Daniel Tsui grew up in a remote village in China and received his early education in Hong Kong where kind teachers inspired him to pursue intellectual frontiers. He came to the US for college and conducted research at Princeton University that led to the 1982 discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect, for which he shared the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics. This groundbreaking finding showed that electrons can form new types of particles with fractional charges in strong magnetic fields.
The document outlines the development of atomic structure theories from ancient Greek philosophers like Democritus and Aristotle to modern scientists in the 19th and 20th centuries like Dalton, Rutherford, Bohr, Chadwick and others. Key developments included evidence that atoms are made of even smaller particles like electrons and nuclei, discoveries of subatomic particles like protons and neutrons, and the emerging theories of quantum mechanics. This led to a new understanding of atoms and molecules at the quantum level in terms of electrons, isotopes, nuclear reactions and molecular geometry.
1. Modern physics developed after Newtonian mechanics as scientists sought more accurate descriptions of phenomena that classical physics could not explain, such as black body radiation.
2. Pioneers of modern physics including Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg, and Schrodinger developed quantum mechanics and theories like relativity that are based on probabilities rather than certainties.
3. Applications of modern physics include lasers, computers, nuclear power and weapons, and advances in fields like chemistry and molecular biology.
An introduction of quantum physics in the field of homoeopathy medical scienceDrAnkit Srivastav
The document provides an introduction to quantum physics and its applications in homeopathy medical science. It discusses the early discoveries and scientists that contributed to the development of quantum theory, such as Planck, Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrodinger, Dirac and others. It describes how quantum physics began with Planck's quantum hypothesis and was further developed into modern quantum mechanics and field theories. Quantum theory began to be applied to chemical structures and reactivity in the 1920s and paved the way for fields like quantum chemistry and quantum field theories like quantum electrodynamics.
This document summarizes key concepts in physics. It discusses how Kepler examined planetary motion data to show elliptical rather than circular orbits. It also describes the development of quantum mechanics to explain atomic phenomena, Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom, and Dirac's theoretical prediction of antimatter later confirmed by Anderson. The document defines physics as the study of natural laws and their manifestations, and discusses the fields of classical and modern physics including mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, and thermodynamics. It also outlines the four fundamental forces in nature and explores the nature of physical laws like conservation of energy.
Discovery of Self-Sustained 235U Fission Causing Sunlight by Padmanabha Rao E...IOSR Journals
For the first time in solar physics, this paper reports a comprehensive study how 235Uranium fission
causes Sunlight by the atomic phenomenon, Padmanabha Rao Effect against the theory of fusion. The first major
breakthrough lies in identifying as many as 153 solar lines in the Bharat Radiation range from 12.87 to 31 nm
reported by various researchers since 1960s. The Sunlight phenomenon is explained as follows. For example, the
energy equivalence 72.48 eV of the most intense 17.107 nm emission in the middle of solar spectrum is the energy
lost by β, γ, or X-ray energy of a fission product while passing through core-Coulomb space. This energy loss is the
Bharat Radiation energy that cause EUV, UV, visible, and near infrared emissions on valence excitation. From vast
data of emissions and energies of various fission products, 606.31 keV β (Eβmax) energy of 131I was chosen as the
source of 17.107 nm emission. For the first time a typical Bharat Radiation spectrum was observed when plotted
energy loss against β, γ, or X-ray energies of fission products supposedly present in solar flare and atmosphere :
113Xe, 131I, 137Cs, 95Zr, 144Cs, 134I, 140Ba, 133I, 140La, 133In etc that caused solar lines. Consistent presence of a sharp
line for four months in AIA spectral EUV band at 335A exemplifies self-sustained uranium fission from a small site
appeared in SDO/AIA image at 304A. Sun’s dark spot is explained as a large crater formed on Sun’s core surface as
a result of fission reaction that does not show any emission since fission products would be thrown away from the
site during fission. Purely the same Sun’s core material left over at the site after fission reaction devoid of fission
products and any emission seems to be the familiar dark Matter. This could be the first report on the existence of
Sun’s Dark Matter.
1. Isaac Newton introduced the scientific method in the early 1600s, arguing that theories must be supported by observational evidence.
2. Newton discovered that white light is made of different colors when passed through a prism, supporting the idea that light is composed of particles. However, the behavior of intersecting light beams was not explained by the particle theory.
3. Newton formulated his three laws of motion and universal law of gravitation, establishing classical mechanics and allowing Kepler's laws of planetary motion to be proven, marking the beginnings of modern physics.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics. It arises from the quantum excitation of the Higgs field, which is believed to give mass to fundamental particles and help explain certain phenomena. Decades of searching led to the discovery of the Higgs boson particle at the Large Hadron Collider in 2012, with a mass between 125-127 GeV/c2, matching predictions. More studies are still needed to fully verify its properties and rule out alternative theories.
The document outlines the development of atomic structure theories from ancient Greek philosophers like Democritus and Aristotle to modern scientists in the 19th and 20th centuries like Dalton, Rutherford, Bohr, Chadwick and others. Key developments included evidence that atoms are made of even smaller particles like electrons and nuclei, discoveries of subatomic particles like protons and neutrons, and the emerging theories of quantum mechanics. This led to a new understanding of atoms and molecules at the quantum level in terms of electrons, isotopes, nuclear reactions and molecular geometry.
1. Modern physics developed after Newtonian mechanics as scientists sought more accurate descriptions of phenomena that classical physics could not explain, such as black body radiation.
2. Pioneers of modern physics including Planck, Einstein, Heisenberg, and Schrodinger developed quantum mechanics and theories like relativity that are based on probabilities rather than certainties.
3. Applications of modern physics include lasers, computers, nuclear power and weapons, and advances in fields like chemistry and molecular biology.
An introduction of quantum physics in the field of homoeopathy medical scienceDrAnkit Srivastav
The document provides an introduction to quantum physics and its applications in homeopathy medical science. It discusses the early discoveries and scientists that contributed to the development of quantum theory, such as Planck, Einstein, Bohr, Heisenberg, Schrodinger, Dirac and others. It describes how quantum physics began with Planck's quantum hypothesis and was further developed into modern quantum mechanics and field theories. Quantum theory began to be applied to chemical structures and reactivity in the 1920s and paved the way for fields like quantum chemistry and quantum field theories like quantum electrodynamics.
This document summarizes key concepts in physics. It discusses how Kepler examined planetary motion data to show elliptical rather than circular orbits. It also describes the development of quantum mechanics to explain atomic phenomena, Rutherford's nuclear model of the atom, and Dirac's theoretical prediction of antimatter later confirmed by Anderson. The document defines physics as the study of natural laws and their manifestations, and discusses the fields of classical and modern physics including mechanics, electromagnetism, optics, and thermodynamics. It also outlines the four fundamental forces in nature and explores the nature of physical laws like conservation of energy.
Discovery of Self-Sustained 235U Fission Causing Sunlight by Padmanabha Rao E...IOSR Journals
For the first time in solar physics, this paper reports a comprehensive study how 235Uranium fission
causes Sunlight by the atomic phenomenon, Padmanabha Rao Effect against the theory of fusion. The first major
breakthrough lies in identifying as many as 153 solar lines in the Bharat Radiation range from 12.87 to 31 nm
reported by various researchers since 1960s. The Sunlight phenomenon is explained as follows. For example, the
energy equivalence 72.48 eV of the most intense 17.107 nm emission in the middle of solar spectrum is the energy
lost by β, γ, or X-ray energy of a fission product while passing through core-Coulomb space. This energy loss is the
Bharat Radiation energy that cause EUV, UV, visible, and near infrared emissions on valence excitation. From vast
data of emissions and energies of various fission products, 606.31 keV β (Eβmax) energy of 131I was chosen as the
source of 17.107 nm emission. For the first time a typical Bharat Radiation spectrum was observed when plotted
energy loss against β, γ, or X-ray energies of fission products supposedly present in solar flare and atmosphere :
113Xe, 131I, 137Cs, 95Zr, 144Cs, 134I, 140Ba, 133I, 140La, 133In etc that caused solar lines. Consistent presence of a sharp
line for four months in AIA spectral EUV band at 335A exemplifies self-sustained uranium fission from a small site
appeared in SDO/AIA image at 304A. Sun’s dark spot is explained as a large crater formed on Sun’s core surface as
a result of fission reaction that does not show any emission since fission products would be thrown away from the
site during fission. Purely the same Sun’s core material left over at the site after fission reaction devoid of fission
products and any emission seems to be the familiar dark Matter. This could be the first report on the existence of
Sun’s Dark Matter.
1. Isaac Newton introduced the scientific method in the early 1600s, arguing that theories must be supported by observational evidence.
2. Newton discovered that white light is made of different colors when passed through a prism, supporting the idea that light is composed of particles. However, the behavior of intersecting light beams was not explained by the particle theory.
3. Newton formulated his three laws of motion and universal law of gravitation, establishing classical mechanics and allowing Kepler's laws of planetary motion to be proven, marking the beginnings of modern physics.
The Higgs boson is an elementary particle predicted by the Standard Model of particle physics. It arises from the quantum excitation of the Higgs field, which is believed to give mass to fundamental particles and help explain certain phenomena. Decades of searching led to the discovery of the Higgs boson particle at the Large Hadron Collider in 2012, with a mass between 125-127 GeV/c2, matching predictions. More studies are still needed to fully verify its properties and rule out alternative theories.
The britannica guide to relativity and quantum mechanics (physics explained) أحمد عبد القادر
This document provides an introduction to the key concepts in relativity and quantum mechanics. It summarizes that relativity was developed to explain the constant speed of light, with Einstein's special theory published in 1905 and his general theory in 1915. Quantum mechanics arose from Max Planck's work on blackbody radiation in 1900. The introduction outlines some of the unusual predictions of both theories, such as time dilation, curved spacetime, wave-particle duality of matter, and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. It also notes the theories have been confirmed experimentally and transformed fields like cosmology, particle physics, and technology.
Heat is transferred between objects through conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of heat through direct contact of objects. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves and does not require direct contact or a medium. All three mechanisms may occur simultaneously in practical heat transfer situations.
This document provides background information on the development of modern physics leading up to Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905. It discusses the failures of classical physics to explain new experimental findings, particularly regarding light and the Michelson-Morley experiment. It then summarizes Einstein's two postulates of special relativity and some of the theory's key implications, such as time dilation and length contraction. The document also briefly outlines some experiments that tested and confirmed predictions of special relativity.
Wigner crystallization contributes significantly to the evolution of white dwarf stars. As a white dwarf cools, its interior transitions from a liquid to solid state as the ions form a crystal lattice structure. This phase change, called Wigner crystallization, releases a large amount of latent heat, temporarily increasing the star's luminosity and slowing its cooling process. Wigner crystallization alters the thermal properties of the core and is a major mechanism by which white dwarfs release thermal energy as they evolve towards equilibrium.
Radiation and magneticfield effects on unsteady naturalAlexander Decker
This document discusses research on the effects of thermal radiation and magnetic fields on unsteady natural convective flow of nanofluids past an infinite vertical plate with a heat source. The following key points are discussed:
- Governing equations for the unsteady, two-dimensional flow are derived taking into account radiation, magnetic fields, and thermophysical properties of nanofluids.
- The equations are solved numerically using Laplace transform techniques. Parameters like radiation, magnetic field, heat source, and nanoparticle volume fraction are examined.
- It is found that increasing the magnetic field decreases fluid velocity, while radiation, heat source, and nanoparticle volume fraction have a greater influence on fluid velocity and temperature profiles. Nan
A mildly relativistic wide-angle outflow in the neutron-star merger event GW1...Sérgio Sacani
GW170817 was the first gravitational wave detection of a binary
neutron-star merger1
. It was accompanied by radiation across the
electromagnetic spectrum and localized2
to the galaxy NGC 4993
at a distance of 40 megaparsecs. It has been proposed that the
observed γ-ray, X-ray and radio emission is due to an ultrarelativistic
jet launched during the merger, directed away from
our line of sight3–6. The presence of such a jet is predicted from
models that posit neutron-star mergers as the central engines
that drive short hard γ-ray bursts7,8
. Here we report that the radio
light curve of GW170817 has no direct signature of an off-axis
jet afterglow. Although we cannot rule out the existence of a jet
pointing elsewhere, the observed γ-rays could not have originated
from such a jet. Instead, the radio data require a mildly relativistic
wide-angle outflow moving towards us. This outflow could be the
high-velocity tail of the neutron-rich material dynamically ejected
during the merger or a cocoon of material that breaks out when a
jet transfers its energy to the dynamical ejecta. The cocoon model
explains the radio light curve of GW170817 as well as the γ-rays
and X-rays (possibly also ultraviolet and optical emission)9–15, and
is therefore the model most consistent with the observational data.
Cocoons may be a ubiquitous phenomenon produced in neutronstar
mergers, giving rise to a heretofore unidentified population of
radio, ultraviolet, X-ray and γ-ray transients in the local Universe
Annette bussmann holder, hugo keller high tc superconductors and related tran...Edward Flores
This document provides an introduction to the scientific career and contributions of K. Alex Müller, honoring his 80th birthday. It summarizes that while he is best known for his work discovering high-temperature superconductivity, over half of his research career focused on other areas including phase transitions, critical phenomena, electron paramagnetic resonance, and ferroelectricity. The document outlines some of his seminal contributions in these fields, including establishing a theory of phase transitions involving soft modes and elastic instabilities. It also discusses his work on the nature and dynamics of structural phase transitions and ferroelectricity in perovskite oxides.
Since the discovery of the atom and nucleus. The bonding of the proton & neutron, proton & proton,
neutron & neutron have remained a mystery. Although, scientists discovered they were being held together by
nuclear forces, the scientific explanation of the attraction remained a mystery. This paper unfolds the mystery
behind the attraction in the nucleus of an atom
- John Dalton developed the first modern atomic theory in the early 1800s based on experiments observing chemical reactions. He proposed that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
- Atoms consist of a small, dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. The number of protons defines the identity of the atom as a particular chemical element.
- Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons, forming isotopes. Unstable isotopes decay through emission of radiation like alpha or beta particles to become stable.
1) The document traces the history of atomic theory from ancient Greece to modern times, starting with Democritus' idea of atoms that was rejected by Aristotle.
2) In the 1600s, chemistry emerged as a science, with Antoine Lavoisier distinguishing elements and compounds. John Dalton further developed atomic theory in 1803, proposing atoms of different elements have different properties.
3) Ernest Rutherford's 1909 gold foil experiment discovered the atomic nucleus, replacing the plum pudding model and showing atoms have mostly empty space. This led to models placing electrons in distinct orbits around the nucleus.
1. The document introduces the Union-Dipole Theory (UDT), a proposed Theory of Everything based on the discovery of a fundamental building block particle called the Union-Dipole Particle (UDP).
2. The UDP consists of two empty spheres that are united and accentuate each other, existing within a permeable medium. The motion of this medium generates electric and magnetic disturbances that cause the UDP to move at light speed.
3. The UDT aims to unify all forces including gravity as one electromagnetic force. It provides explanations for mysteries in nature like photons, charges, and mass. The theory claims to offer a simple and consistent framework for understanding the universe.
This document summarizes a study of physical conditions in Barnard's Loop and the Orion-Eridanus Bubble, and implications for the Warm Ionized Medium component of the interstellar medium. The authors present new spectrophotometric observations of Barnard's Loop and use photoionization models to show that Barnard's Loop is photoionized by four candidate stars, but the models only agree with observations if Barnard's Loop has enhanced heavy element abundances by a factor of 1.4. Barnard's Loop resembles the brightest components of the Orion-Eridanus Bubble and Warm Ionized Medium. The models establish conditions that can explain the range of locations in diagnostic diagrams using a limited range of parameters
This document introduces the key concepts of the scientific method and the field of biology. It explains that science involves making observations and formulating hypotheses and theories that can be tested through controlled experiments. The goal is to understand the natural world through evidence-based explanations and predictions. Biology is defined as the study of life, with core characteristics shared by all living things like being made of cells, reproducing, and evolving over time. Different tools like microscopes are used to study biological systems at different levels of organization.
This document discusses the key components of a file system and disk drive operation. It covers disk structure, scheduling, management, and swap space. Disks are made up of logical blocks that are mapped to physical sectors. Scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN and C-SCAN are used to optimize disk head movement. Disk formatting partitions disks and writes file system structures. Swap space is used for virtual memory paging.
The document discusses the evolution of atomic models from Dalton to Bohr, including key discoveries by Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr. It then explains electron configurations, describing the organization of electrons into energy levels, subshells, and orbitals according to quantum numbers and rules like the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule. The document provides examples of writing electron configurations using orbital, electron-configuration, and electron-dot notations.
This document provides an overview of XML (eXtensible Markup Language) by comparing and contrasting it with HTML. It discusses how XML is used to mark up data for computers to process rather than for display like HTML. The document outlines the basic rules for well-formed XML, including the need for matching tags, proper nesting, and defined entities. It also covers XML extensions like namespaces, attributes, and how to define a valid XML vocabulary through DTDs or schemas.
Chemistry is the study of properties and changes of matter. It examines matter at both the macroscopic and submicroscopic (atomic/molecular) levels. Matter exists in three main states - solids, liquids, and gases. Chemistry also studies pure substances like elements and compounds as well as mixtures. The scientific method is used to systematically study matter through experimentation and development of hypotheses and theories. Measurements in chemistry utilize metric units and scientific scales like Celsius and Kelvin.
This document provides instructions for setting up and running a Linux system simulation using the Skyeye simulator for ARM architectures. The steps include: 1) Installing Skyeye and a cross-compiler toolchain; 2) Compiling a Linux kernel and filesystem utilities; 3) Creating a root filesystem image; 4) Configuring and running Skyeye with the kernel and filesystem image. This allows testing a complete Linux system without requiring dedicated ARM hardware.
The Superuser: Root
Disks and Partitions
Making New Partitions
Mounting Filesystems
Mounting a Filesystem: mount
Mounting Other Filesystems
Unmounting a Filesystem: umount
Sample /etc/fstab
Filesystem Types
1. Reproduction in seed plants occurs within flowers or cones through a process called alternation of generations. In this process, haploid gametophytes are produced from diploid sporophytes and fuse during fertilization to form a new diploid sporophyte.
2. Angiosperms and gymnosperms have similar life cycles that involve male and female gametophytes and double fertilization. However, in angiosperms the gametophytes develop within flowers while in gymnosperms they develop within cones.
3. Fertilized flowers produce fruits containing seeds, which are then dispersed by a variety of mechanisms. Seeds may enter dormancy before germinating under suitable conditions
The britannica guide to relativity and quantum mechanics (physics explained) أحمد عبد القادر
This document provides an introduction to the key concepts in relativity and quantum mechanics. It summarizes that relativity was developed to explain the constant speed of light, with Einstein's special theory published in 1905 and his general theory in 1915. Quantum mechanics arose from Max Planck's work on blackbody radiation in 1900. The introduction outlines some of the unusual predictions of both theories, such as time dilation, curved spacetime, wave-particle duality of matter, and Heisenberg's uncertainty principle. It also notes the theories have been confirmed experimentally and transformed fields like cosmology, particle physics, and technology.
Heat is transferred between objects through conduction, convection and radiation. Conduction involves the transfer of heat through direct contact of objects. Convection involves the transfer of heat by the movement of fluids like gases and liquids. Radiation involves the transfer of heat through electromagnetic waves and does not require direct contact or a medium. All three mechanisms may occur simultaneously in practical heat transfer situations.
This document provides background information on the development of modern physics leading up to Einstein's theory of special relativity in 1905. It discusses the failures of classical physics to explain new experimental findings, particularly regarding light and the Michelson-Morley experiment. It then summarizes Einstein's two postulates of special relativity and some of the theory's key implications, such as time dilation and length contraction. The document also briefly outlines some experiments that tested and confirmed predictions of special relativity.
Wigner crystallization contributes significantly to the evolution of white dwarf stars. As a white dwarf cools, its interior transitions from a liquid to solid state as the ions form a crystal lattice structure. This phase change, called Wigner crystallization, releases a large amount of latent heat, temporarily increasing the star's luminosity and slowing its cooling process. Wigner crystallization alters the thermal properties of the core and is a major mechanism by which white dwarfs release thermal energy as they evolve towards equilibrium.
Radiation and magneticfield effects on unsteady naturalAlexander Decker
This document discusses research on the effects of thermal radiation and magnetic fields on unsteady natural convective flow of nanofluids past an infinite vertical plate with a heat source. The following key points are discussed:
- Governing equations for the unsteady, two-dimensional flow are derived taking into account radiation, magnetic fields, and thermophysical properties of nanofluids.
- The equations are solved numerically using Laplace transform techniques. Parameters like radiation, magnetic field, heat source, and nanoparticle volume fraction are examined.
- It is found that increasing the magnetic field decreases fluid velocity, while radiation, heat source, and nanoparticle volume fraction have a greater influence on fluid velocity and temperature profiles. Nan
A mildly relativistic wide-angle outflow in the neutron-star merger event GW1...Sérgio Sacani
GW170817 was the first gravitational wave detection of a binary
neutron-star merger1
. It was accompanied by radiation across the
electromagnetic spectrum and localized2
to the galaxy NGC 4993
at a distance of 40 megaparsecs. It has been proposed that the
observed γ-ray, X-ray and radio emission is due to an ultrarelativistic
jet launched during the merger, directed away from
our line of sight3–6. The presence of such a jet is predicted from
models that posit neutron-star mergers as the central engines
that drive short hard γ-ray bursts7,8
. Here we report that the radio
light curve of GW170817 has no direct signature of an off-axis
jet afterglow. Although we cannot rule out the existence of a jet
pointing elsewhere, the observed γ-rays could not have originated
from such a jet. Instead, the radio data require a mildly relativistic
wide-angle outflow moving towards us. This outflow could be the
high-velocity tail of the neutron-rich material dynamically ejected
during the merger or a cocoon of material that breaks out when a
jet transfers its energy to the dynamical ejecta. The cocoon model
explains the radio light curve of GW170817 as well as the γ-rays
and X-rays (possibly also ultraviolet and optical emission)9–15, and
is therefore the model most consistent with the observational data.
Cocoons may be a ubiquitous phenomenon produced in neutronstar
mergers, giving rise to a heretofore unidentified population of
radio, ultraviolet, X-ray and γ-ray transients in the local Universe
Annette bussmann holder, hugo keller high tc superconductors and related tran...Edward Flores
This document provides an introduction to the scientific career and contributions of K. Alex Müller, honoring his 80th birthday. It summarizes that while he is best known for his work discovering high-temperature superconductivity, over half of his research career focused on other areas including phase transitions, critical phenomena, electron paramagnetic resonance, and ferroelectricity. The document outlines some of his seminal contributions in these fields, including establishing a theory of phase transitions involving soft modes and elastic instabilities. It also discusses his work on the nature and dynamics of structural phase transitions and ferroelectricity in perovskite oxides.
Since the discovery of the atom and nucleus. The bonding of the proton & neutron, proton & proton,
neutron & neutron have remained a mystery. Although, scientists discovered they were being held together by
nuclear forces, the scientific explanation of the attraction remained a mystery. This paper unfolds the mystery
behind the attraction in the nucleus of an atom
- John Dalton developed the first modern atomic theory in the early 1800s based on experiments observing chemical reactions. He proposed that all matter is composed of tiny, indivisible particles called atoms.
- Atoms consist of a small, dense nucleus containing protons and neutrons, surrounded by electrons. The number of protons defines the identity of the atom as a particular chemical element.
- Atoms of the same element can differ in the number of neutrons, forming isotopes. Unstable isotopes decay through emission of radiation like alpha or beta particles to become stable.
1) The document traces the history of atomic theory from ancient Greece to modern times, starting with Democritus' idea of atoms that was rejected by Aristotle.
2) In the 1600s, chemistry emerged as a science, with Antoine Lavoisier distinguishing elements and compounds. John Dalton further developed atomic theory in 1803, proposing atoms of different elements have different properties.
3) Ernest Rutherford's 1909 gold foil experiment discovered the atomic nucleus, replacing the plum pudding model and showing atoms have mostly empty space. This led to models placing electrons in distinct orbits around the nucleus.
1. The document introduces the Union-Dipole Theory (UDT), a proposed Theory of Everything based on the discovery of a fundamental building block particle called the Union-Dipole Particle (UDP).
2. The UDP consists of two empty spheres that are united and accentuate each other, existing within a permeable medium. The motion of this medium generates electric and magnetic disturbances that cause the UDP to move at light speed.
3. The UDT aims to unify all forces including gravity as one electromagnetic force. It provides explanations for mysteries in nature like photons, charges, and mass. The theory claims to offer a simple and consistent framework for understanding the universe.
This document summarizes a study of physical conditions in Barnard's Loop and the Orion-Eridanus Bubble, and implications for the Warm Ionized Medium component of the interstellar medium. The authors present new spectrophotometric observations of Barnard's Loop and use photoionization models to show that Barnard's Loop is photoionized by four candidate stars, but the models only agree with observations if Barnard's Loop has enhanced heavy element abundances by a factor of 1.4. Barnard's Loop resembles the brightest components of the Orion-Eridanus Bubble and Warm Ionized Medium. The models establish conditions that can explain the range of locations in diagnostic diagrams using a limited range of parameters
This document introduces the key concepts of the scientific method and the field of biology. It explains that science involves making observations and formulating hypotheses and theories that can be tested through controlled experiments. The goal is to understand the natural world through evidence-based explanations and predictions. Biology is defined as the study of life, with core characteristics shared by all living things like being made of cells, reproducing, and evolving over time. Different tools like microscopes are used to study biological systems at different levels of organization.
This document discusses the key components of a file system and disk drive operation. It covers disk structure, scheduling, management, and swap space. Disks are made up of logical blocks that are mapped to physical sectors. Scheduling algorithms like FCFS, SSTF, SCAN and C-SCAN are used to optimize disk head movement. Disk formatting partitions disks and writes file system structures. Swap space is used for virtual memory paging.
The document discusses the evolution of atomic models from Dalton to Bohr, including key discoveries by Thomson, Rutherford, and Bohr. It then explains electron configurations, describing the organization of electrons into energy levels, subshells, and orbitals according to quantum numbers and rules like the Aufbau principle and Hund's rule. The document provides examples of writing electron configurations using orbital, electron-configuration, and electron-dot notations.
This document provides an overview of XML (eXtensible Markup Language) by comparing and contrasting it with HTML. It discusses how XML is used to mark up data for computers to process rather than for display like HTML. The document outlines the basic rules for well-formed XML, including the need for matching tags, proper nesting, and defined entities. It also covers XML extensions like namespaces, attributes, and how to define a valid XML vocabulary through DTDs or schemas.
Chemistry is the study of properties and changes of matter. It examines matter at both the macroscopic and submicroscopic (atomic/molecular) levels. Matter exists in three main states - solids, liquids, and gases. Chemistry also studies pure substances like elements and compounds as well as mixtures. The scientific method is used to systematically study matter through experimentation and development of hypotheses and theories. Measurements in chemistry utilize metric units and scientific scales like Celsius and Kelvin.
This document provides instructions for setting up and running a Linux system simulation using the Skyeye simulator for ARM architectures. The steps include: 1) Installing Skyeye and a cross-compiler toolchain; 2) Compiling a Linux kernel and filesystem utilities; 3) Creating a root filesystem image; 4) Configuring and running Skyeye with the kernel and filesystem image. This allows testing a complete Linux system without requiring dedicated ARM hardware.
The Superuser: Root
Disks and Partitions
Making New Partitions
Mounting Filesystems
Mounting a Filesystem: mount
Mounting Other Filesystems
Unmounting a Filesystem: umount
Sample /etc/fstab
Filesystem Types
1. Reproduction in seed plants occurs within flowers or cones through a process called alternation of generations. In this process, haploid gametophytes are produced from diploid sporophytes and fuse during fertilization to form a new diploid sporophyte.
2. Angiosperms and gymnosperms have similar life cycles that involve male and female gametophytes and double fertilization. However, in angiosperms the gametophytes develop within flowers while in gymnosperms they develop within cones.
3. Fertilized flowers produce fruits containing seeds, which are then dispersed by a variety of mechanisms. Seeds may enter dormancy before germinating under suitable conditions
What is Linux?
Command-line Interface, Shell & BASH
Popular commands
File Permissions and Owners
Installing programs
Piping and Scripting
Variables
Common applications in bioinformatics
Conclusion
This document provides information on various chemistry concepts related to solutions and reactions in aqueous solutions. It defines key terms like electrolytes, nonelectrolytes, dissociation, and precipitation reactions. It also discusses acid-base reactions and neutralization reactions. Oxidation-reduction reactions and displacement reactions are introduced. Molarity is defined as a way to quantify concentration in solutions.
This document summarizes key concepts about atomic structure from Chapter 4. It discusses early atomic models proposed by Democritus and Dalton. Dalton's atomic theory stated that all matter is made of atoms that cannot be divided further. The document then explains discoveries of subatomic particles like electrons, protons, and neutrons. It describes Rutherford's gold foil experiment which showed that atoms have a small, dense nucleus. Finally, it defines atomic number, mass number, isotopes, and how average atomic masses are calculated based on isotope abundances.
The document summarizes key concepts about the periodic table, including:
1) The periodic table organizes elements horizontally by period and vertically by group, with elements in the same group having similar properties.
2) Elements are classified as metals, nonmetals, and metalloids based on their properties, with metals generally conducting heat/electricity and nonmetals not.
3) Periodic trends show atomic radius decreases but ionization energy, electronegativity, and ionic size increase moving left to right across a period.
The document discusses the benefits of smiling. It states that smiling can improve mood, boost immunity, lower blood pressure, and release endorphins. It provides tips for improving one's smile such as becoming comfortable smiling, smiling with the eyes, practicing different smiles, and maintaining oral hygiene. The document also outlines different types of smiles including sweet, beautiful, shy, loving, thoughtful, authoritative, and contented smiles. It concludes by emphasizing the universal power of a smile to brighten one's own life and the lives of others.
The document discusses infectious diseases and the immune system. It defines disease and pathogens, and describes the germ theory of disease proposed by Pasteur and Koch. It explains Koch's postulates for identifying disease-causing microorganisms. It describes different types of pathogens like viruses, bacteria, protists, fungi and worms that cause infectious diseases. It then discusses the immune system's nonspecific and specific defenses against pathogens, including the inflammatory response, antibodies, B cells, T cells, and memory cells. It also covers immune system disorders like allergies, autoimmune diseases, and immunodeficiencies like AIDS.
The document provides an introduction to operating systems. It discusses what operating systems do, including controlling hardware resources and coordinating applications. It describes computer system organization, including the hardware components, operating system, applications, and users. It then covers operating system structure, including multiprogramming, timesharing, and virtual memory. Key operating system operations like process and memory management are summarized. The document also discusses storage management including file systems and mass storage management.
This document discusses the digestive and excretory systems. It explains that the digestive system breaks down food into nutrients that can be absorbed and used by cells. The mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine are involved in mechanical and chemical digestion. The excretory system, including the skin, lungs, and kidneys, removes waste from the body and maintains homeostasis. The kidneys filter blood and regulate water balance by removing waste via urine production.
This document provides an overview of Linux commands and concepts. It begins with a brief history of Linux and its origins from Unix. It then covers Linux structure, principles, views, the filesystem hierarchy standard, common commands, text tools, permissions, packages, manual pages, system information commands, process management, archiving and more. The document is intended to help users learn the essentials of the Linux operating system.
Famous Physicists and Their ContributionsJamaica Olazo
This document profiles 26 prominent physicists and their contributions to the field of physics. It lists their names and provides 1-2 sentences summarizing each individual's key discoveries or areas of research. Some of the physicists profiled include Pascal, Coulomb, Dalton, Mach, Huygens, Bernoulli, Ohm, Newton, Maxwell, Planck, Einstein, and Tesla.
The document discusses the history of atomic structure models from Democritus' idea of atoms to Bohr's model. Some key points:
1. J.J. Thomson's experiments in 1897 led him to propose the "plum pudding" model where electrons were embedded in a uniform positive charge.
2. Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 showed that the atom has a small, dense, positively charged nucleus at its center.
3. Bohr modified Rutherford's model in 1913 to propose that electrons orbit the nucleus in discrete energy levels, explaining atomic line spectra. When electrons fall from higher to lower orbits, photons are emitted.
1. This document discusses the wave-particle duality of electrons and light. It describes experiments that demonstrated both the wave and particle properties of electrons and photons.
2. For photons, the photoelectric effect provided evidence of particle behavior while light interference experiments showed wave behavior. For electrons, diffraction experiments like the Davisson-Germer experiment demonstrated their wave nature by producing interference patterns.
3. Together, these experiments established that both light and electrons exhibit properties of both particles and waves, leading to the concept of wave-particle duality.
History Of Atomic Structure Pisay Versionjeksespina
The document summarizes the history of atomic structure from ancient Greek philosophers to J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron in 1897. It describes how ancient Greeks proposed that matter was made of indivisible atoms, while Aristotle believed matter was continuous. In the 17th century, experimental evidence supported the atomic theory. In 1808, Dalton proposed his atomic theory that all matter is composed of atoms that combine in simple whole number ratios. The discovery of the electron began with experiments showing that charged materials attracted small pieces of other materials. Thomson's 1897 experiment showed that cathode rays were composed of negatively charged particles smaller than atoms, which he called electrons.
1. Thomson's experiment in 1897 discovered the electron as a fundamental negatively charged particle inside the atom.
2. Rutherford's gold foil experiment in 1911 found that atoms have a small, dense nucleus at their center containing positive charge, with electrons orbiting the outside, mostly empty space.
3. This led to Rutherford proposing a nuclear model of the atom with electrons orbiting a small, dense positively charged nucleus.
Chemistry Basic understanding for LIKE WHAT?ArafathIslam4
Dalton's atomic theory proposed that all matter is made of indivisible atoms and that atoms of different elements have different masses. However, later discoveries showed limitations of this theory. Atoms were found to be divisible into subatomic particles and isotopes of the same element can have different masses. Rutherford's gold foil experiment provided evidence that the mass of an atom is concentrated in a small, positively charged nucleus. This led to Rutherford's model of the atom with electrons orbiting the nucleus, like planets around the sun. However, this model could not explain the stability of atoms and quantum theory was needed to fully explain atomic structure.
The document discusses wave-particle duality and the Davisson-Germer experiment that helped verify this phenomenon. The Davisson-Germer experiment from 1927 fired an electron beam at a nickel crystal and observed that electrons were diffracted at specific angles, providing evidence that electrons exhibit wave-like properties as predicted by de Broglie's hypothesis. This supported the idea in quantum mechanics that particles can behave as both particles and waves, and helped establish the field of quantum mechanics.
This document provides an introduction to nuclear physics. It discusses the history and development of the field, from the discovery of radioactivity and the electron in the early 20th century to the proposal of the liquid drop model and development of the semi-empirical mass formula to describe nuclear structure. Key events discussed include Rutherford's discovery of the nuclear model of the atom, the discovery of the neutron by Chadwick, and Yukawa's proposal of the meson to explain nuclear forces. The introduction concludes by outlining the chapters to follow on topics like nuclear decay, fusion, fission, and reactor physics.
1. The document contains 6 questions connected by the common theme of science and scientists. Answering each question correctly earns 10 points, with an additional 5 points for each team that does not answer correctly. Additionally, answering the first question earns 35 points, with the value decreasing by 5 points for each subsequent question. The questions cover topics like the inventor of the telephone, Michael Faraday's contributions to electromagnetism, and the physics of the aurora borealis.
The document discusses the electromagnetic spectrum. It describes how scientists over centuries discovered different types of electromagnetic waves through experiments. Some key figures mentioned are Hans Christian Oersted, James Clerk Maxwell, Michael Faraday, Heinrich Hertz, Wilhelm Röntgen, and Paul Ulrich Villard. The document outlines their important experiments and findings that contributed to the understanding of electromagnetic waves of different wavelengths, including radio waves, microwaves, infrared, visible light, ultraviolet, X-rays, and gamma rays.
The document discusses the development of atomic theory and models of atomic structure based on experiments. Key points include:
1. Early experiments with cathode ray tubes led Thomson to discover the electron and determine its small mass and negative charge.
2. Rutherford's gold foil experiment showed that the mass and positive charge of atoms are concentrated in a very small, dense nucleus.
3. Later experiments discovered the proton in the nucleus and the neutron, establishing the main subatomic particles that make up all elements.
4. Models evolved from Thomson's "plum pudding" model to Rutherford's nuclear model to better explain experimental results and the stability of atoms.
The document discusses the history of the development of atomic structure models from Thomson's plum pudding model to Rutherford's nuclear model. Key events include J.J. Thomson's discovery of the electron, Millikan's oil drop experiment determining the charge of an electron, discovery of the proton through canal ray experiments, Rutherford's alpha particle scattering experiment revealing the dense nucleus at the center of the atom, and Rutherford proposing the nuclear model of the atom. The nuclear model represented a major breakthrough but did not fully explain electron stability.
1. J.J. Thomson discovered electrons in cathode ray tubes and concluded they were negatively charged particles smaller than atoms.
2. In the gold foil experiment, Rutherford expected alpha particles to pass through or be slightly deflected, but some were deflected at large angles or rebounded, indicating the positive charge was concentrated in a small nucleus.
3. This led Rutherford to propose the nuclear model of the atom with electrons orbiting a small, dense positively charged nucleus.
Hello everyone, I am Dr. Ujwalkumar Trivedi, Head of Biotechnology Department at Marwadi University Rajkot. I teach Molecular Biology to the students of M.Sc. Microbiology and Biotechnology.
The current presentation is like a history book of various discoveries that led to the development of quantum mechanics. The presentation also tries to address the debate between the radicals (supporters of quantum theory) and classical (supporters of Newtonian physics).
Heinrich Geissler invented the discharge tube in 1857, revealing that electricity can pass through gases. Experiments with discharge tubes by Geissler, Plucker, and others accelerated studies of substance properties. In the late 1800s, scientists like Crookes, Goldstein, and Thomson used discharge tubes to discover cathode rays, positive charges in gases, and subatomic particles called electrons, proving atoms can be divided into smaller components. Accidental discovery by Roentgen of X-rays from a Crookes tube in 1895 led to widespread use in medicine and technology.
Indeed, the structure of an atom is fundamental to understanding the properties and behaviour of matter. At its core, an atom consists of three primary subatomic particles: protons, neutrons, and electrons. These constituents collectively determine the atom's mass and charge.
To learn more about VAVA Classes, visit: www.vavaclasses.com
This document provides an overview of key topics in early quantum theory that students should understand, including:
- Electrons, J.J. Thompson's experiment determining the electron, and Millikan's experiment measuring the charge of an electron.
- De Broglie's relation connecting the wavelength of a particle to its momentum.
- Wave-particle duality and the principle of complementarity stating that particles can behave as both waves and particles.
- Planck's quantum hypothesis that the energy of atomic oscillations is quantized in integer multiples of Planck's constant.
This document provides an overview of key topics in early quantum theory that students should understand, including:
- Electrons, J.J. Thompson's experiment determining the electron, and Millikan's experiment measuring the charge of an electron.
- De Broglie's relation connecting the wavelength of a particle to its momentum.
- Wave-particle duality and the principle of complementarity established by Bohr.
- That matter can behave as waves according to de Broglie's theory of the dual nature of matter.
- Planck's quantum hypothesis that the energy of atomic oscillations is quantized in integer multiples of Planck's constant.
1) The document discusses the photoelectric effect and its implications, including Einstein's explanation using light quanta.
2) It describes early experiments by Hertz, Lenard and others that showed light behaving as particles rather than waves.
3) Key points are that the maximum kinetic energy of emitted electrons depends on light frequency, not intensity, challenging classical wave theory.
Similar to 2010 05 02 10 Dr Daniel C Tsui Physics Nobel Prize King Carl Xvi Gustaf Of Sweden 10 December 1998 (20)
5. http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1998/press.html
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998
English
Swedish
Press Release
13 October 1998
The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences has awarded the 1998 Nobel Prize in Physics jointly to
Professor Robert B. Laughlin, Stanford University, California, USA,
Professor Horst L. Störmer, Columbia University, New York and Lucent Technologies' Bell Labs, New Jersey, USA, and
Professor Daniel C. Tsui, Princeton University, Princeton, New Jersey, USA.
The three researchers are being awarded the Nobel Prize for discovering that electrons acting together in strong magnetic fields can form new types of
"particles", with charges that are fractions of electron charges.
Citation:
"for their discovery of a new form of quantum fluid with fractionally charged excitations."
Electrons in New Guises
Horst L. Störmer and Daniel C. Tsui made the discovery in 1982 in an experiment using extremely powerful magnetic fields and low temperatures.
Within a year of the discovery Robert B. Laughlin had succeeded in explaining their result. Through theoretical analysis he showed that the electrons in a
powerful magnetic field can condense to form a kind of quantum fluid related to the quantum fluids that occur in superconductivity and in liquid helium.
What makes these fluids particularly important for researchers is that events in a drop of quantum fluid can afford more profound insights into the general
6. inner structure and dynamics of matter. The contributions of the three laureates have thus led to yet another breakthrough in our understanding of quantum
physics and to the development of new theoretical concepts of significance in many branches of modern physics.
Quantum effects become visible
As a young student in 1879 Edwin H. Hall discovered an unexpected phenomenon. He found that if a thin gold plate is placed in a magnetic field at right
angles to its surface an electric current flowing along the plate can cause a potential drop at right angles both to the current and the magnetic field (see
figure 1). Termed the Hall effect, this takes place because electrically charged particles (in this case electrons) moving in a magnetic field are influenced by
a force and deflect laterally. The Hall effect can be used to determine the density of charge carriers (negative electrons or positive holes) in conductors and
semi-conductors, and has become a standard tool in physics laboratories the world over.
Fig. 1. A voltage V drives a current I in the positive x direction. Normal
Ohmic resistance is V / I. A magnetic field in the positive z direction shifts
positive charge carriers in the negative y direction. This generates a Hall
potential ( VH) and a Hall resistance (VH/ I ) in the y direction. (Kosmos 1986)
Hall performed his experiments at room temperature and with moderate magnetic fields of less than one tesla (T). At the end of the 1970's researchers used
extremely low temperatures (only a few degrees from absolute zero, i.e. around -272°C) and very powerful magnetic fields (max approx. 30 T). They
studied the Hall effect in the type of semiconductor design used in the electronics industry for manufacturing low-noise transistors. The material contains
electrons which, though trapped close to an internal surface, separating two distinct parts of the material, are highly mobile along the surface.
7. In such a layer at low temperatures electrons can be caused to move as if on a plane surface, i.e. in two dimensions only. This geometrical limitation leads
to many unexpected effects. One is that the Hall effect changes character. This is seen most simply when one measures how the Hall resistance varies with
the strength of the applied magnetic field.
In 1980 the German physicist Klaus von Klitzing discovered in a similar experiment that the Hall resistance does not vary in linear fashion, but "stepwise"
with the strength of the magnetic field (see figure 2). The steps occur at resistance values that do not depend on the properties of the material but are given
by a combination of fundamental physical constants divided by an integer. We say that the resistance is quantized. At quantized Hall resistance values,
normal Ohmic resistance disappears and the material becomes in a sense superconducting.
Fig. 2. The Hall resistance varies stepwise with changes in magnetic field B.
Step height is given by the physical constant h/e2 ( value approximately 25
kilo-ohm ) divided by an integer i. The figure shows steps for i =2,3,4,5,6,8
and 10. The effect has given rise to a new international standard for resistance.
Since 1990 this has been represented by the unit 1 klitzing, defined as the Hall
resistance at the fourth step ( h/4e2 ). The lower peaked curve represents the
Ohmic resistance, which disappears at each step. (Kosmos 1986)
For his discovery of what is termed the integer quantum Hall effect von Klitzing received the Nobel Prize in Physics in 1985. The effect may be understood
if one accepts the laws of quantum physics for how individual electrons behave in powerful magnetic fields. In simple terms, the electrons move only in
8. certain circular paths, the basic sizes of which are determined by the magnetic field. The various steps turn out to show how many of the smallest paths are
entirely full of electrons.
In their refined experimental studies of the quantum Hall effect, using among other things lower temperatures and more powerful magnetic fields, Störmer,
Tsui and their co-workers found to their great surprise a new step in the Hall resistance which was three times higher than von Klitzing's highest. They
subsequently found more and more new steps, both above and between the integers. All the new step heights can be expressed with the same constant as
earlier but now divided by different fractions. For this reason the new discovery was named the fractional quantum Hall effect. It posed a great mystery for
the researchers who could not explain how the new steps came about.
A new type of quantum fluid
A year after the discovery of the fractional quantum Hall effect, Laughlin offered a theoretical explanation. According to his theory the low temperature
and the powerful magnetic field compel the electron gas to condense to form a new type of quantum fluid. Since electrons are most reluctant to condense
(they are what is termed fermions) they first, in a sense, combine with the "flux quanta" of the magnetic field. Particularly for the first steps discovered by
Störmer and Tsui, the electrons each capture three flux quanta, thus forming a kind of composite particle with no objection to condensing (they become
what is termed bosons).
Quantum fluids have earlier occurred at very low temperatures in liquid helium (1962 Nobel Prize to Landau; 1978 to Kapitsa; 1996 to Lee, Osheroff and
Richardson) and in superconductors (1913 Nobel prize to Kamerlingh Onnes; 1972 to Bardeen, Cooper and Schrieffer; 1987 to Bednorz and Müller).
Quantum fluids have certain properties in common, e.g. superfluidity, but they also show important differences in behaviour. Some, like Laughlin's fluid,
consist of composite particles.
Apart from its superfluidity, which explains the disappearance of Ohmic resistance at the Hall resistance steps, the new quantum fluid proposed by
Laughlin has many unusual properties. One of the most remarkable is that if one electron is added the fluid will be affected (excited) and a number of
fractionally charged "quasiparticles" created. These quasiparticles are not particles in the normal sense but a result of the common dance of electrons in the
quantum fluid. Laughlin was the first to demonstrate that the quasiparticles have precisely the correct fractional charge to explain Störmer's and Tsui's
results. Subsequent measurements have demonstrated more and more fractionally charged steps in the Hall effect (see figure 3), and Laughlin's quantum
fluid has proved capable of explaining all the steps found experimentally.
9. Fig. 3. The dashed diagonal line represents the classical Hall resistance and
the full drawn diagonal stepped curve the experimental results. The magnetic
fields causing the steps are marked with arrows. Note particularly the step first
discovered by Störmer and Tsui (1/3) at the highest value of the magnetic
field and the steps earlier discovered by von Klitzing (integers) with a weaker
magnetic field. (Science 1990)
The new quantum fluid strongly resists compression; it is said to be incompressible. This is because it reacts to compression by forming more
quasiparticles, which costs energy.
Direct demonstration of quasiparticles
The discovery and the explanation of the fractional quantum Hall effect in 1982-83 may be said to represent an indirect demonstration of the new quantum
fluid and its fractionally charged quasiparticles. Several research groups have recently succeeded in observing these new particles directly (see reference
list). This has for instance taken place in experiments where very small variations in a current have been ascribable to individual quasiparticles flowing
through the circuit. These measurements, comparable to distinguishing the sound of individual hailstones during a hailstorm and determining that they are
only a fraction of their normal size, were made possible by the astonishing development of microelectronics since this year's three laureates made their
pioneering contributions. The measurements may be viewed as the conclusive verification of their discoveries.
10. Further reading
Additional background material on the Nobel Prize in Physics 1998 [pdf]
Splitting the electron, by B. Daviss, New Scientist, 31 January 1998, p. 36.
Fractionally charged quasiparticles signal their presence with noise, by G. P. Collins, Physics Today, November 1997, p. 17.
When the electron falls apart, by P.W. Anderson, Physics Today, October 1997, p. 42.
Electrons in flatland, by S. Kivelson, D.H. Lee and S.C. Zhang, Scientific American, March 1996, p.64.
Composite Fermions: New particles in the fractional quantum Hall effect, by H. Störmer and D. Tsui, Physics News in 1994, American Institute of Physics
1995, p. 33.
The fractional quantum Hall effect, by J.P. Eisenstein and H.L. Stormer, Science, 22 June 1990, p. 1510.
Robert B. Laughlin
born 1950 in Visalia, CA, USA. American citizen. PhD in physics 1979 at Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, USA. Professor of Physics
at Stanford University since 1989. Laughlin has received among other awards the 1986 Oliver E. Buckley Prize from the American Physical Society and
the Medal of the Franklin Institute, 1998, for his work associated with the fractional quantum Hall effect.
Professor Robert B. Laughlin
Department of Physics, Varian Bldg
Stanford University
Stanford, CA 94305-4060
USA
Horst L. Störmer
born 1949 in Frankfurt/Main. PhD in physics 1977 at Stuttgart University, Germany. Director of Physical Research Laboratory, Bell Laboratories 1992-97.
Professor, Columbia University, New York and Adjunct Physics Director at Lucent Technologies' Bell Labs since 1998. Störmer received among other
awards the 1984 Oliver E. Buckley Prize from the American Physical Society, and the Medal of the Franklin Institute, 1998, for his work associated with
the fractional quantum Hall effect.
Professor Horst L. Störmer
Physics Department
Columbia University
New York, NY 10027
USA
Daniel C. Tsui
born 1939 in Henan, China. American citizen. PhD in physics 1967 at University of Chicago, USA. Professor at Princeton University since 1982. Tsui
11. received among other awards the 1984 Oliver E. Buckley Prize from the American Physical Society, and the Medal of the Franklin Institute, 1998, for his
work associated with the fractional quantum Hall effect.
Professor Daniel C. Tsui
Department of Electrical Engineering
Princeton University
PO Box 5263
Princeton, NJ 08544
USA
• Printer Friendly
• Comments & Questions
• Tell a Friend
The 1998 Prize in:
• Prev. year
• Next year
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998
• Press Release
• Presentation Speech
• Illustrated Presentation
Robert B. Laughlin
• Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Nobel Diploma
• Photo Gallery
• Prize Presentation
• Banquet Speech
• Other Resources
Horst L. Störmer
12. • Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Nobel Diploma
• Photo Gallery
• Prize Presentation
• Other Resources
Daniel C. Tsui
• Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Nobel Diploma
• Photo Gallery
• Prize Presentation
• Other Resources
All Physics Nobel Laureates
Explore the Physics games!
**
The Nobel Prize in Physics 2009
"for groundbreaking achievements concerning the transmission of light in fibers for optical communication"
"for the invention of an imaging semiconductor circuit – the CCD sensor"
18. # 5. Daniel C. Tsui
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1998
Autobiography
I tend to partition my life into three compartments: childhood years in a remote village in the province of Henan in central China,
schooling years in Hong Kong, and the years since I came to attend college in the United States. The only thread connecting them is
the kindness, generosity and friendship from the people around me that I have experienced all my life.
My childhood memories are filled with the years of drought, flood and war which were constantly on the consciousness of the
inhabitants of my over-populated village, but also with my parents' self-sacrificing love and the happy moments they created for me.
Like most other villagers, my parents never had the opportunity to learn how to read and write. They suffered from their illiteracy
and their suffering made them determined not to have their children follow the same path at any and whatever cost to them. In early
1951, my parents seized the first and perhaps the only opportunity to have me leave them and their village to pursue education in so
far away a place that neither they nor I knew how far it truly was.
In Hong Kong, I began my formal schooling at the sixth grade level with fear and trembling, mixed with some pride and elation. I
remember the difficulties that I encountered in not knowing the Cantonese dialect in the beginning, but, even more vividly, the
overwhelming kindness of schoolmates who went out of their way to help by offering me their friendship, bringing me into their
circle, and taking me to their out-of-class activities. In the middle of my second year in Hong Kong, I entered Pui Ching Middle
School, which was known for being outstanding, especially in natural science subjects. Many of the teachers there were
19. overqualified. They were the brightest graduates of the best universities in China and under normal circumstances would have been
highly accomplished scholars and scientists. The upheaval of war in China, however, forced them to hibernate in Hong Kong
teaching high school kids. They might not have been the best teachers pedagogically, but their intellects and their visions inspired us.
Even their casual remarks and the stories from their romantic reminiscences of the glorious days at Peking University could leave
indelible marks on us. It was they, I think, who in their unconscious ways dared us students, living in a most commercialized city, to
look beyond the dollar sign and see the exploration of new frontiers in human knowledge as an intellectually rewarding and
challenging pursuit.
I graduated from Pui Ching in 1957 and was admitted to the medical school of National Taiwan University in Taiwan. However,
since it was unclear at the time how my parents were and whether I could return to them in China, I stayed in Hong Kong and entered
a two-year special program run by the government to prepare Chinese high school graduates for the University of Hong Kong. In late
spring the next year, I received the surprising good news from the United States that I was admitted with a full scholarship to my
church pastor's Lutheran alma mater, Augustana College in Rock Island, Illinois. I arrived on campus right after Labor Day 1958,
and there spent the best three years of my life. It was there that I had for the first time the leisure to wrestle with my Lutheran faith
and to think through and make some sense out of my life experience. In Hong Kong, I was always extremely busy as a scholarship
student, heavily involved with church activities and responsibilities, and worn-out from long distance daily commuting. Here, I was
free to read, to learn and to think through things at my own pace. I knew from the start that I would go to graduate school, and the
choice of subject and school was never a problem. C.N. Yang and T.D. Lee were awarded the Nobel Prize for Physics in 1957 and
they both went to the University of Chicago. Yang and Lee were the role models for Chinese students of my generation and going to
the University of Chicago for a graduate education was the ideal pilgrimage.
The University of Chicago was intense and intellectual. I liked its being in a major city, its cosmopolitan atmosphere, and even its
grimy buildings and the austerity they appeared to convey. There, I luckily met and fell in love with Linda Varland, an
undergraduate in the college, and we were married after her graduation. I was also fortunate that Royal Stark, who had just joined
the physics faculty as a solid state experimentalist, took me on as a research assistant in the building-up of his laboratory. I realized
quite early that I wanted to do experimental physics and that I lacked the aptitude for colossal experimental setups and also the taste
for grandeur. I wanted to do tabletop experiments and be allowed to tinker. Royal Stark trusted me and let me try my hands on
everything in his laboratory. I was given the best opportunity to learn from the bottom up: from engineer drawing, soldering,
machining, and design, to construction and building of our laboratory apparatus. By the time I received my Ph.D., I was confident
that I could make a living using the technical skills I had learned there. Since I could always fall back on a job using my technical
skills, I reasoned, why not then take a risk and try a research position doing something entirely novel and at the same time
intellectually challenging.
I left Chicago in early spring 1968 and took a position in Bell Laboratories in Murray Hill, New Jersey to do research in solid state
physics. I found myself a niche in semiconductor research, though I never got into the main stream either in semiconductor physics,
21. 4. 1997 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Steven Chu was born in St. Louis, Missouri: Garden City High, Queens, NY, BSc Rochester
University, NY, PhD UC Berkeley, Bell Labs, Stanford
5. 1998 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Daniel C. Tsui was born in Henan in central China, Pui Ching Middle School in Hong Kong,
Augustana College in Rock Island, Illinois, Ph D University of Chicago. Bell Labs, Princeton
6. 2009 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Charles K. Kao was born in Shanghai, St Joseph’s College in Hong Kong, PhD London University,
ITT, Chancellor Chinese University of Hong Kong
Of the 6, 4 were born in China of which 2 grew up in Hong Kong and were HJKan’s former school mates:
1. 1957 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Tsung-Dao Lee was born in Shanghai: high school education in Shanghai, he attended the National
Chekiang University in Kweichow Province, the National Southwest Associated University in Kunming, Yunnan Province and after
completing only his sophomore year at Southwest Associated University, Lee received a Chinese government fellowship for graduate
study in the United States. From 1946-50, Lee studied at the University of Chicago. Columbia University.
2. 1957 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Chen Ning Yang was born in Hofei, Anwhei, China, B Sc National Southwest Associated University
in Kunming, China, MSc Tsinghua U, Ph D University of Chicago, Princeton, NJ
3. 1998 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Daniel C. Tsui was born in Henan in central China, Pui Ching Middle School in Hong Kong,
Augustana College in Rock Island, Illinois, PhD University of Chicago. Bell Labs, Princeton
4. 2009 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Charles K. Kao was born in Shanghai, St Joseph’s College in Hong Kong, PhD London University,
ITT, Chinese University of Hong Kong
Of the 6, 2 were born in the USA of Chinese parents:
1. 1976 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Samuel C.C. Ting was born in Ann Arbor, Michigan, BS & PhD Michigan U, MIT
2. 1997 Physics Nobel Prize Laureate Steven Chu was born in St. Louis, Missouri: Garden City High, Queens, NY, BS Rochester University,
NY, Ph D UC Berkeley, Bell Labs, Stanford
All Nobel Laureates in Physics
The Nobel Prize in Physics has been awarded 103 times to 187 Nobel Laureates between 1901 and 2009. John Bardeen is the only Nobel Laureate who has
been awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics twice, in 1956 and 1972. This means that a total of 186 individuals have received the Nobel Prize in Physics.
Click on each name to see the Nobel Laureate's page.
22. Jump down to: | 1980 | 1960 | 1940 | 1920 | 1901 |
• 2009 - Charles K. Kao, Willard S. Boyle, George E. Smith
• 2008 - Yoichiro Nambu, Makoto Kobayashi, Toshihide Maskawa
• 2007 - Albert Fert, Peter Grünberg
• 2006 - John C. Mather, George F. Smoot
• 2005 - Roy J. Glauber, John L. Hall, Theodor W. Hänsch
• 2004 - David J. Gross, H. David Politzer, Frank Wilczek
• 2003 - Alexei A. Abrikosov, Vitaly L. Ginzburg, Anthony J. Leggett
• 2002 - Raymond Davis Jr., Masatoshi Koshiba, Riccardo Giacconi
• 2001 - Eric A. Cornell, Wolfgang Ketterle, Carl E. Wieman
• 2000 - Zhores I. Alferov, Herbert Kroemer, Jack S. Kilby
• 1999 - Gerardus 't Hooft, Martinus J.G. Veltman
• 1998 - Robert B. Laughlin, Horst L. Störmer, Daniel C. Tsui
• 1997 - Steven Chu, Claude Cohen-Tannoudji, William D. Phillips
• 1996 - David M. Lee, Douglas D. Osheroff, Robert C. Richardson
• 1995 - Martin L. Perl, Frederick Reines
• 1994 - Bertram N. Brockhouse, Clifford G. Shull
• 1993 - Russell A. Hulse, Joseph H. Taylor Jr.
• 1992 - Georges Charpak
• 1991 - Pierre-Gilles de Gennes
• 1990 - Jerome I. Friedman, Henry W. Kendall, Richard E. Taylor
• 1989 - Norman F. Ramsey, Hans G. Dehmelt, Wolfgang Paul
• 1988 - Leon M. Lederman, Melvin Schwartz, Jack Steinberger
• 1987 - J. Georg Bednorz, K. Alex Müller
• 1986 - Ernst Ruska, Gerd Binnig, Heinrich Rohrer
• 1985 - Klaus von Klitzing
• 1984 - Carlo Rubbia, Simon van der Meer
• 1983 - Subramanyan Chandrasekhar, William A. Fowler
• 1982 - Kenneth G. Wilson
• 1981 - Nicolaas Bloembergen, Arthur L. Schawlow, Kai M. Siegbahn
• 1980 - James Cronin, Val Fitch
• 1979 - Sheldon Glashow, Abdus Salam, Steven Weinberg
• 1978 - Pyotr Kapitsa, Arno Penzias, Robert Woodrow Wilson
• 1977 - Philip W. Anderson, Sir Nevill F. Mott, John H. van Vleck
• 1976 - Burton Richter, Samuel C.C. Ting
• 1975 - Aage N. Bohr, Ben R. Mottelson, James Rainwater
• 1974 - Martin Ryle, Antony Hewish
• 1973 - Leo Esaki, Ivar Giaever, Brian D. Josephson
• 1972 - John Bardeen, Leon N. Cooper, Robert Schrieffer
• 1971 - Dennis Gabor
23. • 1970 - Hannes Alfvén, Louis Néel
• 1969 - Murray Gell-Mann
• 1968 - Luis Alvarez
• 1967 - Hans Bethe
• 1966 - Alfred Kastler
• 1965 - Sin-Itiro Tomonaga, Julian Schwinger, Richard P. Feynman
• 1964 - Charles H. Townes, Nicolay G. Basov, Aleksandr M. Prokhorov
• 1963 - Eugene Wigner, Maria Goeppert-Mayer, J. Hans D. Jensen
• 1962 - Lev Landau
• 1961 - Robert Hofstadter, Rudolf Mössbauer
• 1960 - Donald A. Glaser
• 1959 - Emilio Segrè, Owen Chamberlain
• 1958 - Pavel A. Cherenkov, Il´ja M. Frank, Igor Y. Tamm
• 1957 - Chen Ning Yang, Tsung-Dao Lee
• 1956 - William B. Shockley, John Bardeen, Walter H. Brattain
• 1955 - Willis E. Lamb, Polykarp Kusch
• 1954 - Max Born, Walther Bothe
• 1953 - Frits Zernike
• 1952 - Felix Bloch, E. M. Purcell
• 1951 - John Cockcroft, Ernest T.S. Walton
• 1950 - Cecil Powell
• 1949 - Hideki Yukawa
• 1948 - Patrick M.S. Blackett
• 1947 - Edward V. Appleton
• 1946 - Percy W. Bridgman
• 1945 - Wolfgang Pauli
• 1944 - Isidor Isaac Rabi
• 1943 - Otto Stern
• 1942 - The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
• 1941 - The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
• 1940 - The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
• 1939 - Ernest Lawrence
• 1938 - Enrico Fermi
• 1937 - Clinton Davisson, George Paget Thomson
• 1936 - Victor F. Hess, Carl D. Anderson
• 1935 - James Chadwick
• 1934 - The prize money was with 1/3 allocated to the Main Fund and with 2/3 to the Special Fund of this prize section
• 1933 - Erwin Schrödinger, Paul A.M. Dirac
• 1932 - Werner Heisenberg
• 1931 - The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section
• 1930 - Sir Venkata Raman
24. • 1929 - Louis de Broglie
• 1928 - Owen Willans Richardson
• 1927 - Arthur H. Compton, C.T.R. Wilson
• 1926 - Jean Baptiste Perrin
• 1925 - James Franck, Gustav Hertz
• 1924 - Manne Siegbahn
• 1923 - Robert A. Millikan
• 1922 - Niels Bohr
• 1921 - Albert Einstein
• 1920 - Charles Edouard Guillaume
• 1919 - Johannes Stark
• 1918 - Max Planck
• 1917 - Charles Glover Barkla
• 1916 - The prize money was allocated to the Special Fund of this prize section
• 1915 - William Bragg, Lawrence Bragg
• 1914 - Max von Laue
• 1913 - Heike Kamerlingh Onnes
• 1912 - Gustaf Dalén
• 1911 - Wilhelm Wien
• 1910 - Johannes Diderik van der Waals
• 1909 - Guglielmo Marconi, Ferdinand Braun
• 1908 - Gabriel Lippmann
• 1907 - Albert A. Michelson
• 1906 - J.J. Thomson
• 1905 - Philipp Lenard
• 1904 - Lord Rayleigh
• 1903 - Henri Becquerel, Pierre Curie, Marie Curie
• 1902 - Hendrik A. Lorentz, Pieter Zeeman
• 1901 - Wilhelm Conrad Röntgen
• Printer Friendly
• Comments & Questions
• Tell a Friend
The Nobel Prize in Physics
• All Nobel Laureates in Physics
• Articles
25. • Facts on the Nobel Prize in Physics
• Nobel Prize Amount
• Nobel Prize Medal
• Video Interviews
• Video Nobel Lectures
All Physics Nobel Laureates
Explore the Physics games!
# 4. Steven Chu
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1997
Autobiography
My father, Ju Chin Chu, came to the United States in 1943 to continue his education at the Massachusetts Institute
of Technology in chemical engineering, and two years later, my mother, Ching Chen Li, joined him to study
economics. A generation earlier, my mother's father earned his advanced degrees in civil engineering at Cornell
26. while his brother studied physics under Perrin at the Sorbonne before they returned to China. However, when my
parents married in 1945, China was in turmoil and the possibility of returning grew increasingly remote, and they
decided to begin their family in the United States. My brothers and I were born as part of a typical nomadic
academic career: my older brother was born in 1946 while my father was finishing at MIT, I was born in St. Louis
in 1948 while my father taught at Washington University, and my younger brother completed the family in Queens
shortly after my father took a position as a professor at the Brooklyn Polytechnic Institute.
In 1950, we settled in Garden City, New York, a bedroom community within commuting distance of Brooklyn
Polytechnic. There were only two other Chinese families in this town of 25,000, but to our parents, the determining
factor was the quality of the public school system. Education in my family was not merely emphasized, it was our
raison d'être. Virtually all of our aunts and uncles had Ph.D.'s in science or engineering, and it was taken for granted
that the next generation of Chu's were to follow the family tradition. When the dust had settled, my two brothers and
four cousins collected three MDs, four Ph.D.s and a law degree. I could manage only a single advanced degree.
In this family of accomplished scholars, I was to become the academic black sheep. I performed adequately at
school, but in comparison to my older brother, who set the record for the highest cumulative average for our high
school, my performance was decidedly mediocre. I studied, but not in a particularly efficient manner. Occasionally,
I would focus on a particular school project and become obsessed with, what seemed to my mother, to be trivial
details instead of apportioning the time I spent on school work in a more efficient way.
I approached the bulk of my schoolwork as a chore rather than an intellectual adventure. The tedium was relieved by
a few courses that seem to be qualitatively different. Geometry was the first exciting course I remember. Instead of
memorizing facts, we were asked to think in clear, logical steps. Beginning from a few intuitive postulates, far
reaching consequences could be derived, and I took immediately to the sport of proving theorems. I also fondly
remember several of my English courses where the assigned reading often led to binges where I read many books by
the same author.
Despite the importance of education in our family, my life was not completely centered around school work or
recreational reading. In the summer after kindergarten, a friend introduced me to the joys of building plastic model
airplanes and warships. By the fourth grade, I graduated to an erector set and spent many happy hours constructing
devices of unknown purpose where the main design criterion was to maximize the number of moving parts and
27. overall size. The living room rug was frequently littered with hundreds of metal "girders" and tiny nuts and bolts
surrounding half-finished structures. An understanding mother allowed me to keep the projects going for days on
end. As I grew older, my interests expanded to playing with chemistry: a friend and I experimented with homemade
rockets, in part funded by money my parents gave me for lunch at school. One summer, we turned our hobby into a
business as we tested our neighbors' soil for acidity and missing nutrients.
I also developed an interest in sports, and played in informal games at a nearby school yard where the neighborhood
children met to play touch football, baseball, basketball and occasionally, ice hockey. In the eighth grade, I taught
myself tennis by reading a book, and in the following year, I joined the school team as a "second string" substitute, a
position I held for the next three years. I also taught myself how to pole vault using bamboo poles obtained from the
local carpet store. I was soon able to clear 8 feet, but was not good enough to make the track team.
In my senior year, I took advanced placement physics and calculus. These two courses were taught with the same
spirit as my earlier geometry course. Instead of a long list of formulas to memorize, we were presented with a few
basic ideas or a set of very natural assumptions. I was also blessed by two talented and dedicated teachers.
My physics teacher, Thomas Miner was particularly gifted. To this day, I remember how he introduced the subject
of physics. He told us we were going to learn how to deal with very simple questions such as how a body falls due to
the acceleration of gravity. Through a combination of conjecture and observations, ideas could be cast into a theory
that can be tested by experiments. The small set of questions that physics could address might seem trivial compared
to humanistic concerns. Despite the modest goals of physics, knowledge gained in this way would become collected
wisdom through the ultimate arbitrator - experiment.
In addition to an incredibly clear and precise introduction to the subject, Mr. Miner also encouraged ambitious
laboratory projects. For the better part of my last semester at Garden City High, I constructed a physical pendulum
and used it to make a "precision" measurement of gravity. The years of experience building things taught me skills
that were directly applicable to the construction of the pendulum. Ironically, twenty five years later, I was to develop
a refined version of this measurement using laser cooled atoms in an atomic fountain interferometer.
I applied to a number of colleges in the fall of my senior year, but because of my relatively lackluster A-average in
high school, I was rejected by the Ivy League schools, but was accepted at Rochester. By comparison, my older
28. brother was attending Princeton, two cousins were in Harvard and a third was at Bryn Mawr. My younger brother
seemed to have escaped the family pressure to excel in school by going to college without earning a high school
diploma and by avoiding a career in science. (He nevertheless got a Ph.D. at the age of 21 followed by a law degree
from Harvard and is now a managing partner of a major law firm.) As I prepared to go to college, I consoled myself
that I would be an anonymous student, out of the shadow of my illustrious family.
The Rochester and Berkeley Years
At Rochester, I came with the same emotions as many of the entering freshman: everything was new, exciting and a
bit overwhelming, but at least nobody had heard of my brothers and cousins. I enrolled in a two-year, introductory
physics sequence that used The Feynman Lectures in Physics as the textbook. The Lectures were mesmerizing and
inspirational. Feynman made physics seem so beautiful and his love of the subject is shown through each page.
Learning to do the problem sets was another matter, and it was only years later that I began to appreciate what a
magician he was at getting answers.
In my sophomore year, I became increasingly interested in mathematics and declared a major in both mathematics
and physics. My math professors were particularly good, especially relative to the physics instructor I had that year.
If it were not for the Feynman Lectures, I would have almost assuredly left physics. The pull towards mathematics
was partly social: as a lowly undergraduate student, several math professors adopted me and I was invited to several
faculty parties.
The obvious compromise between mathematics and physics was to become a theoretical physicist. My heroes were
Newton, Maxwell, Einstein, up to the contemporary giants such as Feynman, Gell-Mann, Yang and Lee. My courses
did not stress the importance of the experimental contributions, and I was led to believe that the "smartest" students
became theorists while the remainder were relegated to experimental grunts. Sadly, I had forgotten Mr. Miner's first
important lesson in physics.
Hoping to become a theoretical physicist, I applied to Berkeley, Stanford, Stony Brook (Yang was there!) and
Princeton. I chose to go to Berkeley and entered in the fall of 1970. At that time, the number of available jobs in
physics was shrinking and prospects were especially difficult for budding young theorists. I recall the faculty
admonishing us about the perils of theoretical physics: unless we were going to be as good as Feynman, we would
29. be better off in experimental physics. To the best of my knowledge, this warning had no effect on either me or my
fellow students.
After I passed the qualifying exam, I was recruited by Eugene Commins. I admired his breadth of knowledge and his
teaching ability but did not yet learn of his uncanny ability to bring out the best in all of his students. He was ending
a series of beta decay experiments and was casting around for a new direction of research. He was getting interested
in astrophysics at the time and asked me to think about proto-star formation of a closely coupled binary pair. I had
spent the summer between Rochester and Berkeley at the National Radio Astronomy Observatory trying to
determine the deceleration of the universe with high red-shift radio source galaxies and was drawn to astrophysics.
However, in the next two months, I avoided working on the theoretical problem he gave me and instead played in
the lab.
One of my "play-experiments" was motivated by my interest in classical music. I noticed that one could hear out-of-
tune notes played in a very fast run by a violinist. A simple estimate suggested that the frequency accuracy, times
the duration of the note, did not satisfy the uncertainty relationship . In order to test the frequency sensitivity
of the ear, I connected an audio oscillator to a linear gate so that a tone burst of varying duration could be produced.
I then asked my fellow graduate students to match the frequency of an arbitrarily chosen tone by adjusting the knob
of another audio oscillator until the notes sounded the same. Students with the best musical ears could identify the
center frequency of a tone burst that eventually sounded like a "click" with an accuracy of .
By this time it was becoming obvious (even to me) that I would be much happier as an experimentalist and I told my
advisor. He agreed and started me on a beta-decay experiment looking for "second-class currents", but after a year of
building, we abandoned it to measure the Lamb shift in high-Z hydrogen-like ions. In 1974, Claude and Marie
Bouchiat published their proposal to look for parity non-conserving effects in atomic transitions. The unified theory
of weak and electromagnetic interactions suggested by Weinberg, Salam and Glashow postulated a neutral mediator
of the weak force in addition to the known charged forces. Such an interaction would manifest itself as a very slight
asymmetry in the absorption of left and right circularly polarized light in a magnetic dipole transition. Gene was
always drawn to work that probed the most fundamental aspects of physics, and we were excited by the prospect
that a table-top experiment could say something decisive about high energy physics. The experiment needed a state-
of-the-art laser and my advisor knew nothing about lasers. I brashly told him not to worry; I would build it and we
would be up and running in no time.
30. This work was tremendously exciting and the world was definitely watching us. Steven Weinberg would call my
advisor every few months, hoping to hear news of a parity violating effect. Dave Jackson, a high energy theorist, and
I would sometimes meet at the university swimming pool. During several of these encounters, he squinted at me and
tersely asked, "Got a number yet?" The unspoken message was, "How dare you swim when there is important work
to be done!"
Midway into the experiment, I told my advisor that I had suffered enough as a graduate student so he elevated me to
post-doc status. Two years later, we and three graduate students published our first results. Unfortunately, we were
scooped: a few months earlier, a beautiful high energy experiment at the Stanford Linear Collider had seen
convincing evidence of neutral weak interactions between electrons and quarks. Nevertheless, I was offered a job as
assistant professor at Berkeley in the spring of 1978.
I had spent all of my graduate and postdoctoral days at Berkeley and the faculty was concerned about inbreeding. As
a solution, they hired me but also would permit me to take an immediate leave of absence before starting my own
group at Berkeley. I loved Berkeley, but realized that I had a narrow view of science and saw this as a wonderful
opportunity to broaden myself.
A Random Walk in Science at Bell Labs
I joined Bell Laboratories in the fall of 1978. I was one of roughly two dozen brash, young scientists that were
hired within a two year period. We felt like the "Chosen Ones", with no obligation to do anything except the
research we loved best. The joy and excitement of doing science permeated the halls. The cramped labs and office
cubicles forced us to interact with each other and follow each others' progress. The animated discussions were
common during and after seminars and at lunch and continued on the tennis courts and at parties. The atmosphere
was too electric to abandon, and I never returned to Berkeley. To this day I feel guilty about it, but I think that the
faculty understood my decision and have forgiven me.
Bell Labs management supplied us with funding, shielded us from extraneous bureaucracy, and urged us not to be
satisfied with doing merely "good science." My department head, Peter Eisenberger, told me to spend my first six
months in the library and talk to people before deciding what to do. A year later during a performance review, he
chided me not to be content with anything less than "starting a new field". I responded that I would be more than
happy to do that, but needed a hint as to what new field he had in mind.
31. I spent the first year at Bell writing a paper reviewing the current status of x-ray microscopy and started an
experiment on energy transfer in ruby with Hyatt Gibbs and Sam McCall. I also began planning the experiment on
the optical spectroscopy of positronium. Positronium, an atom made up of an electron and its anti-particle, was
considered the most basic of all atoms, and a precise measurement of its energy levels was a long standing goal ever
since the atom was discovered in 1950. The problem was that the atoms would annihilate into gamma rays after only
140x10-9 seconds, and it was impossible to produce enough of them at any given time. When I started the
experiment, there were 12 published attempts to observe the optical fluorescence of the atom. People only publish
failures if they have spent enough time and money so their funding agencies demand something in return.
My management thought I was ruining my career by trying an impossible experiment. After two years of no results,
they strongly suggested that I abandon my quest. But I was stubborn and I had a secret weapon: his name is Allen
Mills. Our strengths complemented each other beautifully, but in the end, he helped me solve the laser and
metrology problems while I helped him with his positrons. We finally managed to observe a signal working with
only ~4 atoms per laser pulse! Two years later and with 20 atoms per pulse, we refined our methods and obtained
one of the most accurate measurements of quantum electrodynamic corrections to an atomic system.
In the fall of 1983, I became head of the Quantum Electronics Research Department and moved to another branch of
Bell Labs at Holmdel, New Jersey. By then my research interests had broadened, and I was using picosecond laser
techniques to look at excitons as a potential system for observing metal-insulator transitions and Anderson
localization. With this apparatus, I accidentally discovered a counter-intuitive pulse-propagation effect. I was also
planning to enter surface science by constructing a novel electron spectrometer based on threshold ionization of
atoms that could potentially increase the energy resolution by more than an order of magnitude.
While designing the electron spectrometer, I began talking informally with Art Ashkin, a colleague at Holmdel. Art
had a dream to trap atoms with light, but the management stopped the work four years ago. An important experiment
had demonstrated the dipole force, but the experimenters had reached an impasse. Over the next few months, I
began to realize the way to hold onto atoms with light was to first get them very cold. Laser cooling was going to
make possible all of Art Ashkin's dreams plus a lot more. I promptly dropped most of my other experiments and
with Leo Holberg, my new post-doc, and my technician, Alex Cable, began our laser cooling experiment. This
brings me to the beginning of our work in laser cooling and trapping of atoms and the subject of my Nobel Lecture.
32. Stanford and the future
Life at Bell Labs, like Mary Poppins, was "practically perfect in every way". However, in 1987, I decided to leave
my cozy ivory tower. Ted Hänsch had left Stanford to become co-director of the Max Planck Institute for Quantum
Optics and I was recruited to replace him. Within a few months, I also received offers from Berkeley and Harvard,
and I thought the offers were as good as they were ever going to be. My management at Bell Labs was successful in
keeping me at Bell Labs for 9 years, but I wanted to be like my mentor, Gene Commins, and the urge to spawn
scientific progeny was growing stronger.
Ted Geballe, a distinguished colleague of mine at Stanford who also went from Berkeley to Bell to Stanford years
earlier, described our motives: "The best part of working at a university is the students. They come in fresh,
enthusiastic, open to ideas, unscarred by the battles of life. They don't realize it, but they're the recipients of the best
our society can offer. If a mind is ever free to be creative, that's the time. They come in believing textbooks are
authoritative but eventually they figure out that textbooks and professors don't know everything, and then they start
to think on their own. Then, I begin learning from them."
My students at Stanford have been extraordinary, and I have learned much from them. Much of my most important
work such as fleshing out the details of polarization gradient cooling, the demonstration of the atomic fountain
clock, and the development of atom interferometers and a new method of laser cooling based on Raman pulses was
done at Stanford with my students as collaborators.
While still continuing in laser cooling and trapping of atoms, I have recently ventured into polymer physics and
biology. In 1986, Ashkin showed that the first optical atom trap demonstrated at Bell Labs also worked on tiny glass
spheres embedded in water. A year after I came to Stanford, I set about to manipulate individual DNA molecules
with the so-called "optical tweezers" by attaching micron-sized polystyrene spheres to the ends of the molecule. My
idea was to use two optical tweezers introduced into an optical microscope to grab the plastic handles glued to the
ends of the molecule. Steve Kron, an M.D./Ph.D. student in the medical school, introduced me to molecular biology
in the evenings. By 1990, we could see an image of a single, fluorescently labeled DNA molecule in real time as we
stretched it out in water. My students improved upon our first attempts after they discovered our initial protocol
demanded luck as a major ingredient. Using our new ability to simultaneously visualize and manipulate individual
molecules of DNA, my group began to answer polymer dynamics questions that have persisted for decades. Even
34. • Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Interview
• Nobel Diploma
• Photo Gallery
• Nobel Symposia
• Other Resources
Claude Cohen-Tannoudji
• Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Nobel Diploma
• Photo Gallery
• Banquet Speech
• Other Resources
William D. Phillips
• Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Nobel Diploma
• Photo Gallery
• Other Resources
All Physics Nobel Laureates
Explore the Physics games!
# 3. Samuel C.C. Ting
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1976
Autobiography
35. I was born on 27 January 1936 in Ann Arbor, Michigan, the first of three children of Kuan Hai Ting, a professor of engineering,
and Tsun-Ying Wang, a professor of psychology. My parents had hoped that I would be born in China, but as I was born prematurely while they were
visiting the United States, by accident of birth I became an American citizen. Two months after my birth we returned to China. Owing to wartime
conditions I did not have a traditional education until I was twelve. Nevertheless, my parents were always associated with universities, and I thus had the
opportunity of meeting the many accomplished scholars who often visited us. Perhaps because of this early infiuence I have always had the desire to be
associated with university life.
Since both my parents were working, I was brought up by my maternal grandmother. My maternal grandfather lost his life during the first Chinese
Revolution. After that, at the age of thirty-three, my grandmother decided to go to school, became a teacher, and brought my mother up alone. When I was
young I often heard stories from my mother and grandmother recalling the difficult lives they had during that turbulent period and the efforts they made to
provide my mother with a good education. Both of them were daring, original, and determined people, and they have left an indelible impression on me.
When I was twenty years old I decided to return to the United States for a better education. My parents' friend, G.G. Brown, Dean of the School of
Engineering, University of Michigan, told my parents I would be welcome to stay with him and his family. At that time I knew very little English and had
no idea of the cost of living in the United States. In China, I had read that many American students go through college on their own resources. I informed
my parents that I would do likewise. I arrived at the Detroit airport on 6 September 1956 with $100, which at the time seemed more than adequate. I was
somewhat frightened, did not know anyone, and communication was difficult.
Since I depended on scholarships for my education, I had to work very hard to keep them. Somehow, I managed to obtain degrees in both mathematics and
physics from the University of Michigan in three years, and completed my Ph.D. degree in physics under Drs. L.W. Jones and M.L. Perl in 1962.
I went to the European Organization for Nuclear Research (CERN) as a Ford Foundation Fellow. There I had the good fortune to work with Giuseppe
Cocconi at the Proton Synchrotron, and I learned a lot of physics from him. He always had a simple way of viewing a complicated problem, did
experiments with great care, and impressed me deeply.
In the spring of 1965 I returned to the United States to teach at Columbia University. In those years the Columbia Physics Department was a very
stimulating place, and I had the opportunity of watching people such as L. Lederman, T.D. Lee, I.I. Rabi, M. Schwarts, J. Steinberger, C.S. Wu, and others.
They all had their own individual style and extremely good taste in physics. I benefitted greatly from my short stay at Columbia.
37. The 1976 Prize in:
• Prev. year
• Next year
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1976
• Press Release
• Presentation Speech
Burton Richter
• Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Other Resources
Samuel C.C. Ting
• Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Banquet Speech
• Other Resources
All Physics Nobel Laureates
Explore the Physics games!
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/yang-bio.html
# 2. Chen Ning Yang
38. The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957
Biography
Chen Ning Yang was born on September 22, 1922, in Hofei, Anwhei, China, the first of five children of Ke Chuan Yang and
Meng Hwa Loh Yang. He is also known as Frank or Franklin.
Yang was brought up in the peaceful and academically inclined atmosphere of the campus of Tsinghua University, just outside of Peiping, China, where his
father was a Professor of Mathematics. He received his college education at the National Southwest Associated University in Kunming, China, and
completed his B.Sc. degree there in 1942. His M.Sc. degree was received in 1944 from Tsinghua University, which had moved to Kunming during the
Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945). He went to the U.S.A. at the end of the war on a Tsinghua University Fellowship, and entered the University of Chicago
in January 1946. At Chicago he came under the strong influence of Professor E. Fermi. After receiving his Ph.D. degree in 1948, Yang served for a year at
the University of Chicago as an Instructor. He has been associated with the Institute for Advanced Study, Princeton, New Jersey, U.S.A., since 1949,
where he became a Professor in 1955.
Yang has worked on various subjects in physics, but has his chief interest in two fields: statistical mechanics and symmetry principles. His B.Sc. thesis:
"Group Theory and Molecular Spectra", written under the guidance of Professor Ta-You Wu, his M.Sc. thesis: "Contributions to the Statistical Theory of
Order-Disorder Transformations", written under the guidance of Professor J.S. Wang, and his Ph.D. thesis: "On the Angular Distribution in Nuclear
Reactions and Coincidence Measurements", written under the guidance of Professor E. Teller, were instrumental in introducing him to these fields.
Dr. Yang is a prolific author, his numerous articles appearing in the Bulletin of the American Mathematical Society, The Physical Review, Reviews of
Modern Physics, and the Chinese Journal of Physics.
Professor Yang has been elected Fellow of the American Physical Society and the Academia Sinica, and honoured with the Albert Einstein
Commemorative Award (1957). The U.S. Junior Chamber of Commerce named him one of the outstanding young men of 1957. He was also awarded an
honorary doctorate of the Princeton University, N.J. (1958).
In 1950 Yang married Chih Li Tu and is now the father of three children: Franklin, born 1951; Gilbert, born 1958; and Eulee, born 1961.
40. • Other Resources
All Physics Nobel Laureates
Explore the Physics games!
http://nobelprize.org/nobel_prizes/physics/laureates/1957/lee-autobio.html
# 1. Tsung-Dao Lee
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957
Autobiography*
Tsung-Dao (T.D.) Lee was born in Shanghai, China, on November 24, 1926, the third of six children of Tsing-Kong Lee and
Ming-Chang Chang.
He received most of his high school education in Shanghai. During 1943-1944, he attended the National Chekiang University in Kweichow Province. In
1945, he attended the National Southwest Associated University in Kunming, Yunnan Province. Lee's early aptitude for physics was recognized and
encouraged by Professor Ta-You Wu. After completing only his sophomore year at Southwest Associated University, Lee received a Chinese government
42. • Prev. year
• Next year
The Nobel Prize in Physics 1957
• Presentation Speech
Chen Ning Yang
• Biography
• Nobel Lecture
• Banquet Speech
• Other Resources
Tsung-Dao Lee
• Autobiography
• Nobel Lecture
• Interview
• Photo Gallery
• Banquet Speech
• Other Resources
All Physics Nobel Laureates
Explore the Physics games!