This document summarizes research on the economic contributions of immigrant labor in the United States. It estimates the size and educational characteristics of the immigrant workforce and calculates their output, consumer spending, and tax contributions. While immigrants contribute over $700 billion to output and $240 billion to consumer spending, costs include $12.6 billion for uncompensated healthcare. The analysis aims to provide a more holistic framework that accounts for costs of "reproducing" immigrant labor through education in their home countries.
Many economists have confirmed the negative and direct relationship between economic growth and income inequality. Recent studies have tried to analyse the different transmission channels through which inequality may affect economic performance indirectly. In this paper, we are only referring to the education channels: public and private education expenditures and human capital, in order to evaluate the role of each in the explanation of this negative correlation. We noticed that a high level of inequality requires more public resources this may impede economic growth. Income inequality also discourages private financing in education and human capital accumulation which leads to a sluggish economic growth. These findings imply that private education expenditure is the most important channel which explains this negative relationship reported in the literature.
Economic growth in Albania: Influencing Factors yesterday, today and tomorrowALTAX Consulting
According to the annual report of the Bank of Albania, for the years 1980 to 1990, the average economic
growth was at 0.9%. The largest economic downturn it is in the year 1990 at a level of -10%. The largest
economic growth it is in the year 1989 at a level of 9.8%. For the years 1991 to 2000, the average
economic growth was at 1.3%. The largest economic downturn it is in the year 1991 at a level of -28%. The
largest economic growth it is in the year 1999 at a level of 13.5%.
For the years 2001 to 2011, the average economic growth was at 5.3%. The slowed economic growth it is
in the year 2011 at a level of 3.1%. The largest economic growth it is in the year 2001 at a level of 7.9%.
Economic growth of past three decades of the Albanian economy is growing at an average 2.5%.
Based on the data of the last thirty years (one third of the life of the Albanian state) economy in this paper
will be presented in reference to significant economic and political factors that affect economic
development.
Abstract: The paper examines the impact of public sectoral expenditure on economic growth in Nigeria for the period 1981-2013. It was observed that the growth of government expenditure has not fully felt by the economy. The econometric methodology employed is the ARDL model and results show that while the impact of government expenditure on administration and debt servicing were positive on economic growth in the long and short run, expenditure on economic and social sectors has negative impact. We argue that this may not be unconnected with the high level of corruption prevalent in the public sector where funds that are meant for provision or maintenance of social-economic activities like agriculture, roads, transportations, schools and hospitals are diverted for personal use. The CUSUM and CUSUMSQ test show the model is stable as neither of them cross the 5% boundary. The paper recommended that government should increase expenditure to the social and economic sectors while debts or debt servicing should be reduced. Also, corruption so prevalent in the public sector must be minimized if cannot be eradicated.
Economic growth between the epidemic Maltus' idea and political instability f...AI Publications
The objective of this paper is to study the impact of the rate of demographic growth via the the epidemic Maltus' idea on economic growth on the one hand. And on the other hand, we examine the effect of political stability on economic growth. This work follows a methodology describing empirically while using the GMM dynamic panel method on five-year cross-sectional data (2016-2020) for some countries of North Africa and the Middle East.
Many economists have confirmed the negative and direct relationship between economic growth and income inequality. Recent studies have tried to analyse the different transmission channels through which inequality may affect economic performance indirectly. In this paper, we are only referring to the education channels: public and private education expenditures and human capital, in order to evaluate the role of each in the explanation of this negative correlation. We noticed that a high level of inequality requires more public resources this may impede economic growth. Income inequality also discourages private financing in education and human capital accumulation which leads to a sluggish economic growth. These findings imply that private education expenditure is the most important channel which explains this negative relationship reported in the literature.
Economic growth in Albania: Influencing Factors yesterday, today and tomorrowALTAX Consulting
According to the annual report of the Bank of Albania, for the years 1980 to 1990, the average economic
growth was at 0.9%. The largest economic downturn it is in the year 1990 at a level of -10%. The largest
economic growth it is in the year 1989 at a level of 9.8%. For the years 1991 to 2000, the average
economic growth was at 1.3%. The largest economic downturn it is in the year 1991 at a level of -28%. The
largest economic growth it is in the year 1999 at a level of 13.5%.
For the years 2001 to 2011, the average economic growth was at 5.3%. The slowed economic growth it is
in the year 2011 at a level of 3.1%. The largest economic growth it is in the year 2001 at a level of 7.9%.
Economic growth of past three decades of the Albanian economy is growing at an average 2.5%.
Based on the data of the last thirty years (one third of the life of the Albanian state) economy in this paper
will be presented in reference to significant economic and political factors that affect economic
development.
Abstract: The paper examines the impact of public sectoral expenditure on economic growth in Nigeria for the period 1981-2013. It was observed that the growth of government expenditure has not fully felt by the economy. The econometric methodology employed is the ARDL model and results show that while the impact of government expenditure on administration and debt servicing were positive on economic growth in the long and short run, expenditure on economic and social sectors has negative impact. We argue that this may not be unconnected with the high level of corruption prevalent in the public sector where funds that are meant for provision or maintenance of social-economic activities like agriculture, roads, transportations, schools and hospitals are diverted for personal use. The CUSUM and CUSUMSQ test show the model is stable as neither of them cross the 5% boundary. The paper recommended that government should increase expenditure to the social and economic sectors while debts or debt servicing should be reduced. Also, corruption so prevalent in the public sector must be minimized if cannot be eradicated.
Economic growth between the epidemic Maltus' idea and political instability f...AI Publications
The objective of this paper is to study the impact of the rate of demographic growth via the the epidemic Maltus' idea on economic growth on the one hand. And on the other hand, we examine the effect of political stability on economic growth. This work follows a methodology describing empirically while using the GMM dynamic panel method on five-year cross-sectional data (2016-2020) for some countries of North Africa and the Middle East.
Brazil is clearly in a recession that was engendered by a series of economic policy mistakes made by the neoliberal governments that followed from 1990 up to the present moment, and also by the passive attitude of the incompetent Michel Temer government that does not adopt any effective measure that is Capable of avoiding Brazil's journey towards economic depression.
Employment prospects for teens and young adults in the nation’s 100 largest metropolitan areas plummeted between 2000 and 2011. On a number of measures—employment rates, labor force underutilization, unemployment, and year-round joblessness—teens and young adults fared poorly, and sometimes disastrously. While labor market problems affected all young people, some groups had better outcomes than others: Non-Hispanic whites, those from higher income households, those with work experience, and those with higher levels of education were more successful in the labor market. In particular, education and previous work experience were most strongly associated with employment.
Policy and program efforts to reduce youth joblessness and labor force underutilization should focus on the following priorities: incorporating more work-based learning (such as apprenticeships, co-ops, and internships) into education and training; creating tighter linkages between secondary and post-secondary education; ensuring that training meets regional labor market needs; expanding the Earned Income Tax Credit; and facilitating the transition of young people into the labor market through enhanced career counseling, mentoring, occupational and work-readiness skills development, and the creation of short-term subsidized jobs.
June 2012 - Electric energy sector needs rewiringFGV Brazil
The Brazilian Economy is one of the oldest publications for expert economic analysis of both the Brazilian and international economies. Through this publication, FGV’s Brazilian Institute of Economics and Finance (FGV/IBRE) compares different periods of the economy, assessing both macroeconomic considerations and scenarios related to finance, administration, marketing, management, insurance, statistics, and price indices.
For more information, and Brazilian economic index results, visit: http://bit.ly/1EA1Loz
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Restructuring public spending for efficiency - Jean-Marc FOURNIER, OECDOECD Governance
This presentation was made by Jean-Marc FOURNIER, OECD, at the 10th Annual Meeting of Middle-East and North Africa Senior Budget Officials (MENA-SBO) held in Doha, Qatar, on 6-7 December 2017
Smugglers and vulnerable migrants in central america and mexico finalUN Global Pulse
Executive summary of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) research: “Smugglers and Vulnerable Migrants in Central America and Mexico,” conducted as part of UN Global Pulse’s Rapid Impact and Vulnerability Assessment Fund (RIVAF). For more information: http://www.unglobalpulse.org/projects/rapid-impact-and-vulnerability-analysis-fund-rivaf
Off-farm employment in rural areas can be a major contributor to rural poverty reduction and decent rural employment. While women are highly active in the agricultural sector, they are less active than men in off-farm employment. This study analyzes the determinants of participation in off-farm employment of women in rural Uganda. The study is based on a field survey conducted in nine districts with the sample size of 1200 individual females. A two-stage Hechman’s sample selection model was applied to capture women’s decision to participate and the level of participation in non-farm economic activities. Summary statistics of the survey data from rural Uganda shows that: i) poverty and non-farm employment has a strong correlation, implying the importance of non-farm employment as a means for poverty reduction; and ii) there is a large gender gap to access non-farm employment, but the gender gap has been significantly reduced from group of older age to younger generation. The econometric results finds that the following factors have a significant influence on women’s participation in off-farm employment: education level of both the individual and household head (positive in both stages); women’s age (negative in both stages); female-headed household (negative in first stage); household head of polygamous marriage (negative in both stages); distance from major town (negative in the first stage); household size (positive in the second stage); dependency ratio (negative in the second stage); access to and use of government extension services (positive in the first stage); access to and use of an agricultural loan (negative in the second stage); and various district dummies variables. The implications of these findings suggest that those policies aimed at enhancing the identified determinants of women off-farm employment can promote income-generating opportunities for women groups in comparable contexts. In order to capitalize on these positive linkages, policies should be designed to improve skills and knowledge by providing education opportunities and increasing access to employment training, assistance services and loans for non-farm activities and by targeting women in female-headed, large and distant households. The government should increase investments in public infrastructure and services, such as roads, telecommunications and emergency support.
Fiscal Policy Institute, Immigrant in NYDebbie Wibowo
This presentation was delivered in Upwardly Global panel discussion titled Immigrant Contributions to NY's Economy, in conjunction with the 6th Annual Immigrant Heritage Week. The presentation focuses on immigrant profiles in NY state and NY City.
Brazil is clearly in a recession that was engendered by a series of economic policy mistakes made by the neoliberal governments that followed from 1990 up to the present moment, and also by the passive attitude of the incompetent Michel Temer government that does not adopt any effective measure that is Capable of avoiding Brazil's journey towards economic depression.
Employment prospects for teens and young adults in the nation’s 100 largest metropolitan areas plummeted between 2000 and 2011. On a number of measures—employment rates, labor force underutilization, unemployment, and year-round joblessness—teens and young adults fared poorly, and sometimes disastrously. While labor market problems affected all young people, some groups had better outcomes than others: Non-Hispanic whites, those from higher income households, those with work experience, and those with higher levels of education were more successful in the labor market. In particular, education and previous work experience were most strongly associated with employment.
Policy and program efforts to reduce youth joblessness and labor force underutilization should focus on the following priorities: incorporating more work-based learning (such as apprenticeships, co-ops, and internships) into education and training; creating tighter linkages between secondary and post-secondary education; ensuring that training meets regional labor market needs; expanding the Earned Income Tax Credit; and facilitating the transition of young people into the labor market through enhanced career counseling, mentoring, occupational and work-readiness skills development, and the creation of short-term subsidized jobs.
June 2012 - Electric energy sector needs rewiringFGV Brazil
The Brazilian Economy is one of the oldest publications for expert economic analysis of both the Brazilian and international economies. Through this publication, FGV’s Brazilian Institute of Economics and Finance (FGV/IBRE) compares different periods of the economy, assessing both macroeconomic considerations and scenarios related to finance, administration, marketing, management, insurance, statistics, and price indices.
For more information, and Brazilian economic index results, visit: http://bit.ly/1EA1Loz
IOSR Journal of Humanities and Social Science is an International Journal edited by International Organization of Scientific Research (IOSR).The Journal provides a common forum where all aspects of humanities and social sciences are presented. IOSR-JHSS publishes original papers, review papers, conceptual framework, analytical and simulation models, case studies, empirical research, technical notes etc.
Restructuring public spending for efficiency - Jean-Marc FOURNIER, OECDOECD Governance
This presentation was made by Jean-Marc FOURNIER, OECD, at the 10th Annual Meeting of Middle-East and North Africa Senior Budget Officials (MENA-SBO) held in Doha, Qatar, on 6-7 December 2017
Smugglers and vulnerable migrants in central america and mexico finalUN Global Pulse
Executive summary of the United Nations Office on Drugs and Crime (UNODC) research: “Smugglers and Vulnerable Migrants in Central America and Mexico,” conducted as part of UN Global Pulse’s Rapid Impact and Vulnerability Assessment Fund (RIVAF). For more information: http://www.unglobalpulse.org/projects/rapid-impact-and-vulnerability-analysis-fund-rivaf
Off-farm employment in rural areas can be a major contributor to rural poverty reduction and decent rural employment. While women are highly active in the agricultural sector, they are less active than men in off-farm employment. This study analyzes the determinants of participation in off-farm employment of women in rural Uganda. The study is based on a field survey conducted in nine districts with the sample size of 1200 individual females. A two-stage Hechman’s sample selection model was applied to capture women’s decision to participate and the level of participation in non-farm economic activities. Summary statistics of the survey data from rural Uganda shows that: i) poverty and non-farm employment has a strong correlation, implying the importance of non-farm employment as a means for poverty reduction; and ii) there is a large gender gap to access non-farm employment, but the gender gap has been significantly reduced from group of older age to younger generation. The econometric results finds that the following factors have a significant influence on women’s participation in off-farm employment: education level of both the individual and household head (positive in both stages); women’s age (negative in both stages); female-headed household (negative in first stage); household head of polygamous marriage (negative in both stages); distance from major town (negative in the first stage); household size (positive in the second stage); dependency ratio (negative in the second stage); access to and use of government extension services (positive in the first stage); access to and use of an agricultural loan (negative in the second stage); and various district dummies variables. The implications of these findings suggest that those policies aimed at enhancing the identified determinants of women off-farm employment can promote income-generating opportunities for women groups in comparable contexts. In order to capitalize on these positive linkages, policies should be designed to improve skills and knowledge by providing education opportunities and increasing access to employment training, assistance services and loans for non-farm activities and by targeting women in female-headed, large and distant households. The government should increase investments in public infrastructure and services, such as roads, telecommunications and emergency support.
Fiscal Policy Institute, Immigrant in NYDebbie Wibowo
This presentation was delivered in Upwardly Global panel discussion titled Immigrant Contributions to NY's Economy, in conjunction with the 6th Annual Immigrant Heritage Week. The presentation focuses on immigrant profiles in NY state and NY City.
Week 2 - Discussion Forum 2Guided Response Respond to at leasnicolleszkyj
Week 2 - Discussion Forum 2
Guided Response: Respond to at least two of your fellow students’ and to your instructor’s posts in a substantive manner and provide information or concepts that they may not have considered. Each response should have a minimum of 100 words. Support your position by using information from the week’s readings. You are encouraged to post your required replies earlier in the week to promote more meaningful and interactive discourse in this discussion forum.
On this Document there two classmates with discussion that needs to be response. Jason Stack and Ashley Thiberville
Jason Stack
Unemployment
The term unemployment is often a word that make a person uneasy, especially in today's COVID-19 effected economy. However, we don't often think about what this percentage incorporates. According to Gwartney et al. (2019), the unemployment rate is the percentage of people of the civilian workforce above the age of 16 that do not have a job, are available for work, and have been actively seeking employment within the past four weeks (pg. 8-2). Additionally, this doesn't include those who are not actively seeking employment such as students, household workers, disabled, retirees, or those that stopped looking for employment. Understanding what is included and excluded in the calculation of the unemployment rate, we can why the unemployment rate is such an important metric for the U.S. economy.
The unemployment rate is one of the critical metrics economists used to measure the health of the economy. Gwartney et al. (2019), suggest that employment and output are closely linked, and their relationship point toward the location of where a nation is in its business cycle. The business cycle is a reflection of a nation's economic growths and slowdowns over time, which reflects the real output (Gwartny et al., 2019, pg. 8-1a). Therefore, the relationship between actual output and unemployment can reflect the position in the cycle. For example, figure 1 shows the unemployment rate of the United States for 2019. The unemployment rate is trending downward, indicating a higher percentage of the civilian workforce is employed, the output is increasing, and economic growth is rising. Respectively, if the opposite were to occur over the next few months due to the COVID-19, unemployment would increase, output would reduce, and the economy would be leading into a slowdown period.
Figure 1 https://www.ncsl.org/research/labor-and-employment/national-employment-monthly-update.aspx (Links to an external site.)
With such a heavy reliance on the unemployment rate percentage, there seems to be some question as to its accuracy. Buss (1986) suggests that the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS) uses secondary or administrative data sources, such as tax records and employer surveys, a process requiring a great deal of estimation, adjustment, and inference to calculate the unemployment rate (pg. 241). An alternative method of ...
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Economics is the study of how societies use their resources to produce goods and services. It is a social science that examines the production, distribution, .... Essays in economic development ... and obstacles faced by the poorer nations of the global economy on the path to development are extremely diverse.. Free Essay: Many people think that economics is about money. Well, to some extent this is true. Economics has a lot to do with money: with how much money.... Analysis of the Tourism & Airline Industry in the UAE. Example essay. Last modified: 4th Jun 2023.. Up: Economics Network > Writing for Economics. Essay writing. The idea of setting essays is to offer you the chance to make a longer, more complex argument.. Economics essays often examine how governments can manage resources to promote economic growth. In addition, economics essays may also analyze the impact of .... evidence on three issues within the field of economic development: the effect of social networks on immigrants' labor market outcomes (first essay), .... Lionel Robbins, biography, from the Concise Encyclopedia of Economics: Robbins' most famous book was An Essay on the Nature and Significance of Economic Science .... This thesis was written while I worked at the Research Unit on Economic ... Lilja examined an earlier version of the first essay and provided useful .... The list of economic essay topics is endless – the field focuses on multiple areas of human interactions on different scales. Choosing one of the economics ...
Thirty years of growing income inequality, corporate tax cuts and personal tax breaks for the wealthy have undermined the livelihood of working people and set up a state budget crisis which does not need to
exist. We present alternative tax proposals and issue a warning of the ominous consequences of privatization, layoffs and state service cuts for all New Yorkers.
Read the case study The Economics of Immigration A Story of Subst.pdfsales84
Read the case study: "The Economics of Immigration: A Story of Substitutes and Complements
E." Then, pick one of the following states to be the Governor of:
California, Arizona, New Mexico, Texas, Florida, Vermont, or Louisiana
Once you pick a state, answer the following questions:
Make sure to use at least two of the economic concepts in this week's readings in your discussion
to obtain full credit. Examples include supply, demand, complements, efficiency, substitutes, etc.
Identify the concepts you are using in your post to obtain a full credit and remember - number
matter the back story on front page economics NEWSLETTER May =2014 The Economics of
Immigration: A Story of Substitutes and Complements Scott A. Wolla, Senior Economic
Education Specialist "Give me your tired, your poor, your huddled masses yearning to breathe
frae"- Emma Lazarus America is a nation of immigrants. Currently, immigrants make up about
13 percent of the overall population, which means about 40 million people living in the United
States are foreign born.' Indeed, nearly all Americans have an immigration story in their family
history. Yet, despite their history and a culture of immigration. Americans have mixed feelings
about whether the country should keep its welcome mat out on the doorstep. A 2014 Gallup poll
reports 72 percent of Americans believe immigration is a good thing, but 36 percent would like
to see the level of immigration dectease, 2 Economists, who focus on economic costs and
benefits, are generally more supportive of immigration than the general public. NOTE: The share
of the labor forte that is foreign bom has increased over time. Athough the shave dropped buring
the most recent recession II5.1 percent in February 2009, the share had increased to 16.3 perent
as af March 2014. The gay bar indicates the 260709 recossion as determined by the National
Bureau of Economic Research.
The Economics of Immigration In many ways, the arguments about the economics of
immigration are similar to those about the economics of international trade. Economists typically
reason that voluntary trade is mutually beneficial-if it were not, the trade partners would not
pursue trade. Economists therefore generally support free and open trade of goods and services
across national borders. In a similar way, economists think of immigration as mutually beneficial
"trade" between immigrants and their employers. And as with trade, both the immigrant workers
and their employers generally benefit. Not surprisingly, economists generally support free and
open immigration. Immigration increases labor resources, which increase the productive capacity
of the economy, Currently, foreign-born workers make up 16.3 percent of the labor force (see the
chart). Stated differently, the increase in labor resources increases the economy's ability to
produce goods and services. But how does immigration affect the average American? Once the
costs and benefits are weighed, economists estimate the ann.
Running Head ISSUES REGARDING IMMIGRATION1Issues Regardi.docxcowinhelen
Running Head: ISSUES REGARDING IMMIGRATION 1
Issues Regarding Immigration 7
Issues Regarding Immigration
Student’s Name
Institution
Introduction
Illegal migration into the United States has recently been on a massive scale. As the population of these illegal immigrants continues to increase, several challenges arise. These challenges come in various dimensions ranging from economic to socio-political challenges. It is, therefore, prudent to provide a succinct solution to these challenges lest the impact of illegal migration would be more perilous in the United States of America than earlier anticipated.
With increased levels of globalization, both terrorism and illegal immigration have been significantly enhanced (Correa-Cabrera & Rojas-Arenaza, 2012, p. 28). Efforts to deal with and provide an amicable solution to these fundamental problems associated with these challenges have attracted both the senate and the house of Congress significantly. This is primary because any neglect to peer into these issues would ideally affect the economy of the United States as well as the socio-economic and political setups among the citizens of the United States of America. What can, therefore, be done to ensure due address to these key challenges?
Efforts have been put by the house of the congress trying to craft a comprehensive law that would address the key challenges of illegal migration into the United States. However, full success of the implementation of these laws has neither been realized (Fialho, 2016, p. 87). However, there is some degree of success in as far as the Congress concerns addressing the real issues of immigration due to the implementation and operation of such comprehensive laws. Besides, there has been a severe neglect on the most favored policy of benign neglect in the recent past. It is apparently no longer tenable in the view and perspective of current US address priorities to the issues of illegal immigration.
Several efforts are currently being employed to try addressing the problems and challenges related to illegal migration in the United States. These include changes in the policy at places of employment and various sectors of the entire economy of the United States. Examples of these policy changes include things such as improving the levels of security at workplaces, ensuring proper and thorough verification of the employees by their prospective employers, establishment of new guest worker program, and offering amnesty to illegal immigrants who are found to be living in the United States of America.
A key focus is, however, on the success of the implementation of these policies and reforms. To ensure the accomplishment and success of these reforms and policies, there must be a comprehensive immigration reform in place (Filindra & Kovács, 2011, p. 93). These reforms should be extensively ideological as well as significantly lopsided to address issues especially on the security at the borders an ...
Brasileiros em Portugal: de volta às raízes lusitanas traz informações, até então não publicadas, sobre esse importante fenômeno migratório, além da análise de dados produzidos por órgãos oficiais dos dois países e por estudos anteriores. A emigração brasileira para Portugal tem suas raízes na expansão ultramarina, no longínquo século XV. A chegada da Coroa Portuguesa à Terra de Santa Cruz impulsionou esta importante conexão que ao longo das décadas se estruturou e, continuamente, se “re”estrutura. A obra apresenta uma análise criteriosa da relação interdependente entre Brasil e Portugal, com suas históricas nuances permeadas pela migração de seus povos. Passando pela migração bilateral durante o Brasil Colônia, Império e no período pós-independência, o livro discorre sobre os diferentes aspectos desses fluxos, que é um dos mais relevantes da emigração brasileira.
O presente Perfil Migratório do Brasil é um dos quatro primeiros perfis sulamericanos produzidos pela Divisão de Pesquisas da OIM, em coordenação com os escritórios da OIM na região.
Digital Transformation and IT Strategy Toolkit and TemplatesAurelien Domont, MBA
This Digital Transformation and IT Strategy Toolkit was created by ex-McKinsey, Deloitte and BCG Management Consultants, after more than 5,000 hours of work. It is considered the world's best & most comprehensive Digital Transformation and IT Strategy Toolkit. It includes all the Frameworks, Best Practices & Templates required to successfully undertake the Digital Transformation of your organization and define a robust IT Strategy.
Editable Toolkit to help you reuse our content: 700 Powerpoint slides | 35 Excel sheets | 84 minutes of Video training
This PowerPoint presentation is only a small preview of our Toolkits. For more details, visit www.domontconsulting.com
In the Adani-Hindenburg case, what is SEBI investigating.pptxAdani case
Adani SEBI investigation revealed that the latter had sought information from five foreign jurisdictions concerning the holdings of the firm’s foreign portfolio investors (FPIs) in relation to the alleged violations of the MPS Regulations. Nevertheless, the economic interest of the twelve FPIs based in tax haven jurisdictions still needs to be determined. The Adani Group firms classed these FPIs as public shareholders. According to Hindenburg, FPIs were used to get around regulatory standards.
[Note: This is a partial preview. To download this presentation, visit:
https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations]
Sustainability has become an increasingly critical topic as the world recognizes the need to protect our planet and its resources for future generations. Sustainability means meeting our current needs without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirs. It involves long-term planning and consideration of the consequences of our actions. The goal is to create strategies that ensure the long-term viability of People, Planet, and Profit.
Leading companies such as Nike, Toyota, and Siemens are prioritizing sustainable innovation in their business models, setting an example for others to follow. In this Sustainability training presentation, you will learn key concepts, principles, and practices of sustainability applicable across industries. This training aims to create awareness and educate employees, senior executives, consultants, and other key stakeholders, including investors, policymakers, and supply chain partners, on the importance and implementation of sustainability.
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
1. Develop a comprehensive understanding of the fundamental principles and concepts that form the foundation of sustainability within corporate environments.
2. Explore the sustainability implementation model, focusing on effective measures and reporting strategies to track and communicate sustainability efforts.
3. Identify and define best practices and critical success factors essential for achieving sustainability goals within organizations.
CONTENTS
1. Introduction and Key Concepts of Sustainability
2. Principles and Practices of Sustainability
3. Measures and Reporting in Sustainability
4. Sustainability Implementation & Best Practices
To download the complete presentation, visit: https://www.oeconsulting.com.sg/training-presentations
The world of search engine optimization (SEO) is buzzing with discussions after Google confirmed that around 2,500 leaked internal documents related to its Search feature are indeed authentic. The revelation has sparked significant concerns within the SEO community. The leaked documents were initially reported by SEO experts Rand Fishkin and Mike King, igniting widespread analysis and discourse. For More Info:- https://news.arihantwebtech.com/search-disrupted-googles-leaked-documents-rock-the-seo-world/
Recruiting in the Digital Age: A Social Media MasterclassLuanWise
In this masterclass, presented at the Global HR Summit on 5th June 2024, Luan Wise explored the essential features of social media platforms that support talent acquisition, including LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, X (formerly Twitter) and TikTok.
VAT Registration Outlined In UAE: Benefits and Requirementsuae taxgpt
Vat Registration is a legal obligation for businesses meeting the threshold requirement, helping companies avoid fines and ramifications. Contact now!
https://viralsocialtrends.com/vat-registration-outlined-in-uae/
Building Your Employer Brand with Social MediaLuanWise
Presented at The Global HR Summit, 6th June 2024
In this keynote, Luan Wise will provide invaluable insights to elevate your employer brand on social media platforms including LinkedIn, Facebook, Instagram, X (formerly Twitter) and TikTok. You'll learn how compelling content can authentically showcase your company culture, values, and employee experiences to support your talent acquisition and retention objectives. Additionally, you'll understand the power of employee advocacy to amplify reach and engagement – helping to position your organization as an employer of choice in today's competitive talent landscape.
Personal Brand Statement:
As an Army veteran dedicated to lifelong learning, I bring a disciplined, strategic mindset to my pursuits. I am constantly expanding my knowledge to innovate and lead effectively. My journey is driven by a commitment to excellence, and to make a meaningful impact in the world.
An introduction to the cryptocurrency investment platform Binance Savings.Any kyc Account
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2. 1
National Science Board, National Science Foundation, Science & Engineering Indicators, 2014 http://www.setcvd.org/
sites/default/files/setcvd/pdf/SEIND14.pdf
2
Meillassoux, Claude; Maidens, Meal, and Money; Cambridge University Press, 1981
framing the issue
Immigrants contribute to the American economy as workers, consumers, business
owners,entrepreneursandinvestors.Theyaccountfor45%ofthecountry’sworkforce,
30% of high-tech workers and 32% of scientists and engineers.1
No one doubts that
Sergey Brin or Jerry Yang, the founders of Google and Yahoo, are net contributors to
the economy, although questions are sometimes raised when the discussion turns to
the contribution of lower skilled immigrant labor. Here, researchers who investigate
lower skilled immigrant labor disagree, some finding positive and others negative
net contributions. Missing in all these discussions, however, is a fundamental fact
regarding immigrant labor: they come from somewhere else.
Most research on the contributions of immigrant workers focuses on production
– on what immigrant labor produces. Focusing equally on reproduction would
take into consideration the costs associated with raising this labor force while still
unproductive. It also entails including the costs associated with its post-productive
stages (i.e., retirement). Adopting this framework enhances our understanding of
the actual economic costs and benefits of immigrant labor.
The late French anthropologist Claude Meillassoux, in his seminal 1981 work
“Maidens, Meal, and Money,”2
emphasizes the importance of approaching issues of
migration from the perspective of both the production and reproduction of labor.
Simply stated, instead of merely considering the contributions that immigrant
laborers make to an economy once they arrive, one must account for what their home
economies have contributed to them before they emigrate. From this point of view,
immigrant labor represents a transfer of resources from home to host economies.
In this paper we take a look at this process of production and reproduction of
immigrant labor using educational costs as an example. We used the PI+
model
developed by Regional Economic Models, Inc. (REMI) to estimate the economic
impact of immigrant workers to the American economy. The point of this paper is not
to offer a complete accounting of the costs and benefits of immigrant labor. Rather,
it is designed to present an analytical framework that accounts for the contributions
of the immigrant workforce in a holistic manner, which extends beyond the direct
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 2
3. 3
U.S. Department of Homeland security, “Estimates of the Unauthorized immigrant Population Residing in the United
States: January 2009,” http://www.dhs.gov/xlibrary/assets/statistics/publications/ois_ill_pe_2009.pdf
4
U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011 “Table 40. Native and Foreign-born Populations by
Selected Characteristics: 2009,” http://www.census.gov/compendia/statab/2011/tables/11s0040.pdf
5
Ibid.
effect of immigrant labor. The United States is used as an example, although it is not
a special case.
The expenses associated with the “re-production” of labor are frequently ignored
in studies measuring costs and benefits of immigrant labor. In the analysis that
follows, we separate the costs and benefits of immigrant labor in two moments
of the production cycle: “production” itself and the “re-production” of labor. The
first accounts for the costs and benefits of labor at the production stage, and the
second accounts for the reproduction of labor, which includes raising and retiring
the labor force. To account for the costs of raising the labor force, we include only
costs associated with education. We use education as an example to illustrate our
point. Obviously, other costs are associated with raising the labor force including
food, shelter, healthcare, etc.
the size and educational characteristics of
the u.s. immigrant labor force
In order to size the immigrant labor force and their productivity, we used data from
the Department of Homeland Security and the U.S. Census Bureau. According to
the Department of Homeland Security, Office of Immigration Statistics, 34.6% of
all immigrants entering the country between 2000 and 2009 were unauthorized.3
The U.S. Census Bureau reported that a total of 7.9 million foreign-born individuals
25 years and older arrived in or after 2000.4
This last figure provided by the U.S.
Census accounts for both legal and unauthorized immigrants. If we use the
proportion of unauthorized immigrants estimated by the Department of Homeland
Security (34.6%), approximately 2.7 million immigrants 25 years old and over are
unauthorized and living in the United States.
Among the 7.9 million immigrants who arrived in the U.S. between 2000 and March
2009, age 25 and older, 31% had less than a high school degree, 35% had a high school
diploma or some college, 21% had a bachelor’s degree, and 13% had a graduate or
professional degree.5
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 3
4. table 1 – educational attainment
Persons 25 Years Old and Over
(in thousands)
Foreign-born
(arrived in or after 2000)
Percentage
Less than High School 2,503,000 31%
High School Graduate or Some College 2.,43,000 35%
Bachelor’s Degree 1,639,000 21%
Graduate/Professional Degree 1,025,000 13%
TOTAL 7,910,000 100%
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011 – Table 40.
If we assume that a foreign-born person with lower education attainment (less than
high school and high school) is more likely to be an unauthorized immigrant, and
we further assume that unauthorized immigrants are distributed between these
two categories in the same proportion as above, we find the educational distribution
described on Table 2.
table 2 – educational attainment (adjusted for unauthorized immigrants)
Persons 25 Years Old and Over
(in thousands)
Foreign-born
(arrived in or after 2000)
Percentage
Less than High School (unauthorized) 1,305,826 10.95%
Less than High School 1,197,174 20.69%
High School Graduate/Some College (unauthorized) 1,431,034 12.00%
High School Graduate/Some College 1,311,966 22.68%
Bachelor’s Degree 1,639,000 20.72%
Graduate/Professional Degree 1,025,000 12.96%
TOTAL 7,910,000 100%
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011 – Table 40.
Utilizing median earnings reported by The National Center for Education Statistics
(NCES) for each educational level adjusted for inflation,6
and assuming unauthorized
immigrants receive a fraction of the earnings of authorized immigrants (72% of the
median income of authorized immigrants, according to the Pew Hispanic Center),
we calculated median earnings for both authorized and unauthorized immigrants
(Table 3).7
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 4
6
NCES reports median earnings in 2008 dollars. In order to input these values into the REMI model, they were inflated to
2010 dollars using the PCE-Price Index.
7
According to the Pew Hispanic Center April 2009 report, “A Portrait of Unauthorized Immigrants in the U.S,” the 2007
median household income of unauthorized immigrants was $36,000 while the median household income for U.S.-born
residents was $50,000. That is, unauthorized immigrants earn the equivalent of 72% of a native born or legal immigrant’s
income.
5. table 3 - median earnings (adjusted for unauthorized immigrants)
Median Earnings
Less than High School (unauthorized) $18,375
Less than High School $25,521
High School Graduate/Some College (unauthorized) $26,927
High School Graduate/Some College $37,398
Bachelor’s Degree $58,531
Professional Degree $77,411
Source: The National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of Education Statistics.
immigrant contribution as workers
In addition to helping the U.S. to keep its competitive economic edge, this influx
of human capital translates into output for the economy proportional to their
productivity. Here we assumed immigrant workers would produce output worth 2.3
their wages.8
Table 4 shows the output that immigrants contributed to the economy
between 2000 and March 2009, based on this assumption. Their total contribution
during this period is equal to $718 billion, or $71.8 billion in direct output per year.9
table 4 – immigrant contribution to output
Output in U.S. Dollars Percentage
Less than High School (unauthorized) $54,303,547,543 8%
Less than High School $69,146,152,121 10%
High School Graduate/Some College (unauthorized) $87,207,376,984 12%
High School Graduate/Some College $111,043,473,728 15%
Bachelor’s Degree $217,113,310,302 30%
Graduate/Professional Degree $179,574,549,752 25%
TOTAL $718,388,410,432 100%
Source: U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2011; National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), 2008.
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 5
8
According to the U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, in 2011, the seasonally adjusted Gross Domestic Product (GDP) was
$15,075.7 billion while wages and salaries totaled $6,661.3 billion, that is, a GDP to wages and salaries ratio of 2.26.
9
This can be understood as a direct output loss as a result of not permitting these immigrants to enter the country.
6. 10
According to the Table “Consumer Expenditure in 2010” of the Bureau of labor Statistics (BLS), the average annual
consumer expenditure was $48,109, while average annual income was $62,481 – a ratio of expenditure to income of 0.77.
Applying this ratio to immigrants’ average median earnings in each educational level, we estimated a yearly consumer
expenditure of $24.4 billion among immigrants entering the country since 2000.
immigrant contribution as consumers
Beyond output, immigrant workers (legal or not) also contribute to the economy as
consumers and taxpayers. According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), in 2010,
average annual consumer expenditure was $48,109, while average annual income
was $62,481 – a ratio of expenditure to income of 0.77. In order to estimate immigrant
expenditures, we applied this ratio to immigrants’ average median earnings for
each educational level, which results in a consumer expenditure of $24.4 billion10
among immigrants entering the country since 2000, as shown in Table 5.
table 5 – immigrant contribution to consumer expenditures
Earnings
(adjusted for unauthorized immigrants)
Median
Earnings
Expenditure
per Person
Total
Expenditure
Less than High School (unauthorized) $18,374.90 $14,148.30 $18,475,191,667.80
Less than High School $25,520.70 $19,650.40 $23,524,934,398.30
High School Graduate/Some College (unauthorized) $26,926.80 $20,733.10 $29,669,734,313.80
High School Graduate/Some College $37,398.40 $28,795.90 $37,779,289,746.60
Bachelor’s Degree $58,531.50 $45,068.00 $73,866,417,041.10
Professional Degree $77,411.10 $59,604.80 $61,094,958,035.80
TOTAL $244,410,525,203.20
Source: Bureau of labor Statistics (BLS), Table “Consumer Expenditure in 2010.”
immigrant contribution as taxpayers
Assuming that half of the unauthorized immigrants pay federal and state income
tax, we can calculate their contributions utilizing 2010 federal income brackets
and tax rates (see table 6). Using data on state average tax income provided by the
TaxFoundation.org, and the proportion of immigrants by state provide by the U.S.
Census Bureau, we also calculated unauthorized immigrants’ annual contribution
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 6
7. Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 7
11
Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS), “Table Consumer Expenditure in 2010.”
12
Public Use Microdata Sample (PUMS), 2010.
13
Taxes were computed based on sales taxes, property taxes, and income taxes according to the Federal and State Income
Taxes. www.TaxFoundation.org.
table 6 – immigrant federal income tax liability
Income Tax
(adjusted for unauthorized immigrants)
Median
Earnings
Tax per
Person
Total Federal
Income Tax
Some High School, no completion (unauthorized) $18,374.90 $2,338 $1,526,510,594
Some High School, no completion $25,520.70 $3,409 $4,081,166,166
Some College (unauthorized) $26,926.80 $3,620 $2,590,171,540
Some College $37,398.40 $5,531 $7,256,483,946
Bachelor’s Degree $58,531.50 $10,814 $17,724,146,000
Professional Degree $77,411.10 $15,534 $15,922,350,000
TOTAL $49,100,828,246
Source: Internal Revenue service, 2010 Tax Table.
According to the Bureau of Labor Statistics (BLS),11
the annual average consumer
expenditure without housing is $31,552, while the average annual income is $62,481.
Thus, the ratio of expenditure without housing costs to income is 0.505. We also
calculated total sales taxes by utilizing average sales tax rates (7.559%) provided by
TaxFoundation.org, adjusted by the proportion of immigrants in each state. Total
sales tax is equal to $12.1 billion. Finally, we calculated property taxes by multiplying
the number of immigrants who own a house (53.96% of all immigrants)12
by the
average property tax rate of $1,538.42 provided by the TaxFoundation.org. Total
property taxes equaled $6.6 billion. Altogether, immigrants contribute $73.2 billion
in tax revenues over the period or $7.3 billion annually.13
costs related to uncompensated care
Of course, this does not imply that immigrant workers do not impose costs on society.
Costs associated with “maintenance” of the labor force during their productive
years are private costs and are therefore not included in the calculation. The only
costs incurred by society are those in the form of uncompensated care. Costs related
to retirement (that is, costs incurred once workers exit the labor force) are not born
by the hosting country since they represent workers’ own contributions and, in the
8. case of undocumented immigrants, those who contribute to Social Security and
Medicare cannot benefit from it.14
We include these contributions as a “benefit” to
the host society. Finally, it is worth noting that while the government is funding
the education of second-generation immigrant children through high school, the
U.S. will benefit when those children enter the workforce. In this case, we assume,
however, that these children go back to their home country so that their costs are
included in the calculations. That is, we assume that all the second generation
are not born in the United States and will leave the country. This is clearly a very
conservative assumption on the cost side and it is assumed only for the sake of
simplicity.
Apart from defense, the national debt, and the justice system, most government
spending is concentrated in just four programs: Social Security, Medicare, Medicaid,
and Education.15
Legal immigrant workers contribute the same as native workers
throughout their time in the workforce to Social Security. Therefore, the benefits
they receive in Social Security and Medicare should not be a strain on society. As for
the unauthorized immigrants, if they had not achieved legal status by retirement,
they would not be eligible to collect Social Security or Medicare benefits even if they
had paid into these programs through payroll taxes. In other words, Social Security
and Medicare costs related to the immigrant labor force are cost neutral to the host
country’s society, and Social Security and Medicare contributions by undocumented
immigrants are net contributions which, in the case in point, represents $0.9 billion.
As noted above, the costs related to uncompensated care are the only real costs
incurred by the host country and are estimated at $12.6 billion. According to a study
by Hadley et al. (2008) for the Kaiser Commission on Medicaid and the Uninsured,
the uncompensated care costs are estimated at $57.4 billion with non-citizens
accounting for 22% of the uninsured population.
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 8
14
Payroll tax information is derived from the Department of Health and Human Services and Social Security
Administration. Social Security tax rate is 12.4% and Medicare tax rate is 2.9%.
15
According to the Congressional Budget Office, Programs such as Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF),
Food Stamps, Supplement Security Income (SSI), and unemployment benefits represent less than 8% of total expenditure
on individual benefits. See www.cbo.gov, Budget and Economic Outlook: Fiscal Years 2011 to 2021. Historical Budget Data,
Table E-9.
9. costs related to education of second-
generation immigrants
Education costs for second-generation immigrants, under the assumption mentioned
before, represent $41.5 billion. The cost above is based on the Pew Hispanic Center
estimate of the number of students enrolled in grades K-12 (48.8 million), and the
share of students with at least one undocumented parent (6.8%), in combination
with National Center for Education Statistics data on the average elementary and
secondary education fee per student ($12,643).16
costs and benefits – a balance
When all elements above are considered, the total annual contribution of immigrant
workers to the American economy is equal to $80 billion. That is, $71.8 billion in total
output plus $7.3 billion in taxes and $0.9 billion in contributions to Social Security
and Medicare made by undocumented immigrants. The annual costs imposed on
society of $54.3 billion includes uncompensated care ($12.8 billion) and education
costs for the second generation ($41.5 billion). The indirect contribution out of
immigrants expenditures ($24.4 billion), was calculated using the REMI PI+ model
and corresponds to $28.9 billion in output, $17.2 billion in wages and salaries and
$4.3 billion in taxes. The net total direct and indirect contributions of immigrant
labor represent $76.1 billion - $100.7 billion in output, $17.2 billion in indirect wages
and salaries, $11.6 billion in federal and state taxes and, $54.3 billion in costs. Based
on their consumption expenditure ($24.4 billion), immigrants also created 403,172
indirect and induced jobs.
Now, let’s turn to the main focus of this paper, the fact that immigrant labor comes
from somewhere else. Home country contributions to raising these workers are
most easily seen in education. The majority of immigrants arrive in the U.S. as
adults, which implies that the costs to “produce” the immigrant labor force are
born outside the economy of the hosting country. Education costs are borne by the
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 9
16
The Pew Hispanic Center estimated that 48,238,962 students enrolled in K-12 grades with 6.8% of them having at least
one undocumented parent (2208). On the other hand, the National Center for Education Statistics suggests that the average
elementary and secondary education fee is $12,643 per student (school year 2008 – 2009). Therefore, the second-generation
educational costs are $41,472,193,366 (2010 dollars). National Center for Education Statistics http://pewhispanic.org/files/
reports/107.pdf and http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/tables/table-sft-1.asp.
10. workers themselves or their families and in cases where education is a public good,
by their home country’s taxpayers.
According to the National Center for Education Statistics, the cost of education for
each educational level varies between public and private (non-profit and for-profit)
educational institutions, with average costs and duration of schooling as illustrated
on Table 7.17
table 7 – educational cost and duration of schooling by educational levels
Education Level
(by degree)
Educational
Cost (year)
Years in
School
Total
Education Cost
Elementary and Secondary Education $12,643 7 $88,501
College (average public and private) $28,315 4 $113,260
Master’s Degree $34,600 2 $69,200
Doctoral Degree $39,700 5 $198,500
Source: National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), Digest of Education Statistics.
Table 8 shows total costs associated with education, assuming that only 30% of the
2,743,000 immigrants with an educational level of “high school graduate or some
college” have “some college.”18
According to the National Center for Education
Statistics, there is 4.3 Master’s degrees per PhD.19
By multiplying average costs,
immigrant population, and years in each educational level, we arrived at total
educational costs equivalent to a “subsidy” of $1.5 trillion.
table 8 – total educational costs
Educational
Foreign-born
(arrived in or
after 2000)
Educational Costs
for Each Educational
Level (in USD)
Total Educational
Costs (in USD)
Less than High School 2,503,000 $88,501 $221,518,003,000
High School Graduate or Some College 2,743,000 $181,348 $497,437,728,580
Bachelor’s Degree 1,639,000 $277,619 $455,018,196,600
Graduate/Professional Degree 1,025,000 $370,067 $379,319,334,347
TOTAL 7,910,000 $1,553,293,262,527
Source: U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States: 2011, National Center for Education
Statistics (NCES), Digest of Education Statistics.
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 10
17
Data from the National Center for Education Statistics presents expenditures for each educational level. See http://nces.
ed.gov/programs/coe/table-sft-1.asp, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/tables/table-pxp-1.asp, http://nces.ed.goc/programs/
coe/tables/table-gsn-1.asp.
18
Data from the National Center for Education Statistics presents expenditures for each educational level. See http://nces.
ed.gov/programs/coe/table-sft-1.asp, http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/tables/table-pxp-1.asp, http://nces.ed.goc/programs/
coe/tables/table-gsn-1.asp.
19
See http://nces.ed.gov/programs/coe/tables/table-dcd-1.asp.
11. conclusion
To conclude, if our discussion about the benefits and costs of immigrant labor
would take into account that immigrant labor is not just labor, but labor that comes
from somewhere else, we would have to account not only for their net direct and
indirect contribution of $75.2 billion, but also for the massive subsidy of $1.5 trillion
embodied in the immigrant labor force and incurred by sending economies – the
cost of producing this labor force before they emigrate.20
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy | 11
20
If we use the estimates of the number of recent immigrants (less than ten years) contained in the report entitled “Massa-
chusetts Immigrants by the Numbers - Demographic Characteristics and Economic Footprint” commissioned by the Immi-
grant Learning Center, there are 218,418 recent immigrants over age 25 living in Massachusetts. Of that population, 56,352
(25.8%) have high school degrees, 7,645 (3.5%) have Associate degrees, 42,810 (19.6%) have BA degrees, 34,728 (15.9%)
have Master’s or professional degrees and 10,702 (4.9%) have PhDs. Taking the average public cost in Massachusetts for
each of these educational degrees, these immigrants “bring” with them $31 billion in educational investment. In “Immigrant
labor and the American economy: Friends or Foes?” Alvaro Lima, Director of Research, Boston Redevelopment Authority
and Nicholas S. Petschek, a dual Masters candidate at UEP and the Fletcher School of Tufts University, Unpublished.
12. works cited
Clayton-Matthews, Alan, Faye Karp and Paul Watanabe. Massachusetts Immigrants by
the Numbers: Demographic Characteristics and Economic Footprint
Economic Faculty Publications, 2009. http://iris.lib.neu.edu/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1009&context=econ_fac_pubs
Congress of the United States, Congressional Budget Office. The Budget and Economic
Outlook: Fiscal Years 2011 to 2021. Congressional Budget Office, 2011. http://
www.cbo.gov/sites/default/files/cbofiles/ftpdocs/120xx/doc12039/01-26_fy2011
outlook.pdf
Hoeffer, Michael, Nancy Rytina and Bryan C. Baker. Estimates of the Unauthorized
Immigrant Population Residing in the United States: January 2009.
U.S. Department of Homeland Security 2010.
Internal Revenue Service. http://www.irs.gov/.
Meillassoux, Claude. Maidens, Meal and Money. Cambridge University Press, 1981.
Passel, Jeffrey S. and D’Vera Cohn. A Portrait of Unauthorized Immigrants in the
United States. Pew Hispanic Center: 2009.
Social Security Administration. http://www.ssa.gov
Tax Foundation. http://taxfoundation.org
U.S. Census Bureau. Table 40. Native and Foreign-Born Populations by
Selected Characteristics, 2009. U.S. Census Bureau, Statistical Abstract
of the United States, 2011.
U.S. Department of Commerce, U.S. Bureau of Economic Analysis.
http://www.bea.gov/national/index.htm#gdp
U.S. Department of Education, Institute of Education Services, National Center for
Education Statistics. http://nces.ed.gov/
U.S. Department of Health and Human Services. http://www.hhs.gov
U.S. Department of Labor, Bureau of Labor Statistics, Consumer Expenditure Survey.
http://www.bls.gov/cex/
Contributions of Immigrant Labor to the American Economy