This document discusses several topics in philosophy, including theories of personal identity from Locke and Hume, arguments from design by Paley and modern versions, the problem of evil from Epicurus, and theories of justice from Plato, Nozick, and theories of distributive justice. It also summarizes views on knowledge from Descartes, Hume, and Popper, and theories of mind from Descartes, functionalism, and the extended mind hypothesis.
This document provides summaries of key concepts from several philosophers and topics in philosophy, including:
- Locke's view of personal identity as consisting in consciousness over time.
- Hume's argument that the self has no empirical basis and is just a "bundle of perceptions."
- Parfit's arguments that psychological continuity, not numerical identity, is central to personal identity, and that we are not fully the same person over time.
- Paley's argument from design comparing the natural world to a designed watch.
- Popper's view that science progresses through falsifying theories, not just accumulating observations.
An Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 05: Free Will
James Mooney
Open Studies
The University of Edinburgh
j.mooney@ed.ac.uk
www.filmandphilosophy.com
@film_philosophy
Origins of knowldge 2016 revision 4. knowledge innatismJon Bradshaw
The document discusses the view of knowledge innatism, which holds that some truths are innate or inherent in humans and not derived from experience. It examines various arguments and examples in support of this view, such as Plato's doctrine of forms, which proposes that knowledge of abstract concepts like mathematics precede experience. However, the document also outlines Locke's critique of innatism in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, where he argues that experience is sufficient to explain all human knowledge and that there is no evidence certain ideas are universally innate.
Presentation given at H+ 2011 Melbourne which turned out to be much about problem merging terminology from independent silo-based framings of complexity theory.
This document provides an overview and outline of topics covered in Chapter 4 of the textbook "Philosophy and God". The chapter discusses the significance of religion and examines arguments for and against the existence of God. It introduces the ontological, cosmological, and design arguments for God's existence, addressing objections and responses to each. Key concepts covered include defining religion, dimensions of religion, and distinguishing between religious belief and experience. The significance of the Big Bang theory in relation to cosmological arguments is also debated.
Origins of knowldge 2016 revision 3. knowledge empiricismJon Bradshaw
The document discusses the arguments made by concept empiricists like Locke, Hume, and Berkeley against the idea of innate concepts or knowledge. These arguments claim that there are no innate concepts or knowledge, any concepts can be explained through experience, and innatism relies on questionable metaphysical assumptions. The document also reviews the differences between ideas/concepts, knowledge, a priori and a posteriori knowledge.
The document summarizes Daniel Kelly's work on moral intuition and disgust. [1] Kelly argues that disgust is a "kludge" - a hodgepodge of mechanisms cobbled together from bits of mental machinery designed for other purposes. [2] Specifically, he puts forward the "Entanglement Thesis" that disgust emerged from the merging of a poison avoidance system and parasite avoidance system. [3] He also discusses the "Co-Optation Thesis" where disgust was later co-opted by the norm system and ethnic boundary system important for human sociality.
This document provides summaries of key concepts from several philosophers and topics in philosophy, including:
- Locke's view of personal identity as consisting in consciousness over time.
- Hume's argument that the self has no empirical basis and is just a "bundle of perceptions."
- Parfit's arguments that psychological continuity, not numerical identity, is central to personal identity, and that we are not fully the same person over time.
- Paley's argument from design comparing the natural world to a designed watch.
- Popper's view that science progresses through falsifying theories, not just accumulating observations.
An Introduction to Philosophy
Lecture 05: Free Will
James Mooney
Open Studies
The University of Edinburgh
j.mooney@ed.ac.uk
www.filmandphilosophy.com
@film_philosophy
Origins of knowldge 2016 revision 4. knowledge innatismJon Bradshaw
The document discusses the view of knowledge innatism, which holds that some truths are innate or inherent in humans and not derived from experience. It examines various arguments and examples in support of this view, such as Plato's doctrine of forms, which proposes that knowledge of abstract concepts like mathematics precede experience. However, the document also outlines Locke's critique of innatism in his Essay Concerning Human Understanding, where he argues that experience is sufficient to explain all human knowledge and that there is no evidence certain ideas are universally innate.
Presentation given at H+ 2011 Melbourne which turned out to be much about problem merging terminology from independent silo-based framings of complexity theory.
This document provides an overview and outline of topics covered in Chapter 4 of the textbook "Philosophy and God". The chapter discusses the significance of religion and examines arguments for and against the existence of God. It introduces the ontological, cosmological, and design arguments for God's existence, addressing objections and responses to each. Key concepts covered include defining religion, dimensions of religion, and distinguishing between religious belief and experience. The significance of the Big Bang theory in relation to cosmological arguments is also debated.
Origins of knowldge 2016 revision 3. knowledge empiricismJon Bradshaw
The document discusses the arguments made by concept empiricists like Locke, Hume, and Berkeley against the idea of innate concepts or knowledge. These arguments claim that there are no innate concepts or knowledge, any concepts can be explained through experience, and innatism relies on questionable metaphysical assumptions. The document also reviews the differences between ideas/concepts, knowledge, a priori and a posteriori knowledge.
The document summarizes Daniel Kelly's work on moral intuition and disgust. [1] Kelly argues that disgust is a "kludge" - a hodgepodge of mechanisms cobbled together from bits of mental machinery designed for other purposes. [2] Specifically, he puts forward the "Entanglement Thesis" that disgust emerged from the merging of a poison avoidance system and parasite avoidance system. [3] He also discusses the "Co-Optation Thesis" where disgust was later co-opted by the norm system and ethnic boundary system important for human sociality.
Kant's moral philosophy, known as deontology, was influenced by thinkers like Newton, Hume, and Rousseau. Kant wanted to establish a rational basis for ethics similar to Newton's laws, to avoid moral relativism. Rousseau influenced Kant's view that autonomy is essential for morality. For Kant, morality applies to all rational beings and is based on duty rather than self-interest. Kant resolved the tension between duty and autonomy by arguing that moral duty arises from our own rational will, not external imposition, allowing for both obligation and freedom.
Origins of knowldge 2016 revision 2. concept innatismJon Bradshaw
This document discusses the philosophical view of rationalism and the concept of innatism. It provides background on rationalism, defining innatism as the view that the human mind possesses certain innate concepts or knowledge prior to experience. It examines Plato and Descartes as early proponents of rationalism and innatism. Specific arguments for innate concepts discussed include Descartes' trademark argument for an innate idea of God, his wax argument for an innate concept of substance, and Plato's view that we possess innate ideas of forms or universals that cannot be derived from sensory experience alone. Issues with Plato's view are also outlined. The document then examines Leibniz's arguments for innate ideas based on the necessity and certainty of some
1) Finding a shared ethical framework in our interdependent and pluralistic world is crucial for our survival, not optional.
2) We must use all aspects of human understanding, including science, stories, imagination and moral intuition, to develop a shared sense of ethics.
3) Starting with a shared respect for nature and the innate human moral sense can help build the foundations for a global ethical system focused on our common humanity.
Perception 2016 revision 2. indirect realism part 1Jon Bradshaw
Indirect realism holds that the immediate objects of perception are mind-dependent sense-data caused by and representing mind-independent physical objects. This view faces two main issues:
1) It leads to skepticism about whether the external world exists, as we can only perceive sense-data and not physical objects directly. Responses point to the coherence of sensory experiences and the external world as the "best hypothesis."
2) It leads to skepticism about our ability to know the true nature of the external world, as sense-data only represent it. Responses note sense-data reveal relations between objects and distinguish primary from secondary qualities of objects.
The document discusses these issues through the views of philosophers like Descartes, Lock
Physics and buddhism: The problem of the beginningXin Zhao Ng
By Ng Xin Zhao, Physicists Buddhist please download only for personal views or reference only, do not plagiarize any part of the presentation for your own presentation and/or criticism. Email me for further discussions if you are interested in the topic or wish to have this presented at your place/society/organization. ngxinzhaomonk@gmail.com
Disclaimer: information in the slides are due to the views that are (I think) true for the early 21st century. or at least in 2012. Future physics may make this looks like junk. And I'm open to that possibility.
Sorry that I've used some animation, thus you can't see the full slides.
1) Modern physics and science have discovered that the universe is fundamentally holographic and interconnected, rather than a collection of separate objects.
2) Pioneering scientists like Bohm and Pribram proposed that reality is holographic, with the properties of the whole contained in every part.
3) If the nature of reality is truly holographic, it suggests that consciousness plays a role in constructing physical reality and that our thoughts can directly influence worldly outcomes.
El siguiente formato que se presenta es un guión para elaborar una presentación animada en powtoon sobre el tema "Paradigma sociocultural". Dicho formato cuenta con los elementos básicos que se deben considerar para la creación de una presentación, como lo son las imágenes, las acciones, texto y las notas.
Este documento lista 7 nombres de personas y describe brevemente los concentradores HUB y Switch, los bridges o repetidores, y los modems. Explica que los concentradores centralizan el cableado de una red y que los bridges repiten la información enviada a través de cables cortos, mientras que los modems convierten señales digitales a analógicas y viceversa para enviarlas y recibirlas a través de redes telefónicas.
The Purple Palms Resort & Spa offers luxury accommodations amid misty mountains and countryside scenery. It has five-star amenities including an elegant lobby, gourmet restaurant, bars, spa, fitness center, and swimming pool. The resort welcomes discerning travelers to relax and rejuvenate in its peaceful setting.
Kant's moral philosophy, known as deontology, was influenced by thinkers like Newton, Hume, and Rousseau. Kant wanted to establish a rational basis for ethics similar to Newton's laws, to avoid moral relativism. Rousseau influenced Kant's view that autonomy is essential for morality. For Kant, morality applies to all rational beings and is based on duty rather than self-interest. Kant resolved the tension between duty and autonomy by arguing that moral duty arises from our own rational will, not external imposition, allowing for both obligation and freedom.
Origins of knowldge 2016 revision 2. concept innatismJon Bradshaw
This document discusses the philosophical view of rationalism and the concept of innatism. It provides background on rationalism, defining innatism as the view that the human mind possesses certain innate concepts or knowledge prior to experience. It examines Plato and Descartes as early proponents of rationalism and innatism. Specific arguments for innate concepts discussed include Descartes' trademark argument for an innate idea of God, his wax argument for an innate concept of substance, and Plato's view that we possess innate ideas of forms or universals that cannot be derived from sensory experience alone. Issues with Plato's view are also outlined. The document then examines Leibniz's arguments for innate ideas based on the necessity and certainty of some
1) Finding a shared ethical framework in our interdependent and pluralistic world is crucial for our survival, not optional.
2) We must use all aspects of human understanding, including science, stories, imagination and moral intuition, to develop a shared sense of ethics.
3) Starting with a shared respect for nature and the innate human moral sense can help build the foundations for a global ethical system focused on our common humanity.
Perception 2016 revision 2. indirect realism part 1Jon Bradshaw
Indirect realism holds that the immediate objects of perception are mind-dependent sense-data caused by and representing mind-independent physical objects. This view faces two main issues:
1) It leads to skepticism about whether the external world exists, as we can only perceive sense-data and not physical objects directly. Responses point to the coherence of sensory experiences and the external world as the "best hypothesis."
2) It leads to skepticism about our ability to know the true nature of the external world, as sense-data only represent it. Responses note sense-data reveal relations between objects and distinguish primary from secondary qualities of objects.
The document discusses these issues through the views of philosophers like Descartes, Lock
Physics and buddhism: The problem of the beginningXin Zhao Ng
By Ng Xin Zhao, Physicists Buddhist please download only for personal views or reference only, do not plagiarize any part of the presentation for your own presentation and/or criticism. Email me for further discussions if you are interested in the topic or wish to have this presented at your place/society/organization. ngxinzhaomonk@gmail.com
Disclaimer: information in the slides are due to the views that are (I think) true for the early 21st century. or at least in 2012. Future physics may make this looks like junk. And I'm open to that possibility.
Sorry that I've used some animation, thus you can't see the full slides.
1) Modern physics and science have discovered that the universe is fundamentally holographic and interconnected, rather than a collection of separate objects.
2) Pioneering scientists like Bohm and Pribram proposed that reality is holographic, with the properties of the whole contained in every part.
3) If the nature of reality is truly holographic, it suggests that consciousness plays a role in constructing physical reality and that our thoughts can directly influence worldly outcomes.
El siguiente formato que se presenta es un guión para elaborar una presentación animada en powtoon sobre el tema "Paradigma sociocultural". Dicho formato cuenta con los elementos básicos que se deben considerar para la creación de una presentación, como lo son las imágenes, las acciones, texto y las notas.
Este documento lista 7 nombres de personas y describe brevemente los concentradores HUB y Switch, los bridges o repetidores, y los modems. Explica que los concentradores centralizan el cableado de una red y que los bridges repiten la información enviada a través de cables cortos, mientras que los modems convierten señales digitales a analógicas y viceversa para enviarlas y recibirlas a través de redes telefónicas.
The Purple Palms Resort & Spa offers luxury accommodations amid misty mountains and countryside scenery. It has five-star amenities including an elegant lobby, gourmet restaurant, bars, spa, fitness center, and swimming pool. The resort welcomes discerning travelers to relax and rejuvenate in its peaceful setting.
SD Inglés II U2 A3 CCH Vallejo Matutino: Jaime Fuentes, Pilar Mendoza, Fharib...Araceli Mejia
Este documento presenta una secuencia didáctica de tres sesiones para la unidad 2 de Inglés II. La unidad se enfoca en describir y ubicar lugares en la comunidad. Las actividades desarrollan habilidades de comprensión y expresión oral y escrita relacionadas con dar e interpretar instrucciones para llegar a lugares. En la apertura, los estudiantes practican vocabulario y estructuras sobre lugares. Luego, realizan ejercicios orales y escritos usando imperativos y marcadores para dar direcciones. Finalmente,
slides 2 problem of pholosophy. to discover areas of philosophy to scientific...muhammadsulaman34
This document discusses several key topics in philosophy including ontology, ethics, and free will vs determinism.
1) Ontology is the study of the nature of reality and existence. It examines questions about the relationship between mind and body, the nature of time and causality, and whether reality exists independently of the mind.
2) Ethics examines theories of right and wrong action, including metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics. It explores the nature of morality and how people should act.
3) The debate over free will vs determinism centers around whether human actions are freely chosen or determined by prior causes. Compatibilists believe we can have both free will and determinism, while hard determin
This document provides an overview of epistemological foundations from positivism to post-positivism. It discusses rationalism and empiricism, leading to the development of positivism which emphasized empirical observation and testing of knowledge claims. Challenges to positivism are outlined from thinkers like Popper, Quine, and Kuhn, with Popper arguing for falsification over induction, Quine dismantling foundations of knowledge, and Kuhn proposing that scientific revolutions result in incommensurable paradigms.
Epistemology of positivism and post positivism Nasif Chowdhury
This document provides an overview of epistemological foundations from rationalism to positivism and beyond. It discusses rationalist approaches from Descartes that sought to deduce knowledge from reason and certainty. It then examines empiricist views from Locke that knowledge comes from sensory experience. Positivism developed as an epistemology where genuine knowledge is based on observable evidence through science. However, later post-positivist thinkers like Popper, Quine, and Kuhn challenged positivism by arguing theories cannot be fully verified and scientific paradigms change for complex non-rational reasons.
The document provides an introduction to common logical fallacies. It defines fallacies as arguments that seem correct but are not valid upon examination. It focuses on three main categories of fallacies: fallacies of relevance, ambiguity, and presumption. Under fallacies of relevance, it discusses the argument from ignorance, appeal to inappropriate authority, appeal to popular opinion, complex question, begging the question, false dilemma, and ad hominem. It also covers fallacies of ambiguity like equivocation and accent. The document aims to help readers identify and avoid using fallacious reasoning.
Here are my responses to the questions:
2. The story is an allegory for human ignorance. The prisoners represent ordinary people who are ignorant about reality. They mistake shadows for reality just as we mistake appearances for truth. The journey outside the cave represents gaining knowledge and understanding reality as it truly is rather than how it appears.
3. The passage encourages us to question our assumptions and seek truth beyond surface level appearances. It suggests that true knowledge and wisdom lies in examining reality directly rather than being content with shadows and illusions. Seeing the good (the sun) allows one to properly evaluate the value of things in the cave. This turning of attention toward what is real, just and good can help us live better, more meaningful lives
GOOD FOR WHAT? A sceptical look at the rationalising of morality.noiseTM
Thinking about morality is one of the more practical pursuits in philosophy – it can be, and is, applied in “real life” all the time, in law and politics, on ethics boards and in codes of conduct everywhere.
Which works ok up to a point - but despite thousands of years of systematic thought by some of the best brains in history (and believe me they are THOROUGH) there is still no final consensus on how we can define what is right and what is wrong.
Most systems of morality focus on trying to turn it into something rational, objective and universal – to get rid of emotion and the personal out of moral choices.
And yet isn’t “evil” just “stuff we REALLY don’t like?”
Thomas Morton will talk about why the holy grail of a purely rational morality may be a dead end – that morality is necessarily centred on human wants and feelings; and any attempt to divorce ethics from empathy is never going to be adequate.
Introduction to Philosophy of Educationbladetrinity2
This document discusses different philosophies of education including idealism, realism, pragmatism, and existentialism. It defines key terms like metaphysics, epistemology, axiology, and provides examples of logical fallacies. It also covers curriculum approaches and the methodology of instruction. Idealism views reality as mental and ideas as the only things that are truly real. The role of the teacher under idealism is to bring out latent ideas in students' minds through subjects like philosophy, theology, and the liberal arts.
This document discusses the concept of justice and whether there are universal ethical values by which justice can be measured. It examines three major ethical theories - virtue ethics, deontological theories, and consequentialism - and finds flaws and inconsistencies in each. However, it also finds some overlap between the theories, suggesting there may be a universal concept of "the good" that they are imperfectly capturing. The document concludes that while skepticism is warranted, there are reasons to continue inquiring into whether universal ethical values exist and what their nature may be.
This document discusses different theories and perspectives on ethics and morality. It begins by examining how ethics relates to value judgements and decision making. It then explores moral relativism and the idea that moral values vary between cultures. Different views on morality are presented, including that it requires conscience and responsibility. The document also discusses deontological ethics based on duty, utilitarianism focusing on the greatest happiness, and the perspectives that morality stems from religion, fear of punishment, or self interest.
Ida B. Wells-Barnett and Her Passion for Justicekeziacagalawan
This document provides an overview of learning competencies, objectives, and tasks related to analyzing a text about Ida B. Wells-Barnett and her advocacy work. It includes reading comprehension questions, listening activities, and exercises to analyze literary devices and rhetorical techniques used in speeches about social justice.
When you say there is evil, aren’t you admitting there is good?
When you accept the existence of goodness, you must affirm a moral law on the basis of which to differentiate between good and evil.
But when you admit to a moral law, you must posit a moral lawgiver.[
This document discusses the concept of spirituality. It begins by critiquing the modern view of spirituality as an outdated concept like phlogiston or unicorns. It argues that our understanding is limited by being trained as logical positivists to only accept empirical science as a source of valid knowledge. A paradigm shift is needed to understand spirituality and recognize the central importance of intuitive and unverifiable knowledge, which forms the basis of human experiences like love, ethics, and spirituality. Spirituality is defined as a capacity of the heart to feel for others and sense our collective humanity, which can grow to include a sense of unity with God. The document differentiates this view of spirituality from outdated scientific perspectives.
List of unsolved problems in philosophy by: Raquel dela Cruz, EdD-IEMQuel Dela Cruz-Bernabe
This document lists numerous unresolved problems in philosophy across several subfields. In aesthetics, it discusses essentialism and how each medium has its own strengths and weaknesses. In epistemology, it outlines problems regarding the nature, scope and limitations of knowledge, including the Molyneux problem and infinite regression. In ethics, it discusses moral luck and Moore's disbelief problem. It also examines issues in philosophy of language like material implication, and in philosophy of mind like the mind-body problem and criteria for intelligence and consciousness in artificial systems.
Utilitarianism is a teleological ethical theory that evaluates actions based on their consequences. There are three main types: act, rule, and preference utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism evaluates individual actions based on their consequences, while rule utilitarianism evaluates actions based on whether they conform to rules that maximize well-being. Preference utilitarianism, associated with Peter Singer, bases morality on furthering individuals' interests and preferences rather than happiness. Utilitarianism faces criticisms such as the naturalistic fallacy and the inability to accurately quantify and compare pleasures. Rule utilitarianism avoids some issues with act utilitarianism such as the inability to trust those who only follow rules situationally.
Utilitarianism is a teleological ethical theory that evaluates actions based on their consequences. There are three main types: act, rule, and preference utilitarianism. Act utilitarianism judges each act independently based on its consequences, while rule utilitarianism evaluates actions based on general rules that maximize well-being. Preference utilitarianism focuses on fulfilling individual preferences and interests rather than maximizing happiness. Utilitarianism faces criticisms such as the naturalistic fallacy and the inability to accurately quantify and compare pleasures. Rule utilitarianism is argued to be more practical than act utilitarianism as it provides stability of rules and obligations in society.
Lesson 7 of a multipart series. The Cosmological, Ontological, Teleological and other arguments don't prove the God of the Bible, however, they do support a Theistic world view.
This document discusses arguments for the existence of God and the reliability of Christianity. It begins by asking if truth exists, if God exists, if miracles are possible, and if the New Testament is historically reliable. It argues that if the answers to these questions are yes, then the Bible can be considered true. It then examines arguments for the existence of God, including cosmological, teleological, and origin of life arguments. It addresses criticisms of these arguments and concludes that the evidence points to an intelligent designer.
2. • SELF: What Am I? / Locke / Self as Fiction / Self
and Future
• RELIGION: Introducing PoR / Design / Modern
Design / Acts of God
• ETHICS: Plato / Bentham & Mill / Kant / Abortion
• KNOWLEDGE: Descartes / Hume / Popper / Kuhn
• MIND: Cartesian Dualism / Functionalism /
Extended Mind / Consciousness
• POLITICAL PHILOSOPHY: Plato / Consent &
Consequences / Distributive Justice / Equality
• The topics focused on by the TMAs are less likely
to come up (in any case, there‟s less need to cover
Topics covered
3. Locke on Self
• The orthodox view in Locke‟s
day was that a person
consisted of a material body
and an immaterial soul.
• Locke argues that the
consciousness a person has
of being him or herself, and of
being the same now as at
earlier times is what personal
identity consists in.
• Prince and Cobbler.
• OBJECTION: Butler claimed
that consciousness of
personal identity pre-
supposed, and so could not
4. • Although Hume was the focus of TMA 01, I‟ve included
a slide on his view because that was so long ago.
• Hume, like Locke, was an empiricist. He believed that all
knowledge came from experience and divided our
perceptions into two kinds: impressions and ideas.
• Simple impressions come from experience and ideas
are derived from them.
• Hume argues that the self has no empirical basis. When
we introspect we find „nothing but a bundle or collection
of different impressions‟ in a state of continual change.
• OBJECTION: Hume seems unable to adequately
explain what keeps a particular bundle of experiences
together.
• OBJECTION: Hume‟s argument only works if we accept
Hume on Self
5. Parfit on Self
• Parfit‟s view is influenced by
both Locke and Hume. He
argues both that psychological
continuity is central to identity
and that I am not the same
person now as I will be in 20
years.
• Brain bisection: both resulting
people remember my life, have
my character. Which is me?
Both? Neither?
• Teletransporter: In „beaming‟ to
Mars my body is destroyed
and „I‟ am reconstituted from
new matter. Does someone
who uses the teletransporter
commit suicide?
6. Taylor on Self
• Argues that the „neutral‟ or
„bleached‟ view of the self
taken by Parfit cannot account
for the way our conception of
the good shapes our lives.
• For Taylor we must consider
our whole life narrative if we
are to understand ourselves.
• EXAM TIPS:
• Although the section on Taylor
is small, it‟s worth knowing as
it can be used in almost any
question on Parfit.
• Book 1 is smaller than the
others which means there is a
chance of an unexpected
7. • Paley offered an argument
from design. He used an
analogy between the
natural world and a watch.
• PREMISE Given a watch‟s
precise organisation and
functionality, it is
overwhelmingly more likely
that the watch should be the
result of design than of
accident.
• SUB-CONCLUSION By
analogy, for all the features
of nature that display
precise organisation and
functionality, it is
overwhelmingly more likely
Paley’s Design Argument
8. • 1. The universe is not like a
machine. Hume instead
suggests that the universe is
more like something organic
than a machine. A better
analogy is that the universe is
like a giant vegetable. We
wouldn‟t think a carrot in a
field must have had a
designer, so we don‟t need to
think that about the universe.
• 2. Our experience is too
limited to draw the analogy.
Hume poses the rhetorical
question, „from observing the
growth of a single hair, can we
learn anything concerning the
Hume’s Objections to the Design Argument
9. • The basic irreducible complexity argument is:
• PREMISE: Evolution can explain how things change
gradually, through a process of natural selection.
• PREMISE: There are some phenomena that cannot
be explained by gradual change, because their
complexity could not have come about in slow
stages.
• CONCLUSION: Evolution cannot explain such
phenomena (and this conclusion is then used to
support the design argument).
• Youtube video outlining arguments against
irreducible complexity:
Modern Arguments From Design:
Irreducible Complexity
10. • PREMISE: If the initial
cosmological conditions
had not been just
right, the universe could
not contain life.
• PREMISE: The fact that
the initial cosmological
conditions were just right
was either a result of
chance or it was a result
of design.
• PREMISE: It is hugely
improbable that these
initial conditions could
have been right by any
sort of chance.
Modern Arguments From Design: Fine
Tuning
• Objections:
• A – We could still offer Hume‟s
objection that the argument does
not prove the existence of God in
the traditional sense.
• B – We could deny that the
universe needs to have been fine
tuned. Physicist Victor Stenger
denies that the universe needs to
have a narrow range of constants.
• C – Some physicists claim that
there have been / are numerous
universes. Eventually one of them
would have the constants of our
universe, so the appearance of
design is an illusion.
• D – A complex universe needs a
complex designer, but then the
complex designer needs to be
explain... Possibly by another
complex designer! This would
11. Epicurus on Evil
• 4 basic possibilities:
• 1- God is willing to help but unable, in
which case he is weak.
• 2- God is able to help but is
unwilling, in which case he is
malevolent.
• 3- God is neither willing nor able, in
which case he is weak and
malevolent.
• 4- God is willing and able, in which
case it is impossible to explain the
existence of evil.
• The existence of evil is taken to show
that God cannot be
omnipotent, omniscient, and
omnibenevolent.
• RESPONSE: free will defence.
• RESPONSE: revised conception of
omnipotence.
12. Socrates’ response to Glaucon
• Glaucon‟s challenge: Show me
that justice pays!
• Based on the Ring of Gyges.
• EXAM TIP: don‟t spend too
long explaining the Ring of
Gyges myth itself. Note that it
is a ring that makes those who
wear it invisible and then move
on to the philosophical
argument. There‟s no need to
remember much about the
myth, it‟s far more important to
remember the arguments that
follow. It you suddenly develop
a mental block and call it „an
invisibility cloak‟ you can still
produce an equally good
• Socrates response:
• Argument from mental health.
The unjust person cannot
flourish because they are not
ruled by the rational part of
their mind.
• Argument from superior
judgement. Those who love
knowledge will be unlikely to
be unjust and will be best able
to decide what is good and
best to do.
• EXAM TIP: It wouldn‟t be all
that surprising for there to be a
question comparing Kant and
Socrates/Plato.
13. Mill
• Consequentialism + Hedonism =
Utilitarianism
• Objection to Bentham‟s version of
utilitarianism: it is a swinish morality!
Bentham leaves us with no way to
justify preferring noble and dignified
human pursuits over base pleasures
(or even pleasures derived from
cruelty).
• Mill attempts to solve this problem by
distinguishing between higher and
lower pleasures. One pleasure is
higher than another if those who
have adequate experience, and are
therefore competent judges, of both
would chose it.
• Mill happened to think that people
would generally prefer intellectual
pleasures over bodily pleasures, but
OBJECTION: The notion of „competent
judge‟ is unclear.
OBJECTION: We cannot easily compare
pleasures of different kinds. The pleasure
of reading a good book is totally different
to the pleasure of swimming in the sea.
OBJECTION: Sometimes ignoring rules
(e.g. Never murder the innocent)
could, conceivably, lead to greater
14. • 4 Kantian themes:
• 1) our reasoning must be universal, 2) the good will is
valuable even when it doesn‟t yield the best
consequences, 3) an act has no moral worth if it is done
because the agent enjoys doing so, 4) it is wrong to treat
others as mere means, they must be treated as ends.
• Universalisability test (the Categorical Imperative):
• “I ought never to act except in such a way that I can also will
that my maxim should become a universal law”
• The maxim „I will make false promises when doing so
benefits me‟ fails this test.
• Trickier cases: the miser‟s maxim: „when I want things to
continue going well for me, I will refuse to aid those who
need some assistance. Kant argues this fails the test
because it causes my will to conflict with itself. If I could
never rely on assistance from others things wouldn‟t go well
Kant on Ethics
15. • Descartes‟ method to establish certainty was to doubt
everything he could.
• We are going to consider his arguments for establishing
the method of doubt.
• 1) The unreliability of the senses.
• 2) The dream hypothesis.
• 3) The demon hypothesis.
• Sceptics, in the course of their ordinary lives, do not doubt
whether they exist, whether being hit by a bus would harm
them, etc. Instead Sceptics think that it is important that
we should be able to „know‟ that we are not dreaming, or
being deceived by a demon.
• Scepticism challenges the notion that our ordinary
justifications are adequate.
• OBJECTION: Descartes does not doubt the fact that the
words he uses are meaningful, however all languages
require a system of publically governed rules, so we
Rene Descartes on Knowledge
16. Hume on Induction
• Hume argues that induction
cannot be rationally justified.
• The constant conjunctions of
impressions in our experience
leads us to suppose there is a
necessary connection
between events (whenever I
throw a stone into the sea it
sinks), but we do not directly
perceive this connection.
• There is nothing in the nature
of our ideas which determines
such a connection – a belief
in this connection is the result
of experience and custom.
• POSSIBLE OBJECTION:
17. Popper on Science
• Popper‟s aim is to challenge the
„received view‟ of science as an
endeavour which progresses by
observing natural phenomena and
increasing knowledge. Popper
claims that there is no such thing
as pure observation.
• For Popper science must be
falsifiable. Theories which are
compatible with any and every
state of affairs (Marxism and
Freudianism, in his view) cannot
be scientific.
• Science progresses through a
series of conjectures and
refutations. If I claim that all birds
can fly(conjecture), and then come
across a piece of evidence which
falsifies, e.g. A penguin, my claim
is refuted.
• A theory which survives serious
OBJECTION: Popper‟s view
does not adequately
distinguish between when a
view should be rejected and
18. Kuhn on Science
• Kuhn argues that scientific
change is best explained as a
series of paradigm shifts.
• Paradigms are “accepted
examples of actual scientific
practice – examples which include
law, theory, application and
instrumentation together – [and
which] provide models from which
spring particular coherent
traditions of scientific research”
• According to Kuhn normal science
solves puzzles. When a scientific
tradition finds it impossible to
solve the puzzles it sets itself it
might enter a revolutionary period
(note: Kuhn does not specify the
exact conditions under which a
19. • Based on Descartes‟ method of doubt. I can doubt that I
have a body but I cannot doubt that I have a mind.
• If it is possible that my mind is distinct from my body, then
there must be a real distinction between them.
• Cartesian dualism captures some of our basic intuitions
about mind and body. It makes sense to say “She has a
probing mind” but perhaps not “She has a probing brain”.
Mind and matter seem to be conceptually distinct.
• OBJECTION: Perhaps Mind and Body only appear to be
distinct, but are two aspects of a single substance.
• OBJECTION: The Interaction problem. Elizabeth of Bohemia
ask Descartes how something solely immaterial could
interact with something solely material.
• EXAM TIP: People sometimes think that Descartes‟ view is
obviously false and that the interaction problem is
insurmountable. This leads them to write slightly dismissive
rebuttals. Be as charitable as possible (and remember that
those marking the exams will probably have read hundreds
Descartes on Mind
20. • Clark and Chalmers argue that our minds can, and do,
extend beyond our brains.
• They give the example of Otto. Otto has Alzheimer‟s, so
can‟t remember things well. He uses a notebook to record
useful information.
• Clark and Chalmers argue that the information in Otto‟s
notebook is just like the information in our memories. They
are both mental states. The notebook has become part of
Otto‟s mind.
• Features of the case: 1) Otto always keeps his notebook
with him. 2) Otto always checks his notebook
automatically when asked a question (or when wondering
about a question) that relates to the information in his
notebook. 3) Otto trusts his notebook implicitly, just as
much as we trust our memories.
The Extended Mind
21. • Nagel‟s “What Is It Like To Be a Bat?” is a response to
physicalist theories of mind.
• According to Nagel it is hard to see how consciousness can
be adequately accounted for in physicalist terms.
• An explanation of subjective phenomena is essentially
connected to a subjective point of view.
• Bats have a point of view in a way that bricks don‟t. We can
understand bricks in solely objective terms – they have no
subjective point of view.
• This means that a reduction of consciousness or an objective
explanation of consciousness that can be grasped by any
intelligent creature seems impossible.
• We can‟t yet conclude that physicalism is false: “It would be
a mistake to conclude that physicalism must be false…. It
would be truer to say that physicalism is a position we cannot
understand because we do not at present have any
Nagel on Mind
22. Nozick: Entitlement theory
• Robert Nozick, in his Anarchy, State and
Utopia, argues that justice involves three ideas:
• 1. Justice in acquisition: how you first acquire
property rights over something that has not
previously been owned.
• 2. Justice in transfer: how you acquire property
rights over something that has been transferred
(e.g. by gift or exchange) to you by someone
else.
• 3. Rectification of injustice: how to restore
something to its rightful owner, in case of
injustice in either acquisition or transfer.
23. • Nozick's „Wilt Chamberlain‟ argument is an attempt to
show that patterned principles of just distribution are
incompatible with liberty.
• Wilt Chamberlain is an extremely popular basketball
player. Let‟s assume 1 million people are willing to
freely give him 25p each to watch him play basketball
over the course of a season (we assume no other
transactions occur). Wilt now has £250,000, a much
larger sum than any of the other people in the society.
The new distribution in society obviously is no longer
ordered by our favoured pattern. However Nozick
argues that this society is just.
Nozick
24. Public address system
• Imagine a group of your neighbours invests in a
public address system with the aim of entertaining
people on your street.
• There just so happens to be 365 people living on
your street.
• Those who bought the system assign everyone a
day on which they are to spend a few hours
entertaining people using the system.
• “On his assigned day a person is to run the public
address system, play records over it, give news
bulletins, tell amusing stories he has heard, and so
on. After 138 days on which each person has done
his part, your day arrives. Are you obligated to take
your turn? You have benefited from it… but must
25. • There isn‟t enough time in the exam to think up a totally new
answer to a particular question. Therefore it is important to
know your main argument in advance.
• The best way to do this is to write practice essays. The very
best way is to write 1000 word long essays (or however long
you think you can manage in an hour) on your favourite
aspects of the course. Take as long as you like and be sure
that you‟re happy with the essays, and then practice writing
similar answers in exam conditions.
• So: if as you revise you write down your thoughts (arguments)
on Kant‟s ethics, turn these notes into an essay entitled
„Outline and assess Kant‟s ethics‟. You‟ll find that you‟ll be
able to produce a very similar answer to „Is it ever right to
lie?‟, „Kant claims that we should act only on universalisable
maxims. Is he correct?‟ and so on.
• Questions that look different are often very similar.
Good luck!