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2800-lecture8-memeory-management in operating system.pdf
1.
8.1 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Chapter 8: Memory Management
2.
8.2 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Chapter 8: Memory Management n Background n Swapping n Contiguous Memory Allocation n Paging n Structure of the Page Table n Segmentation n Example: The Intel Pentium
3.
8.3 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Objectives n To provide a detailed description of various ways of organizing memory hardware n To discuss various memory-management techniques, including paging and segmentation n To provide a detailed description of the Intel Pentium, which supports both pure segmentation and segmentation with paging
4.
8.4 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Background n Program must be brought (from disk) into memory and placed within a process for it to be run n Main memory and registers are only storage CPU can access directly n Register access in one CPU clock (or less) n Main memory can take many cycles n Cache sits between main memory and CPU registers n Protection of memory required to ensure correct operation
5.
8.5 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Base and Limit Registers n A pair of base and limit registers define the logical address space
6.
8.6 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Binding of Instructions and Data to Memory n Address binding of instructions and data to memory addresses can happen at three different stages l Compile time: If memory location known a priori, absolute code can be generated; must recompile code if starting location changes l Load time: Must generate relocatable code if memory location is not known at compile time l Execution time: Binding delayed until run time if the process can be moved during its execution from one memory segment to another. Need hardware support for address maps (e.g., base and limit registers)
7.
8.7 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Logical vs. Physical Address Space n The concept of a logical address space that is bound to a separate physical address space is central to proper memory management l Logical address – generated by the CPU; also referred to as virtual address l Physical address – address seen by the memory unit n Logical and physical addresses are the same in compile-time and load-time address-binding schemes; logical (virtual) and physical addresses differ in execution-time address-binding scheme
8.
8.8 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Memory-Management Unit (MMU) n Hardware device that maps virtual to physical address n In MMU scheme, the value in the relocation register is added to every address generated by a user process at the time it is sent to memory n The user program deals with logical addresses; it never sees the real physical addresses Dynamic relocation using a relocation register
9.
8.9 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Dynamic Loading n Routine is not loaded until it is called n Better memory-space utilization; unused routine is never loaded n Useful when large amounts of code are needed to handle infrequently occurring cases, such as error routines. n No special support from the operating system is required implemented through program design
10.
8.10 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Dynamic Linking n Linking postponed until execution time n Small piece of code, stub, used to locate the appropriate memory-resident library routine n Stub replaces itself with the address of the routine, and executes the routine n Operating system needed to check if routine is in processes’ memory address n Dynamic linking is particularly useful for libraries n System also known as shared libraries
11.
8.11 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Swapping n A process can be swapped temporarily out of memory to a backing store, and then brought back into memory for continued execution n Backing store – fast disk large enough to accommodate copies of all memory images for all users; must provide direct access to these memory images n Roll out, roll in – swapping variant used for priority-based scheduling algorithms; lower-priority process is swapped out so higher-priority process can be loaded and executed
12.
8.12 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Swapping n Major part of swap time is transfer time; total transfer time is directly proportional to the amount of memory swapped n Modified versions of swapping are found on many systems (i.e., UNIX, Linux, and Windows) n System maintains a ready queue of ready- to-run processes which have memory images on disk
13.
8.13 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Schematic View of Swapping
14.
8.14 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Example: Assume a user process is 100 MB in size and the backing store is a standard hard disk with a transfer rate of 50 MB per second. The actual transfer of the 100 MB process to or from main memory takes 100MB/50MB per second = 2 seconds. Assuming a average latency of 8 milliseconds, the swap time is 2,008 milliseconds. Total time is 4,016 milliseconds.
15.
8.15 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Contiguous Allocation n Main memory usually into two partitions: l Resident operating system, usually held in low memory with interrupt vector l User processes then held in high memory l Each process is contained in a single contiguous section of memory n Relocation registers used to protect user processes from each other, and from changing operating-system code and data l Base register contains value of smallest physical address l Limit register contains range of logical addresses – each logical address must be less than the limit register l MMU maps logical address dynamically
16.
8.16 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Hardware Support for Relocation and Limit Registers Relocation register contains the value of the smallest physical address; the limit register contains the range of logical addresses.
17.
8.17 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Contiguous Allocation (Cont) n Multiple-partition allocation l Hole – block of available memory; holes of various size are scattered throughout memory l When a process arrives, it is allocated memory from a hole large enough to accommodate it l Operating system maintains information about: a) allocated partitions b) free partitions (hole) OS process 5 process 8 process 2 OS process 5 process 2 OS process 5 process 2 OS process 5 process 9 process 2 process 9 process 10
18.
8.18 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Dynamic Storage-Allocation Problem n First-fit: Allocate the first hole that is big enough n Best-fit: Allocate the smallest hole that is big enough; must search entire list, unless ordered by size l Produces the smallest leftover hole n Worst-fit: Allocate the largest hole; must also search entire list l Produces the largest leftover hole How to satisfy a request of size n from a list of free holes First-fit and best-fit better than worst-fit in terms of speed and storage utilization
19.
8.19 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Fragmentation n As processes are loaded and removed from memory, the free memory space is broken into little pieces. n External Fragmentation – total memory space exists to satisfy a request, but it is not contiguous n Statistical analysis of first fit reveals that even with some optimization, given N allocated blocks, another 0.5 N blocks will be lost to fragmentation. n One-third of memory may be unusable!. 50- percent rule.
20.
8.20 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Fragmentation n If we have a hole of 18,464 bytes, and a process request 18,462 bytes. n If we allocate exactly the requested block, we are left with a hole of 2 bytes n Tracking of this hole will be substantially larger than the hole itself. n Approach is to break the physical memory into fixed- sized blocks and allocate memory in units based on block size. n Internal Fragmentation – allocated memory may be slightly larger than requested memory; this size difference is memory internal to a partition, but not being used
21.
8.21 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Fragmentation (cond.) n Reduce external fragmentation by compaction l Shuffle memory contents to place all free memory together in one large block l Compaction is possible only if relocation is dynamic, and is done at execution time l Expensive
22.
8.22 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Paging n Logical address space of a process can be noncontiguous; process is allocated physical memory whenever the latter is available n Divide physical memory into fixed-sized blocks called frames (size is power of 2, between 512 bytes and 8,192 bytes) n Divide logical memory into blocks of same size called pages
23.
8.23 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Paging (cond.) n Keep track of all free frames n To run a program of size n pages, need to find n free frames and load program n Set up a page table to translate logical to physical addresses n Internal fragmentation
24.
8.24 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Address Translation Scheme n Address generated by CPU is divided into: l Page number (p) – used as an index into a page table which contains base address of each page in physical memory l Page offset (d) – combined with base address to define the physical memory address that is sent to the memory unit l For given logical address space 2m and page size 2n page number page offset p d m - n n
25.
8.25 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Paging Hardware p: page number f: base address d: offset
26.
8.26 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Paging Model of Logical and Physical Memory
27.
8.27 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Paging Example Physical memory: 32 bytes, 8 pages, (2^4) Page size: 4 bytes, 2^2 Physical address = base * page size + offset Logical address 0 à physical address (5 * 4 + 0); Logical address 3 à physical address (5 * 4 + 3); Logical address 4? 13?
28.
8.28 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Free Frames Before allocation After allocation
29.
8.29 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Implementation of Page Table n Page table is kept in main memory n Page-table base register (PTBR) points to the page table n Page-table length register (PRLR) indicates size of the page table n In this scheme every data/instruction access requires two memory accesses. One for the page table and one for the data/instruction. n The two memory access problem can be solved by the use of a special fast-lookup hardware cache called associative memory or translation look-aside buffers (TLBs) n Some TLBs store address-space identifiers (ASIDs) in each TLB entry – uniquely identifies each process to provide address-space protection for that process
30.
8.30 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Associative Memory n Associative memory – parallel search Address translation (p, d) l If p is in associative register, get frame # out l Otherwise get frame # from page table in memory Page # Frame #
31.
8.31 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Paging Hardware With TLB TLB is a fast cache
32.
8.32 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Effective Access Time n Associative Lookup = e time unit n Assume memory cycle time is 1 microsecond n Hit ratio – percentage of times that a page number is found in the associative registers; ratio related to number of associative registers n Hit ratio = a n Effective Access Time (EAT) EAT = (1 + e) a + (2 + e)(1 – a) = 2 + e – a
33.
8.33 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Effective Access Time (EAT) EAT = (1 + e) a + (2 + e)(1 – a) = 2 + e – a An 80-percent hit ratio means that we can find the desired page number in the TLB 80 percent of the time. • If it takes 20 nanoseconds to search the TLB and 100 nanoseconds to access memory, then a mapped memory access takes 120 nanoseconds when the page number is in TLB. • We fail to find the page number in the TLB, we must first access memory for the page table and frame number (100 nanoseconds) and then access the desired byte in memory (100 nanoseconds) for a total 220 nanoseconds. Effective Access Time (EAT) = 0.8 * 120 + 0.2 * 220 = 140 What is the effective access time, if hit ratio is 98%? Example
34.
8.34 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Memory Protection n Memory protection implemented by associating protection bit with each frame n Valid-invalid bit attached to each entry in the page table: l “valid” indicates that the associated page is in the process’ logical address space, and is thus a legal page l “invalid” indicates that the page is not in the process’ logical address space
35.
8.35 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Valid (v) or Invalid (i) Bit In A Page Table
36.
8.36 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Shared Pages n Shared code l One copy of read-only (reentrant) code shared among processes (i.e., text editors, compilers, window systems). l Shared code must appear in same location in the logical address space of all processes n Private code and data l Each process keeps a separate copy of the code and data l The pages for the private code and data can appear anywhere in the logical address space
37.
8.37 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Shared Pages Example We only need one copy of editor (3, 4, 6), and different data space for each user.
38.
8.38 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Structure of the Page Table n Hierarchical Paging n Hashed Page Tables n Inverted Page Tables
39.
8.39 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Hierarchical Page Tables n Break up the logical address space into multiple page tables n A simple technique is a two-level page table
40.
8.40 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Two-Level Page-Table Scheme
41.
8.41 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Two-Level Paging Example n A logical address (on 32-bit machine with 1K page size) is divided into: l a page number consisting of 22 bits l a page offset consisting of 10 bits n Since the page table is paged, the page number is further divided into: l a 12-bit page number l a 10-bit page offset n Thus, a logical address is as follows: where pi is an index into the outer page table, and p2 is the displacement within the page of the outer page table page number page offset pi p2 d 12 10 10
42.
8.42 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Address-Translation Scheme
43.
8.43 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Three-level Paging Scheme
44.
8.44 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Hashed Page Tables n Common in address spaces > 32 bits n The virtual page number is hashed into a page table l This page table contains a chain of elements hashing to the same location n Virtual page numbers are compared in this chain searching for a match l If a match is found, the corresponding physical frame is extracted
45.
8.45 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Hashed Page Table
46.
8.46 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Inverted Page Table n One entry for each real page of memory n Entry consists of the virtual address of the page stored in that real memory location, with information about the process that owns that page n Decreases memory needed to store each page table, but increases time needed to search the table when a page reference occurs n Use hash table to limit the search to one — or at most a few — page-table entries
47.
8.47 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Inverted Page Table Architecture
48.
8.48 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition End of Chapter 8
49.
8.49 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Segmentation n Memory-management scheme that supports user view of memory n A program is a collection of segments l A segment is a logical unit such as: main program procedure function method object local variables, global variables common block stack symbol table arrays
50.
8.50 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition User’s View of a Program
51.
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and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Logical View of Segmentation 1 3 2 4 1 4 2 3 user space physical memory space
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and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Segmentation Architecture n Logical address consists of a two tuple: <segment-number, offset>, n Segment table – maps two-dimensional physical addresses; each table entry has: l base – contains the starting physical address where the segments reside in memory l limit – specifies the length of the segment n Segment-table base register (STBR) points to the segment table’s location in memory n Segment-table length register (STLR) indicates number of segments used by a program; segment number s is legal if s < STLR
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8.53 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Segmentation Architecture (Cont.) n Protection l With each entry in segment table associate: 4 validation bit = 0 Þ illegal segment 4 read/write/execute privileges n Protection bits associated with segments; code sharing occurs at segment level n Since segments vary in length, memory allocation is a dynamic storage-allocation problem n A segmentation example is shown in the following diagram
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8.54 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Segmentation Hardware
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8.55 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Example of Segmentation
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and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Example: The Intel Pentium n Supports both segmentation and segmentation with paging n CPU generates logical address l Given to segmentation unit 4 Which produces linear addresses l Linear address given to paging unit 4 Which generates physical address in main memory 4 Paging units form equivalent of MMU
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8.57 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Logical to Physical Address Translation in Pentium
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8.58 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Intel Pentium Segmentation
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and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Pentium Paging Architecture
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8.60 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Linear Address in Linux Broken into four parts:
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8.61 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition Three-level Paging in Linux
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8.62 Silberschatz, Galvin
and Gagne ©2009 Operating System Concepts with Java – 8th Edition End of Chapter 8
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