physical Sciences – MS1063 Statistics
15
http://www.microsoft.com/uk/multipoint/mouse-mischief/default.aspx
16
http://www.iml.co.uk/default.asp
13. Michael Wood (EH4102 – Assignment 1)
13
Mouse Mischief integrates with PowerPoint enabling you to insert questions, polls and activity slides
directly into your presentations. Each student has their own mouse meaning they can actively
participate in the lessons. Students click, circle, cross out or draw answers directly on to the screen.
Question Wizard is a Student Interactive Response System (SIRS) enabling staff to:-
• Encourage group discussion
• Obtain simultaneous feedback / responses from a group
• Record and immediately display group feedback
• Actively engage every participant
• Combine real-time assessment, dynamic presentation options, and enjoyable learning activities.
Lecturers can use these technologies to ask effective revision questions before the lecture (for example,
to ascertain if mastery learning of prior topics has taken place) AND ask questions or create scenarios
during the lecture to check understanding of the new topic.
SIRS has been available for many years at UCLan but I need to promote it, and use it, much more than I
currently do. My experience with SIRS is very positive, staff and students universally enjoy using this
type of technology and it can be used to facilitate different student learning styles.
Stage 6 - Peer Tutoring/Support using Social Network Tools
Vygotsky’s research suggests that lecturers should at least consider Social Network Tools but at least
two thirds of lecturers do not use them. These tools focus on building up social networks and/or social
relations among people who share interests and activities. Facebook17
, Bebo18
and Twitter19
are popular
tools and most Virtual Learning Environments include a (threaded) discussion tool. There is no shortage
of tools available for lecturers to choose from.
A blog, such as Wordpress20
, can be used to enable students to share problems, ask for help, and pass
on news and other success stories. Posts are rather like diary entries and other students can comment
and offer help and support.
Lecturers can easily use one or more of these tools. Setup is really quick and relatively easy; the majority
of students are already using these types of tools so minimal student support is required. The potential
benefit of 0.4 sigma should encourage lecturers to at least try these tools but the best way to use these
tools is a subject of further research. 21
17
http://www.facebook.com
18
http://www.bebo.com
19
http://twitter.com
20
http://wordpress.org
21
See Alexander (2008)
14. Michael Wood (EH4102 – Assignment 1)
14
Again, I should definitely add the WebCT discussion tool to my Turnitin and Website Marketing training
courses.
Assessment
Having made all these changes I need to be able to measure student learning and achievement. Having
defined SLO’s for my courses / programmes I need to assess whether my students have achieved their
SLO’s, see if I have met my own targets, and provide evidence based data to back up my claims.
I have therefore developed a whole pack of assessment resources including question and assessment
templates, assessment evaluation forms, anti-plagiarism strategies and a ‘high level ’mind map of the
topic.
If the learning process is sound and student learning can be assessed and proven, a strong argument can
be made that my 6-stage process is indeed a solution to the 2-sigma problem.
Part 5 – Personal Reflection
If I was to become a lecturer in the future this is the model I would follow when developing my own
course material.
I have to say that I have been quite stressed at times with the whole process of producing this report. I
find academic writing to be difficult and tend to read far too much. The first draft of this report was
more than 9000 words and severe editing has been undertaken.
An increase in my workload limits my time to reflect on academic matters and implement changes
highlighted by my research. Which of the plethora of models, plans, and ideas should I implement?
Assuming I want to implement them all, which do I implement first?
I feel that, for the first time, I have really researched a topic thoroughly and been able to create a
structured, flowing narrative with a cohesive plan of action which others could follow.
Even though I have been stressed I have thoroughly enjoyed the process and have learned lots of things.
I feel that should I, or anyone else, implement my 6-stage plan students would be given an excellent
chance to fulfil their potential - they will have improved by a minimum of 2-sigma.
15. Michael Wood (EH4102 – Assignment 1)
15
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