The document discusses the cattle and beef sector in Botswana. Some key points:
- The sector has historically been important but has declined in recent decades, now accounting for around 2-3% of GDP.
- The Botswana Meat Commission (BMC) plays a central role, exporting beef to the EU which accounts for most exports. BMC has a monopoly on beef exports.
- The national cattle herd is around 1.7 million, mostly on communal lands. Productivity is low with low calving/offtake rates compared to commercial farms.
- There are concerns about overstocking degrading rangelands, especially in communal areas. Overall the sector faces challenges if current trends continue.
Distillers Grains Displacement Ratios for Corn Ethanol Life Cycle Analysis – ...arorasal
This document discusses distillers grains displacement ratios used for corn ethanol life cycle analysis and the limitations and uncertainties involved. It summarizes:
1) The projected increase in distillers grains production from the growing corn ethanol industry and consumption by various animal types both domestically and for exports.
2) The displacement ratios used to estimate what feed ingredients are replaced by distillers grains in different animal diets, though these ratios have uncertainties depending on future market developments and adoption of new technologies.
3) New corn ethanol processing technologies being developed that produce alternative coproducts like de-oiled distillers grains, corn oil, and corn gluten feed, along with estimates of their displacement ratios in
Dairy livestock market analysis in bulgariasimeonov
This document analyzes the dairy livestock market in Bulgaria. It finds that milk production has declined in recent years. Cow milk makes up 87.2% of total milk production. The South Central region produces the most milk at 26.1% of the total. Most farms are small in size and fragmented in structure. The dairy sector faces serious problems including low productivity and competitiveness. Immediate steps are needed to modernize production and improve quality and efficiency to address these challenges.
Brazilian sugarcane mills for foreign investorsRicardo Pinto
The document summarizes information about Brazil's large agricultural sector. Some key points:
- Brazil is the largest producer and exporter of sugar, coffee, orange juice, soybeans, beef, and tobacco.
- Agriculture accounts for over 40% of Brazil's exports and is the fastest growing agricultural sector.
- Sugarcane ethanol production has grown significantly and now accounts for 18% of Brazil's energy use.
- Flex-fuel vehicles that can run on any blend of gasoline and ethanol now make up almost 40% of Brazil's vehicle fleet, expanding ethanol demand.
This document summarizes a presentation given at the 2012 China Agribusiness and Food Safety Investment Summit in Beijing. It discusses trends in China's agricultural industry and food supply chain, including increasing consolidation and mechanization of pork slaughter, changes in farm structure driven by land constraints, and shifting demographics and demand trends. It also notes the challenges around balancing supply chain risks and capitalization needs as China's food system modernizes.
Научный доклад Scientific presentation - Создание презентаций на заказ - Соз...Pavel Kotenko
Pavel Kotenko analyzed the sugar beet industry in Ukraine. Production has declined due to outdated cultivation practices and infrastructure. However, sustainable production is possible through improved policy, technology, and vertically integrated enterprises. The document examines world production trends, major producers, and case studies of Ukrainian enterprises to identify opportunities to increase yields and support the industry.
Mike Bushell - Threats to Food Security and Food Chain Livelihoods from Weeds...Global Risk Forum GRFDavos
Global population growth and changes in diets are increasing demand for food. Weeds, pests and diseases cause major crop losses and threaten food security. Crop protection products have helped increase yields and meet rising demand, but new issues are emerging. Integrated approaches including chemicals, cultural practices and biological controls are needed to sustainably intensify agriculture and ensure adequate, safe and nutritious food supplies.
Distillers Grains Displacement Ratios for Corn Ethanol Life Cycle Analysis – ...arorasal
This document discusses distillers grains displacement ratios used for corn ethanol life cycle analysis and the limitations and uncertainties involved. It summarizes:
1) The projected increase in distillers grains production from the growing corn ethanol industry and consumption by various animal types both domestically and for exports.
2) The displacement ratios used to estimate what feed ingredients are replaced by distillers grains in different animal diets, though these ratios have uncertainties depending on future market developments and adoption of new technologies.
3) New corn ethanol processing technologies being developed that produce alternative coproducts like de-oiled distillers grains, corn oil, and corn gluten feed, along with estimates of their displacement ratios in
Dairy livestock market analysis in bulgariasimeonov
This document analyzes the dairy livestock market in Bulgaria. It finds that milk production has declined in recent years. Cow milk makes up 87.2% of total milk production. The South Central region produces the most milk at 26.1% of the total. Most farms are small in size and fragmented in structure. The dairy sector faces serious problems including low productivity and competitiveness. Immediate steps are needed to modernize production and improve quality and efficiency to address these challenges.
Brazilian sugarcane mills for foreign investorsRicardo Pinto
The document summarizes information about Brazil's large agricultural sector. Some key points:
- Brazil is the largest producer and exporter of sugar, coffee, orange juice, soybeans, beef, and tobacco.
- Agriculture accounts for over 40% of Brazil's exports and is the fastest growing agricultural sector.
- Sugarcane ethanol production has grown significantly and now accounts for 18% of Brazil's energy use.
- Flex-fuel vehicles that can run on any blend of gasoline and ethanol now make up almost 40% of Brazil's vehicle fleet, expanding ethanol demand.
This document summarizes a presentation given at the 2012 China Agribusiness and Food Safety Investment Summit in Beijing. It discusses trends in China's agricultural industry and food supply chain, including increasing consolidation and mechanization of pork slaughter, changes in farm structure driven by land constraints, and shifting demographics and demand trends. It also notes the challenges around balancing supply chain risks and capitalization needs as China's food system modernizes.
Научный доклад Scientific presentation - Создание презентаций на заказ - Соз...Pavel Kotenko
Pavel Kotenko analyzed the sugar beet industry in Ukraine. Production has declined due to outdated cultivation practices and infrastructure. However, sustainable production is possible through improved policy, technology, and vertically integrated enterprises. The document examines world production trends, major producers, and case studies of Ukrainian enterprises to identify opportunities to increase yields and support the industry.
Mike Bushell - Threats to Food Security and Food Chain Livelihoods from Weeds...Global Risk Forum GRFDavos
Global population growth and changes in diets are increasing demand for food. Weeds, pests and diseases cause major crop losses and threaten food security. Crop protection products have helped increase yields and meet rising demand, but new issues are emerging. Integrated approaches including chemicals, cultural practices and biological controls are needed to sustainably intensify agriculture and ensure adequate, safe and nutritious food supplies.
1) Iraqi soldiers conducted a live-fire exercise at Ghuzlani Warrior Training Center to hone basic warrior skills and learn squad and company tactics under the mentorship of US cavalry soldiers.
2) The Iraqi Security Forces conducted Operation Iron Lion to demonstrate their capabilities and ability to defend Iraq at Ghuzlani Warrior Training Center, showcasing skills for US and Iraqi leaders.
3) During the operation, Iraqi police, special operations forces, and army soldiers eliminated a simulated threat and conducted crime scene investigation and crowd control roles to showcase their security of Ninewa province.
Describes how product / industry marketing must evolve to ensure marketing effectiveness, i.e. sales and marketing success, in an increasingly crowded marketplace. Content is based upon my personal insight, marketing a range of high tech. product products and services, for a number of companies across the TMT sector.
Este documento presenta argumentos para desmontar los estereotipos que limitan la contratación de mujeres. Primero, introduce el objetivo de desmontar las percepciones erróneas sobre la participación femenina en el trabajo. Luego, resume tres tipos comunes de estereotipos: sobre la capacidad y motivación de las mujeres, su disponibilidad debido a las tareas domésticas, y la segregación laboral. Finalmente, ofrece datos y recomendaciones para contrarrestar cada estereotipo.
The document summarizes the events of the Apollo 13 mission, which suffered an oxygen tank explosion en route to the moon in 1970. The crew was forced to use the lunar module as a "lifeboat" to survive the journey back to Earth. Through ingenious problem-solving, the mission control team in Houston was able to guide the astronauts to a safe splashdown, turning a potential tragedy into a triumph of human innovation and endurance.
This document discusses how analyzing large amounts of data from mobile phone usage can provide insights to help address challenges in international development. Specifically, patterns in mobile money transactions, call records, social media posts and other digital activities can help governments and organizations better understand public needs, predict crises, and target services. However, privacy concerns and lack of data sharing incentives currently limit these benefits. The document outlines opportunities and obstacles to establishing a "data commons" where information is openly and responsibly shared between public, private and nonprofit sectors for social good.
El documento habla sobre la heurística. Define la heurística como un método de resolución de problemas basado en la experiencia y reglas empíricas. Describe los cuatro pasos del método heurístico de George Pólya para resolver problemas: comprender el problema, hacer un plan, ejecutar el plan y analizar la solución. También menciona otros métodos heurísticos como IDEAL y los 10 principios heurísticos de Jakob Nielsen para el diseño de interfaces.
Smartboard is very helpful in collecting and gathering data from children through activities that allow them to communicate, give ideas and opinions openly and clearly. Experts agreed that Smartboard functions and tools should be simple and allow direct interaction. While not replacing all conventional methods, Smartboard was seen as a potential alternative for collecting data, especially for studies involving large samples in a class.
System models for distributed and cloud computingpurplesea
This document discusses different types of distributed computing systems including clusters, peer-to-peer networks, grids, and clouds. It describes key characteristics of each type such as configuration, control structure, scale, and usage. The document also covers performance metrics, scalability analysis using Amdahl's Law, system efficiency considerations, and techniques for achieving fault tolerance and high system availability in distributed environments.
Phishing attacks are a major problem for organizations, as most data breaches start with a phishing email. Attackers use sophisticated social engineering techniques to target individuals through email, websites, USB drives, phone calls, and social media. When users fall for these attacks by clicking links or opening attachments, their devices become compromised and allow attackers to access organizational networks and steal confidential data. To protect against phishing, organizations must implement security awareness training for employees and multilayered technical defenses.
Principios fundamentales de la constitución de 1991Alejandro Canasto
El documento resume los 10 primeros artículos de la Constitución colombiana que establecen los principios fundamentales de la nación. Estos principios incluyen que Colombia es un estado social de derecho unitario y descentralizado, que la soberanía reside en el pueblo, y que la Constitución es la norma suprema. Además, el Estado reconoce la diversidad étnica y cultural y protege los derechos humanos y las riquezas naturales y culturales de la nación.
Este documento describe un proyecto para mejorar la ortografía de los estudiantes en el Centro Educativo Cuatro Esquinas en Linares, Nariño. Un diagnóstico encontró que los estudiantes tenían un bajo desempeño en reglas ortográficas. El objetivo es mejorar la aplicación de reglas ortográficas a través de actividades como dictados, juegos y creación de historias usando las TIC. El proyecto también busca desarrollar competencias gramaticales, comunicativas, textuales y literarias.
The document discusses methods of pharmacoeconomic evaluation, specifically cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA). It provides definitions and outlines the main steps in conducting a CEA: [1] framing the problem and identifying baseline and alternative interventions, [2] selecting outcome measures, [3] identifying relevant costs, [4] constructing a decision model, [5] analyzing and interpreting results including calculating cost-effectiveness ratios, and [6] conducting sensitivity analysis and presenting results. Key points include that CEA measures cost in monetary units and outcomes in natural units like life years saved.
This document provides an overview of Slick, a library for Scala that facilitates database access and querying. It discusses key Slick concepts like the lifted and direct query APIs, supported databases, and features like being easy, concise, safe, composable and explicit. It also covers topics like database schemas, queries for data definition, manipulation, filtering, sorting, joins and unions. Live code examples are provided throughout to demonstrate how to connect to a database, define schemas, and write various query types in Slick.
This document provides information on community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). It defines CAP and distinguishes it from other types of pneumonia. It then discusses the epidemiology, clinical presentation, etiology, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and antibiotic resistance patterns associated with CAP. Key points include that CAP affects millions annually in the US with high costs, accurate diagnosis and treatment is important to reduce mortality, and resistance to commonly used antibiotics is a concern.
Employee goal setting for results making 2013 a high impact yearCRG emPerform
Goal setting is a powerful process that has proven to increase professional results and employee satisfaction.
Now is the time to create a plan, establish powerful goals that have a direct impact on company success.
In this informative presentation, CRG emPerform and host, Dawn Kohler, President of The Inside Coach, explore:
How to create the right goals for the right reason.
How to word motivational goals.
How to make a goal a reality.
How to adjust a goal for greater impact.
Enjoy!
To learn more about automating easy employee goal management, visit www.employee-performance.com
The document discusses sensation and perception. It defines sensation as receiving messages about the world through the senses, while perception is interpreting this sensory information. It describes the basic processes of transduction, thresholds, and adaptation in sensation. It then covers the five human senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch in detail, including the sensory receptors and processing involved. Finally, it discusses various factors that influence perception such as attention, depth perception, illusions, and personal factors.
Este documento describe tres valores fundamentales: el respeto, la solidaridad y la honestidad. Define el respeto como reconocer el valor propio y de los demás, lo que permite una sociedad pacífica. La solidaridad implica servir el bien común y ayudar a quienes lo necesitan. La honestidad significa congruencia entre pensamientos, palabras y acciones, así como sinceridad y cumplimiento de compromisos.
Paper for british cattle breeders club brazilAbs Pecplan
This document provides an overview of genetic improvement and crossbreeding programs in Brazil's cattle industry. It discusses:
1) Brazil has the largest commercial cattle herd in the world at 185 million head, with European breeds dominating southern Brazil and Zebu breeds in central and northern regions.
2) Crossbreeding is widely used to take advantage of hybrid vigor and combine traits from different breeds to match cattle to varying environments. Traits like calf survival and growth are improved through crossbreeding.
3) Progeny testing is used to identify young bulls with high genetic merit to improve Brazilian herds under local grazing conditions, in partnership with breeders, farmers, and AI centers.
Feasibility analysis to trade boneless beef from Botswana to the Middle East:...ILRI
Presented by Kanar Hamza (UNE) and Hikuepi Katjiuongua at the Conference on Policies for Competitive Smallholder Livestock Production, Gaborone, Botswana, 4-6 March 2015
1) Iraqi soldiers conducted a live-fire exercise at Ghuzlani Warrior Training Center to hone basic warrior skills and learn squad and company tactics under the mentorship of US cavalry soldiers.
2) The Iraqi Security Forces conducted Operation Iron Lion to demonstrate their capabilities and ability to defend Iraq at Ghuzlani Warrior Training Center, showcasing skills for US and Iraqi leaders.
3) During the operation, Iraqi police, special operations forces, and army soldiers eliminated a simulated threat and conducted crime scene investigation and crowd control roles to showcase their security of Ninewa province.
Describes how product / industry marketing must evolve to ensure marketing effectiveness, i.e. sales and marketing success, in an increasingly crowded marketplace. Content is based upon my personal insight, marketing a range of high tech. product products and services, for a number of companies across the TMT sector.
Este documento presenta argumentos para desmontar los estereotipos que limitan la contratación de mujeres. Primero, introduce el objetivo de desmontar las percepciones erróneas sobre la participación femenina en el trabajo. Luego, resume tres tipos comunes de estereotipos: sobre la capacidad y motivación de las mujeres, su disponibilidad debido a las tareas domésticas, y la segregación laboral. Finalmente, ofrece datos y recomendaciones para contrarrestar cada estereotipo.
The document summarizes the events of the Apollo 13 mission, which suffered an oxygen tank explosion en route to the moon in 1970. The crew was forced to use the lunar module as a "lifeboat" to survive the journey back to Earth. Through ingenious problem-solving, the mission control team in Houston was able to guide the astronauts to a safe splashdown, turning a potential tragedy into a triumph of human innovation and endurance.
This document discusses how analyzing large amounts of data from mobile phone usage can provide insights to help address challenges in international development. Specifically, patterns in mobile money transactions, call records, social media posts and other digital activities can help governments and organizations better understand public needs, predict crises, and target services. However, privacy concerns and lack of data sharing incentives currently limit these benefits. The document outlines opportunities and obstacles to establishing a "data commons" where information is openly and responsibly shared between public, private and nonprofit sectors for social good.
El documento habla sobre la heurística. Define la heurística como un método de resolución de problemas basado en la experiencia y reglas empíricas. Describe los cuatro pasos del método heurístico de George Pólya para resolver problemas: comprender el problema, hacer un plan, ejecutar el plan y analizar la solución. También menciona otros métodos heurísticos como IDEAL y los 10 principios heurísticos de Jakob Nielsen para el diseño de interfaces.
Smartboard is very helpful in collecting and gathering data from children through activities that allow them to communicate, give ideas and opinions openly and clearly. Experts agreed that Smartboard functions and tools should be simple and allow direct interaction. While not replacing all conventional methods, Smartboard was seen as a potential alternative for collecting data, especially for studies involving large samples in a class.
System models for distributed and cloud computingpurplesea
This document discusses different types of distributed computing systems including clusters, peer-to-peer networks, grids, and clouds. It describes key characteristics of each type such as configuration, control structure, scale, and usage. The document also covers performance metrics, scalability analysis using Amdahl's Law, system efficiency considerations, and techniques for achieving fault tolerance and high system availability in distributed environments.
Phishing attacks are a major problem for organizations, as most data breaches start with a phishing email. Attackers use sophisticated social engineering techniques to target individuals through email, websites, USB drives, phone calls, and social media. When users fall for these attacks by clicking links or opening attachments, their devices become compromised and allow attackers to access organizational networks and steal confidential data. To protect against phishing, organizations must implement security awareness training for employees and multilayered technical defenses.
Principios fundamentales de la constitución de 1991Alejandro Canasto
El documento resume los 10 primeros artículos de la Constitución colombiana que establecen los principios fundamentales de la nación. Estos principios incluyen que Colombia es un estado social de derecho unitario y descentralizado, que la soberanía reside en el pueblo, y que la Constitución es la norma suprema. Además, el Estado reconoce la diversidad étnica y cultural y protege los derechos humanos y las riquezas naturales y culturales de la nación.
Este documento describe un proyecto para mejorar la ortografía de los estudiantes en el Centro Educativo Cuatro Esquinas en Linares, Nariño. Un diagnóstico encontró que los estudiantes tenían un bajo desempeño en reglas ortográficas. El objetivo es mejorar la aplicación de reglas ortográficas a través de actividades como dictados, juegos y creación de historias usando las TIC. El proyecto también busca desarrollar competencias gramaticales, comunicativas, textuales y literarias.
The document discusses methods of pharmacoeconomic evaluation, specifically cost-effectiveness analysis (CEA). It provides definitions and outlines the main steps in conducting a CEA: [1] framing the problem and identifying baseline and alternative interventions, [2] selecting outcome measures, [3] identifying relevant costs, [4] constructing a decision model, [5] analyzing and interpreting results including calculating cost-effectiveness ratios, and [6] conducting sensitivity analysis and presenting results. Key points include that CEA measures cost in monetary units and outcomes in natural units like life years saved.
This document provides an overview of Slick, a library for Scala that facilitates database access and querying. It discusses key Slick concepts like the lifted and direct query APIs, supported databases, and features like being easy, concise, safe, composable and explicit. It also covers topics like database schemas, queries for data definition, manipulation, filtering, sorting, joins and unions. Live code examples are provided throughout to demonstrate how to connect to a database, define schemas, and write various query types in Slick.
This document provides information on community-acquired pneumonia (CAP). It defines CAP and distinguishes it from other types of pneumonia. It then discusses the epidemiology, clinical presentation, etiology, symptoms, diagnosis, treatment, and antibiotic resistance patterns associated with CAP. Key points include that CAP affects millions annually in the US with high costs, accurate diagnosis and treatment is important to reduce mortality, and resistance to commonly used antibiotics is a concern.
Employee goal setting for results making 2013 a high impact yearCRG emPerform
Goal setting is a powerful process that has proven to increase professional results and employee satisfaction.
Now is the time to create a plan, establish powerful goals that have a direct impact on company success.
In this informative presentation, CRG emPerform and host, Dawn Kohler, President of The Inside Coach, explore:
How to create the right goals for the right reason.
How to word motivational goals.
How to make a goal a reality.
How to adjust a goal for greater impact.
Enjoy!
To learn more about automating easy employee goal management, visit www.employee-performance.com
The document discusses sensation and perception. It defines sensation as receiving messages about the world through the senses, while perception is interpreting this sensory information. It describes the basic processes of transduction, thresholds, and adaptation in sensation. It then covers the five human senses of vision, hearing, smell, taste, and touch in detail, including the sensory receptors and processing involved. Finally, it discusses various factors that influence perception such as attention, depth perception, illusions, and personal factors.
Este documento describe tres valores fundamentales: el respeto, la solidaridad y la honestidad. Define el respeto como reconocer el valor propio y de los demás, lo que permite una sociedad pacífica. La solidaridad implica servir el bien común y ayudar a quienes lo necesitan. La honestidad significa congruencia entre pensamientos, palabras y acciones, así como sinceridad y cumplimiento de compromisos.
Paper for british cattle breeders club brazilAbs Pecplan
This document provides an overview of genetic improvement and crossbreeding programs in Brazil's cattle industry. It discusses:
1) Brazil has the largest commercial cattle herd in the world at 185 million head, with European breeds dominating southern Brazil and Zebu breeds in central and northern regions.
2) Crossbreeding is widely used to take advantage of hybrid vigor and combine traits from different breeds to match cattle to varying environments. Traits like calf survival and growth are improved through crossbreeding.
3) Progeny testing is used to identify young bulls with high genetic merit to improve Brazilian herds under local grazing conditions, in partnership with breeders, farmers, and AI centers.
Feasibility analysis to trade boneless beef from Botswana to the Middle East:...ILRI
Presented by Kanar Hamza (UNE) and Hikuepi Katjiuongua at the Conference on Policies for Competitive Smallholder Livestock Production, Gaborone, Botswana, 4-6 March 2015
Nigerian Feed and Poultry Industry challenges nias 2009Dr Babatunde Bello
This document summarizes a presentation given by Dr. Babatunde Bello on the challenges facing Nigeria's poultry industry and potential solutions. It begins with an overview of the historical development of Nigeria's feed and livestock industry since the 1960s. It then discusses current challenges like high production costs, low purchasing power, and an unreliable supply of raw materials. Potential solutions proposed include increasing agricultural production and subsidies to improve competitiveness and lower prices. Overall, the presentation aims to analyze trends in the poultry industry, identify challenges in the feed sector, and suggest ways to address these issues.
Dr. Noel Williams - Feed efficiency potential for pigs and poultryJohn Blue
Feed efficiency potential for pigs and poultry - Dr. Noel Williams, Director Technical Services and Marketing, PIC, from the 2011 The Allen D. Leman Swine Conference, September 17-20, 2011, St Paul, MN, USA.
This document summarizes the key trends in the Italian dairy and beef sectors and the impact of the new CAP 2023-2027 agreement. It finds that milk production has increased significantly in some regions from 2004-2021. The dairy sector has seen a consolidation with fewer but larger farms. Beef production has remained relatively stable in recent years. The new CAP allocates slightly less funding overall but shifts more money to eco-schemes and support for small-medium farms. Modeling for a typical dairy farm shows support payments could be reduced by 34% by full CAP implementation in 2026/27.
Agriculture plays an important role in the Zambian economy, providing employment for 70% of the population. However, agricultural productivity, especially for small-scale farmers, remains low due to various constraints including a lack of access to markets, financing, education and infrastructure. Increasing agricultural trade could help reduce poverty but challenges like Zambia's landlocked status and high transportation costs must be addressed. The study examines policies and reforms needed to improve rural livelihoods and make agriculture a more effective engine for inclusive economic growth and trade.
Current Situation and Development in the Small Ruminant (Goat) Industry Suppl...Elmer Esplana
Presentation presented by Mr. Elmer R. Esplana, an economist and interdisciplinary researcher currently working as a government agriculturist at the Marketing Development Division, Bureau of Animal Industry. This presentation was an offshoot the earlier study conducted by the author and his fellow researchers in the Bureau of Animal Industry entitled "Development in the Supply Chain of the Philippine Goat Industry: An Assessment" which won a Grand Prize Award at the National Research Symposium in 2007, a yearly, national research contest, being organized by the DA-Bureau of Agricultural Research. This presentation was presented at the participants of the Goat Raising Agribusiness Seminar during the 79th Foundation Anniversary of the Bureau of Animal Industry in February 25, 2009 .
Dairy report by National Bank of Pakistan Rizwan Khokhar
The document discusses plans for an environmentally controlled dairy farm with 100 American Holstein cows in Pakistan. It provides details on the dairy industry and livestock sector in Pakistan, projected costs for the farm project estimated at Rs. 60 million total, and projected income increasing from Rs. 2.8 million in year 1 to Rs. 77 million in year 10. Productivity of cows is higher than buffaloes with cows reaching maturity faster and having longer lactation periods. The controlled shed dairy farm design aims to increase efficiency through temperature control and reduce human/electricity needs.
International competitiveness of Botswana’s beef industryILRI
Presented by Tebogo B. Seleka and Pinkie G. Kebakile at the Conference on Policies for Competitive Smallholder Livestock Production, Gaborone, Botswana, 4-6 March 2015
The document summarizes the Philippine goat industry. As of January 2010, total goat inventory was estimated at 4.2 million head, which was 0.44% lower than the previous year. Around 37% were female breeders, 9% were male breeders, 33% were kids, and 21% were castrated males or goats for fattening. In 2009, total goat production was estimated at 77.38 thousand metric tons liveweight, which was 0.81% lower than 2008. The document also discusses input supply, production, processing, marketing, consumption, and conclusions/recommendations for the industry.
Assessing ex-ante impact of the complementary dairy improvement interventions...ILRI
Presented by Sirak Bahta, Kidus Nigussie, Getachew Gebru, Solomon Desta and Barry Shapiro at the Annual Conference of Association of Agricultural Economists of South Africa (AEASA), South Africa, 8-10 October 2019
The document discusses strategies for sustainable dairy production in India. It notes that India has vast dairy resources and is the world's largest milk producer. However, its share of the global milk trade is very small. It argues that concerted efforts should be made to help unorganized smallholder dairy farmers adopt newer technologies to significantly increase milk output. This would boost export earnings and returns for dairy farmers while also improving domestic milk consumption.
The document discusses strategies for sustainable dairy production in India. It outlines how dairy farming contributes significantly to India's economy and employment. It also notes that while India is the world's largest milk producer, its share of global milk trade is still very low. The summary discusses improving dairy farmer incomes and export potential through adopting newer technologies, meeting international standards, and developing niche products. Challenges include sustainable management of resources and addressing variations in climate and socioeconomic conditions across India.
1) The document analyzes the beef cattle value chain in northern Bangladesh by identifying key actors, challenges, and opportunities for improvement.
2) It outlines the objectives of identifying the main actors and their roles, challenges and opportunities in the value chain, and recommendations to policymakers.
3) The methodology includes surveys of producers, traders, brokers, retailers, and others to map the value chain and identify strengths, weaknesses, opportunities and threats through analytical tools.
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Structural changes in the brazilian poultry industry 1995 2005Osler Desouzart
Study for FAO. Between 1995 and 2005, Brazil became a world agricultural powerhouse. Agriculture was no longer viewed as something of the past, but as a segment in which Brazil could excel due to its natural conditions. Meats are among the leading “new” agricultural products that have contributed to this change, and in this period the country consolidated a position as one of the major poultry producing and exporting countries in the world.
Production of Bovine Meat in Vietnam – Opportunities for Exporting Thai Lives...Ha Thu
With the increased demand for meat of bovine animals (beef and buffalo meat), Vietnamese producers need to be more strategic in their plans in order to be proficient to supply local
demand. They also need to compete with foreign imports. Quantity of bovine meat per capita in Vietnam increased yearly by level of consumption. The Vietnam livestock industry has many weaknesses from production to marketing.
- The company reported consolidated results for the second quarter of 2011, with gross revenue of R$220.7 million, a 10.5% increase over the previous quarter. However, net revenue declined 2.6% to R$199.7 million.
- Cost of goods sold increased 6.3% to R$207.9 million, leading to a 96.9% drop in gross profit to R$693,000. Despite a 1247% increase in financial results, the company reported a net income of R$2.86 million, compared to a net loss of R$865,000 in the previous quarter.
- Soybean meal accounted for 47% of cost of goods sold, while
Similar to 2005:How Trade Liberalisation Can Help to Resolve the Crisis in Botswana’s Beef and Cattle Sector (20)
This document lists 8 presentations given by two individuals, JEFFERIS.K. and KENEWENDO.B., between 2009 and 2011 on various economic topics including privatization, the global financial crisis, bank credit, immigration, economic recovery, unemployment, and government budgets. The presentations were delivered at conferences, forums, and universities in Botswana and the Southern African Development Community region.
2007:Enhancing Access to Financial Services in Botswanaeconsultbw
Botswana faces challenges in enhancing access to banking and financial services for its population. Over half of adults in Botswana do not use banking services. While Botswana has a sound banking system, there are issues with geographical access in rural areas and a general lack of penetration among lower-income groups. Expanding the use of new technologies, reforming regulations to promote competition and broadening the range of financial institutions and services can help improve access to finance in Botswana.
2005:The Changing Efficiency of African Stock Marketseconsultbw
This document discusses a study that analyzes the changing efficiency of seven African stock markets over time. It uses a test that can detect gradual changes in weak form market efficiency. The study finds that the Johannesburg stock market was weak form efficient throughout the period studied. Egypt, Morocco, and Nigeria showed tendencies toward weak form efficiency later in the period. In contrast, the Kenya and Zimbabwe markets showed no tendency toward efficiency, while Mauritius displayed a slow tendency to eliminate inefficiency.
2002:Laws Institutions and Capital Market Integrationeconsultbw
This document provides an overview of stock exchanges in Africa, including their establishment, growth, and efforts toward regional integration. It discusses the development of individual stock markets in countries such as South Africa, Egypt, Nigeria, Zimbabwe, Kenya, Mauritius, Botswana, Cote D'Ivoire, and Tunisia. It notes that while most African stock markets remain small and illiquid, many have grown rapidly in recent decades due to economic reforms, privatization programs, and relaxed restrictions on foreign investors. However, the markets still face limitations that regional integration efforts seek to overcome through initiatives like the establishment of a West African regional stock exchange.
This document presents the findings of a study on the economic impact of HIV/AIDS in Botswana. It discusses recent developments in HIV prevalence trends and policy responses. It then models the potential macroeconomic and demographic impacts of HIV/AIDS through to 2021 using an aggregate growth model and computable general equilibrium (CGE) model. The results suggest that HIV/AIDS will significantly reduce Botswana's economic growth rate and increase poverty levels without treatment. Expanding access to antiretroviral therapy could help mitigate these negative impacts. The study also examines the impact of HIV/AIDS at the firm, household and government budget levels. It concludes by recommending policies around social safety nets and basic services to address the economic and social effects of the
This document summarizes a study on the economic impact of HIV/AIDS in Botswana. It finds that HIV/AIDS has had a substantial negative impact on Botswana's economy, reducing average real GDP growth by 1.5-2% per year without widespread ART provision. ART provision offsets some negative impacts, but HIV/AIDS still reduces growth by around 1.2% per year and lowers the economy by 23% compared to a scenario without HIV/AIDS. The study updates previous analyses and models the economic effects through 2021 under different scenarios.
This document summarizes a literature review on assessing the macroeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS in Uganda. It provides background on Uganda's response to the HIV/AIDS epidemic, including national policies, interventions, and financing of HIV/AIDS activities. It then reviews literature on the economic impact of HIV/AIDS at various levels and in various sectors. The document also examines country studies that have modeled the macroeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS using different approaches. It concludes with recommendations for assessing the macroeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS in Uganda in Phase II of the project.
This report summarizes findings from 5 mini-studies on the macroeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS in Uganda:
1. Modelling the impact of HIV/AIDS on household poverty levels, finding both short-term health costs and long-term effects can increase poverty.
2. Assessing sectoral vulnerability based on HIV prevalence and occupations, finding health/education sectors most at-risk.
3. Analyzing HIV-related costs, financing, and expenditures in Uganda.
4. Projecting the demographic effects of HIV/AIDS and anti-retroviral therapy scenarios on population size and structure.
5. Studying econometric relationships between HIV/AIDS, aid, exchange rates, inflation
Phase III – Analysis of Macroeconomic impacteconsultbw
This document provides an overview of the macroeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS in Uganda. It discusses the challenges posed by HIV/AIDS to Uganda's economy, including the magnitude of spending on HIV/AIDS programs and the effects on domestic budgets, monetary policy, and exchange rates. It also analyzes the policy choices around absorption and spending as well as scaling up treatment. Two macroeconomic models are used to quantify the impact of HIV/AIDS on economic growth, factoring in variables like labor supply, productivity, and household costs. The results suggest that expanding antiretroviral therapy could help mitigate the negative effects of HIV/AIDS and support continued economic growth in Uganda.
This document summarizes a study assessing the macroeconomic impact of HIV/AIDS in Uganda. It conducted a literature review, mini-studies on poverty impact, sectoral impact, costing and demographics, and aggregate macroeconomic modeling. Key findings include: HIV/AIDS reduces economic growth by 0.5-4.5% annually; impacts labor supply, productivity and household incomes; increases health and funeral costs; and requires additional government spending, potentially affecting fiscal balances. Treatment can help offset some impacts but is expensive. The study provides evidence to guide Uganda's response to HIV/AIDS.
The 2009 budget faced challenging economic circumstances due to the global recession negatively impacting Botswana's diamond and mineral revenues. While Botswana entered the crisis in a strong fiscal position, the budget aimed to stimulate the economy through increased spending, leading to a large projected deficit of 14% of GDP. However, longer term fiscal prospects are less positive as diamond revenues are forecast to remain weak for several years, and the budget is not projected to return to surplus over the medium term. This raises concerns about budget sustainability and Botswana's ability to finance large projected deficits.
The document summarizes Botswana's economic conditions in the second quarter of 2010. GDP grew 7.5% in the first quarter, the first positive growth since late 2008, led by a 10.1% increase in mining output. Non-mining private sector growth was lower at 5.5%. Business confidence improved but remains below pre-crisis levels, and businesses expect slower growth than official forecasts. While conditions are improving, Botswana still faces fiscal challenges from adverse medium-term trends exacerbated by the global crisis.
2010 Q1: Feature on the 2010 Monetary Policy Statement and Budgeteconsultbw
The document summarizes the Bifm Economic Review for the 1st quarter of 2010. It finds that the global economic recovery is underway after one year since the depths of recession, with growth strongest in emerging markets like China that were less impacted by the financial crisis. While emerging markets are benefiting from higher commodity prices and trade, developed economies are expected to have slower growth in 2010-2011. The review also examines how global and domestic factors are impacting Botswana's economy.
2010 Q1: Feature on the 2010 Monetary Policy Statement and Budgeteconsultbw
The document summarizes the Bifm Economic Review for the first quarter of 2010. It discusses the global economic recovery underway in early 2010, led by growth in emerging markets. While recovery is occurring, threats of a double-dip recession remain if fiscal stimulus is withdrawn too early. The document also summarizes Botswana's economic performance in 2009, with GDP contracting 6% due to declines in mining and exports. Inflation declined substantially in 2009 in Botswana but was expected to rise in early 2010. The Bank of Botswana maintained an accommodative monetary policy stance in 2009 while pursuing lower inflation targets in the future. Credit growth in Botswana turned positive in late 2009 while arrears remained elevated.
This document provides an overview of Botswana's financial sector as of 2009/2010. It discusses the evolution and structure of the banking sector, which has grown significantly over the past few decades to become an important part of the economy. The regulatory framework and key institutions governing the financial sector are also outlined. The report examines trends in the banking industry as well as the development of Botswana's non-bank financial sector, including capital markets, pensions, insurance, and other lenders. It concludes by identifying several important issues facing the future of Botswana's financial system.
The document provides an overview of Botswana's financial sector as of 2010/2011. It discusses the evolution and structure of the banking sector, which has grown increasingly important to Botswana's economy. The regulatory framework for banks and other non-bank financial institutions is also examined. Several issues facing the financial sector are analyzed, including the impact of the global crisis, competition and profitability trends in the banking industry, and potential future sources of growth.
2009 Product Innovation and Access to Finance (USAID)econsultbw
This technical report discusses product innovation and access to finance in Africa. It finds that the majority of the population in sub-Saharan Africa does not have access to formal financial services like banks, inhibiting economic growth. However, innovations in mobile money transfer, e-money and mobile banking are transforming access. These innovations reduce costs and allow new distribution models. Mobile network operators are well-positioned to provide low-cost transactions through non-traditional retail points. The report argues regulators need to support innovation without inhibiting it, and ensure risks from different financial products are appropriately managed.
The banking sector in Botswana has evolved significantly over time. Historically, it was dominated by Barclays and Standard Chartered banks. In the 1980s, reforms aimed to encourage competition by liberalizing bank licensing and introducing market-based monetary policy. This led to the entry of several new banks in the early 1990s, doubling the number of commercial banks. Meanwhile, several government-owned financial institutions played an important role in development lending. Overall, reforms have increased competition and efficiency in the banking sector.
2009 Bond Markets in SADC-COMESA Mapping Study (African Financial Markets I...econsultbw
This report provides an overview of bond market development initiatives in Southern African Development Community (SADC) and Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA) countries. It analyzes bond market issues and constraints, regulatory frameworks, and ongoing initiatives to develop bond markets. Key findings include:
1) Bond markets in most SADC and COMESA countries remain underdeveloped, with low liquidity, narrow investor bases, short maturities, and high borrowing costs. This impacts financial sector competitiveness.
2) Developing bond markets could allow governments to borrow more in domestic currencies and lower dependency on foreign debt, increase corporate financing options, and catalyze financial market development and regional integration.
3) The
The document provides an overview of the global and Botswana economies in the 4th quarter of 2009. Key points include:
- The global economy is recovering from recession but growth is uneven, with emerging markets growing faster than developed countries. Risks remain such as high government debt levels.
- In Botswana, diamond production and exports recovered partially in 2009 but remain below previous levels. Inflation fell sharply while interest rates were cut. The non-mining economy showed resilience.
- Going forward, risks include rising oil prices driving inflation up. Fiscal sustainability concerns will constrain government spending support for the economy in 2010. The recovery is expected to be stronger in mining than non-mining sectors.
2005:How Trade Liberalisation Can Help to Resolve the Crisis in Botswana’s Beef and Cattle Sector
1. Policy Briefing Paper
HOW TRADE LIBERALIZATION CAN CONTRIBUTE TO
RESOLVING THE CRISIS IN THE BEEF AND CATTLE
SECTOR
Keith Jefferis
May 2005
P.O. Box 602090 ∆ Unit 4, Lot 40 ∆ Gaborone Commerce Park ∆ Gaborone, Botswana ∆ Phone (267) 3900884 ∆ Fax (267) 3901 027
E-mail: info@satradehub.org
2. Abbreviations
BCPA Botswana Cattle Producers Association
BMC Botswana Meat Commission
CAP Common Agricultural Policy
CBPP Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia
CDM Cold Dressed Mass
CSO Central Statistics Office
EU European Union
FAO Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations
FMD Foot and Mouth Disease
GDP Gross Domestic product
NDP National Development Plan
SPS Sanitary and Phytosanitary Standard
TGLP Tribal Grazing Land Policy
USAID United States Agency for International Development
Exchange Rates as at May 10 2005: BWP 1 = USD 0.2189
USD 1 = BWP 4.57
This paper was prepared under the Trade Facilitation and Capacity Building
Project of the Southern African Global Competitiveness Hub
3. HOW TRADE LIBERALISATION CAN HELP TO
REVITALISE BOTSWANA’S BEEF AND CATTLE
SECTOR
KEITH JEFFERIS1
1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. The cattle and beef industry has traditionally played an important role in the
Botswana economy and society, with significant contributions to GDP, exports, and
employment, as well playing an important social and cultural role. In recent years,
however, there have been signs of decline and stagnation, especially in the beef export
sector, with adverse implications for the viability of cattle farming in the country, and
more generally for rural livelihoods. Within the industry, a central role has been
played by the Botswana Meat Commission (BMC), a state-owned company that has a
monopoly on beef exports and which also receives protection from a statutory ban on
live cattle exports. Notwithstanding the fact that Botswana receives privileged access
to the high-price European Union (EU) market, the main destination for BMC’s
exports, there is a growing crisis in the beef and cattle sector: throughput at BMC’s
abattoirs is declining, BMC is making losses, and prices paid to farmers are declining
in real terms. If present trends continue, prospects for the beef and cattle sector are
poor. As a result, it is widely acknowledged that major changes are needed,
encompassing the management and operation of BMC, beef/cattle marketing
arrangements, and raising the productivity of cattle faming operations, if the industry
is to thrive, indeed to survive.
1.2. The beef and cattle sector is probably the most heavily protected economic activity in
Botswana, in that, apart from BMC’s beef exports, international trade in beef and
cattle is prohibited. As a result, the normal forces of competition that result from trade
are largely absent, thus reducing competitive pressures on the industry – particularly
the beef producing sector - to be efficient. This paper examines the likely impact of
trade liberalisation the beef and cattle sector, and considers whether this can support
the drastic reforms that are necessary if it is to survive and thrive in the future. In
particular, it considers the likely impact of recent proposals for the liberalisation of
cattle marketing arrangements, specifically for the removal of the existing ban on live
cattle exports, that have been made by the embryonic Botswana Cattle Producers
Association (BCPA).
1.3. This policy briefing paper evaluates whether the proposed changes would have a
beneficial impact on the cattle and beef sector and the economy as a whole. The
remainder of the paper is divided into two main sections. Section 2 sets out the
current state of the cattle and beef sector, and identifies a range of problems affecting
it, while Section 3 evaluates the likely impact of trade liberalisation the sector, and
makes recommendations for the way forward. The broad conclusion is that allowing
live cattle exports would enable cattle farmers to realise higher prices and would
stimulate changes to farming practices and herd management that would enable
higher productivity, higher offtake, and improved supplies to the BMC along with
1 Econsult Botswana (Pty) Ltd (www.econsult.co.bw), consultant to the Trade Facilitation and Capacity
Building Project of the Southern African Global Competitiveness Hub (www.satradehub.org). Valuable
assistance was provided by Monnanyana Bingana of MSB Consulting (Pty) Ltd.
4. live cattle exports. Should these changes be realised as anticipated, the benefits would
be increased export earnings from cattle and beef, higher incomes for cattle farmers,
the restoration of profitability for BMC, and the stimulation of the rural economy.
2. OVERVIEW OF THE CATTLE AND BEEF SECTOR
(a) Economic Role and Impact
2.1. Cattle industry historically important but has experienced long-term decline in
economic terms. The cattle and beef sector has historically been extremely important
for Botswana. At independence in 1966, agriculture accounted for some 40% of GDP,
more than half of which was due to cattle rearing. The BMC abattoir at Lobatse was
the only significant manufacturing activity in the country, and beef was the only
significant export commodity. Since the late 1960s, however, agriculture in general has
declined, and the real value of agricultural output was no higher in 2003/04 than it
had been in the mid-1970s, which suggests that there has been no real growth in the
value of cattle output over a thirty year period. Agriculture accounted for 2.3% of
GDP in 2003/04, of which approximately two-thirds was related to cattle production.
By 2004, beef exports amounted to P284m, or 1.7% of total exports of P16.2 billion.
Beef was only the fifth largest export commodity (after diamonds, copper-nickel,
textiles and vehicles & components). Taken together, cattle and beef now account for
approximately 2%-3% of GDP. Employment data from surveys of formal sector
employment and the 2001 national census suggest that approximately 24 000 people,
around 4%-5% of the labour force, were occupied in agricultural employment, both
formal and informal, of which the majority are likely to be employed in the cattle
sector.
Chart 1: Beef Exports
600 8%
7%
500
6%
400
% of total exports
Exports (Pmn)
5%
300 4%
3%
200
2%
100
1%
0 0%
1985 1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Exports Real exports (2000 prices) % of total exports
2.2. The industry remains important to the rural economy. The importance of the cattle
and beef sector is, however, likely to be greater than that implied by macroeconomic
statistics and employment data. Its main importance is in relation to the rural
economy. For reasons of climate and geography, most of rural Botswana is sparsely
populated, and has limited potential to support viable income-generating economic
activity. As a result, there has been a long-term process of rural-urban migration, as
the population seeks more attractive economic opportunities in the urban areas; the
majority of Botswana’s population is now urban. Nevertheless, the proportion
remaining in rural areas, around 45%, is significant. The main economic activities in
the rural areas are cattle rearing, arable agriculture, tourism, retail trade, small-scale
industry, and the provision of government services (education, health, administration
etc.). Of these, arable agriculture and small-scale industry have little potential outside
of those areas close to large population centres, while retail trade and government
2
5. services are dependent upon other sources of income generation. Tourism and cattle-
rearing are, therefore, the main income-generating activities in the rural areas, and
while tourism undoubtedly has long-term potential, it requires further development
and at present it is largely limited to the northern areas of the country. For much of
the country, therefore, cattle rearing is the mainstay of rural income generation. Given
that the rural areas are also heavily dependent upon public and private transfers (such
as old age pension payments, orphan and other welfare payments, and remittances
from extended family members working in urban areas), a healthy cattle sector is
crucial to maintaining some form of economically viable population presence in the
rural areas, and mitigating the pace of rural-urban migration.
2.3. The industry is also has social and cultural importance, as well as for citizen
empowerment. The cattle sector is also important for other reasons. Cattle continue to
be the primary form of wealth accumulation for large segments of the population,
including many of those resident in urban areas, partly because of their continuing
cultural importance. Furthermore, the cattle industry is the only industry in Botswana
that, at all levels, is predominantly owned by citizens; and, although the very poor
tend not to be cattle owners, the industry is in general important to citizens across a
wide range of income levels and socio-economic groups. According to 1996 data, there
were approximately 60 000 cattle production units in the country, 99% of which were
in the traditional sector2. With a total of approximately 291 000 households recorded
in Botswana in 19943, this implies that some 20% of households were directly involved
in cattle rearing (although not necessarily as their primary economic activity or
income source).
(b) Organisation of the Industry
(i) Beef
2.4. BMC plays a central role in the industry. The most important institution in the beef
sector is the Botswana Meat Commission (BMC), which operates EU-accredited export
abattoirs in Lobatse and Francistown. The Lobatse abattoir was established in 1954 by
the (then) Colonial Development Corporation (CDC), and was purchased by the
Bechuanaland Protectorate Government in 1965, just prior to independence. The BMC
was established as a statutory corporation that remains owned, and, largely,
controlled by Government4. The Francistown abattoir was opened in 1990. The BMC
also operated a small abattoir in Maun between 1983 and 1996, although this was
never accredited for exports to the EU, due to its proximity to the endemic foot and
mouth disease (FMD) zone; the Maun abattoir was closed following the outbreak of
Contagious Bovine Pleuropneumonia (CBPP), which led to the slaughter of all cattle
in Ngamiland, the main affected area, which used to supply most of the cattle
slaughtered by the Maun abattoir.
2.5. The EU is the main market, with above world market prices. The majority of BMC
output is sold as chilled or frozen boneless beef into the EU, where Botswana has a
quota of 19 000 tonnes a year under the beef protocol which derives from its status as
an ACP state under the EU-ACP Cotonou Agreement (formerly the Lome
2 CSO (1996) Agriculture Statistics:1996. (Central Statistics Office, Gaborone), quoted in Burgess, J.
(2002) Country Pasture/Forage Resource Profiles (Rome: UN Food and Agriculture Organisation
(FAO)).
3 CSO (1995) Household Income and Expenditure Survey: 1993/94 (Central Statistics Office,
Gaborone)
4 Botswana Meat Commission Act (Cap 74:04), commencement date December 24, 1965. While
mandated to carry out its activities in an efficient manner, it is not intended to be profit-
maximising. Any surplus revenues at the end of the year are distributed to cattle producers as a
bonus proportional to their sales to the BMC.
3
6. Convention). This quota essentially enables Botswana to sell beef into the EU market
without paying most of the import duties that are generally applicable to countries
exporting beef to the EU, and thereby benefiting from EU beef prices which are
substantially higher than world market prices for beef.
2.6. BMC is protected from export competition. Besides the BMC, there are a several
privately owned and local council abattoirs, as well as a large number of local
butcheries that undertake slaughter. These are all restricted to supplying the domestic
market, however, as the BMC Act gives BMC a monopoly over the export of beef and
related products. The BMC Act also prohibits the export of live cattle5. The import of
beef is also prohibited. The EU quota – which is specific to Botswana – also means that
the BMC faces little or no competition in the EU from other beef exporting countries.
(ii) Cattle
2.7. National cattle herd mostly on communal land, and has been declining in size,
although data is poor. Cattle production is classified as either “commercial” or
“traditional”, depending on whether the cattle are raised on privately owned freehold
land or communal (tribal) land. The distinction is to a certain extent artificial, as the
larger farmers on communal land are “commercial” (or at least quasi-commercial) in
their outlook and farming practices, especially on farms which, notwithstanding their
being on communal lands, have been fenced under TGLP or subsequent policies6.
About 80-90% of the national herd is thought to be held on communal land.
2.8. Data from the CSO indicates that the size of the national cattle herd has fluctuated
around 2.5 million in recent years, down from 3 million in the early 1980s, with
changes reflecting the impact of climatic conditions (especially rainfall/drought),
disease (CBPP, FMD) and market conditions7. Data from the FAO, however, indicates
a long term decline from the early 1980s to the present, with the national herd
stabilising at around 1.7 million8. This conflict illustrates a broader problem of poor
quality statistical data on agriculture in general, and cattle in particular.
2.9. Overall productivity levels are low, and there is concern about environmental
degradation. The traditional sector as a whole is characterised by low productivity, in
the form of low calving rates, low offtake rates, and high death rates compared to the
commercial sector. For instance, calving rates in the traditional sector average around
5 The relevant clauses of the BMC Act are as follows:
21(1) No person other than the Commission shall export cattle or edible products from cattle from
Botswana unless he is in possession of a permit in writing to do so issued by the Minister under
this section.
(2) No such permit shall be issued without the concurrence of the Commission or unless the
Minister declares by order published in the Gazette that by reason of exceptional circumstances it is
in his opinion clearly in the public interest to issue such a permit without the concurrence of the
Commission.
(3) Notwithstanding the provisions of section 29 of the Control of Livestock Industry Act the
President shall not license any slaughter-house as an export slaughter-house in pursuance of that
section unless that slaughter-house is operated directly, indirectly or in association with others, by
the Commission.
6 Burgess (2002) op. cit. gives further useful details on commercial and traditional cattle farming
systems in Botswana.
7 CSO Agricultural Statistics (www.cso.gov.bw)
8 FAO website (http://faostat.fao.org)
4
7. 50%, compared to 60%-80% in the commercial sector, while offtake rates of 7%-10% in
the traditional sector compare to 15%-20% in the commercial sector9.
2.10. Concerns have also been raised about stocking levels relative to the carrying capacity
of rangeland, especially in communal areas. While the carrying capacity varies
according to climatic conditions and drought/rainfall cycles, there is evidence that
some parts of the country have been adversely affected by overstocking, overgrazing
and resultant environmental degradation. Communal land is particularly vulnerable
to problems of overgrazing, for well-known “tragedy of the commons” reasons. As a
result, any significant increase in the national herd above 2.5 million would have to be
accompanied by changes in herd and range management practices if more severe
overgrazing problems are to be avoided.
2.11. The Botswana cattle sector is based on an oxen production system, as distinct from
a more modern weaner production system. The latter has higher productivity as
well as a reduced environmental impact. Feasible stocking levels and the
environmental impact of cattle rearing are closely related to the type of production
system employed. Broadly, production systems can be divided into two types, off-
range (oxen) production systems and weaner (feedlot) systems (See Appendix A).
Botswana uses an oxen production system, while more modern agricultural
economies tend to use a weaner production system. In the former, cattle are raised on
grass until they reach a suitable weight for slaughter (preferably over 400kg) at an age
of 2-3 years. All bull-calves and the poorer heifers are raised for slaughter, while the
better heifers are kept as replacement breeding cows. Non-producing cows are also
culled. In the latter system, young animals are removed from the range as they are
weaned (at the age of 7-9 months and a weight of 180-260kg) and are sent or sold to
feedlots where they are fed intensively for 100-110 days before being sent to the
abattoir. In the weaner/feedlot production system, more range is available for
breeding cows and higher production (offtake) rates are possible.
2.12. In an oxen production system, a typical herd composition would be 30% breeding
cows, 30% young stock (1-2 years), 30% calves (< 1 year) and 10% bulls and
replacement heifers. In a weaner production system, typical herd composition would
be 50% cows, 40% calves and 10% bulls and replacement heifers10. For a given herd
size, the environmental impact is much less in a weaner production system than in an
oxen production system, as a much larger proportion of the herd comprises weaner
calves that consume minimal grass. Conversely, a given range can support a larger
number of cattle under a weaner production system, which, when combined with the
higher offtake rate, results in larger numbers of slaughter animals.
(c) Recent trends and developments
2.13. Major problems at BMC in recent years: declining throughput, excess capacity and
rising losses. One of the dominant trends in the cattle sector in recent years is the
declining throughput of cattle at the BMC, and associated declining financial
performance. After being profitable for most of the period of its existence, it has made
losses in five of the past six years. BMC throughput has always been volatile – for
instance, falling from over 200 000 head of cattle in the 1970s and early 1980s to only
just over 100 000 in 1988-89, before peaking at 237 000 in 1993 – but the long term
trend has been downwards; average throughput over 2002-4 was around 130 000 (see
Chart 2). This represents only around 40% of total capacity at the Francistown and
9 Sources: CSO Agricultural Statistics (www.cso.gov.bw); CSO 1996 Agricultural Survey; National
Development Plan 9, p.181.
10 Burgess (2002) op. cit., p.17
5
8. Lobatse abattoirs11. Declining throughput has undermined the ability of the BMC to
come anywhere near meeting the EU preferential import quota12. Excess capacity also
means that BMC’s costs are too high relative to its output, thus making it
uncompetitive.
Chart 2: BMC Slaughter & Domestic Consumption (trend) ('000)
250
200
No. of cattle ('000)
150
100
50
0
73
75
77
79
81
83
85
87
89
91
93
95
97
99
01
03
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
19
20
20
BMC throughput Domestic cons. (est. trend) Trend BMC throughput
2.14. Declining throughput raises unit costs further. Declining throughput has had an
impact on BMC costs. As Chart 3 shows, unit costs tend to be inversely related to
throughput, which is to be expected given that a substantial proportion of BMC’s
costs are fixed, largely independent of the level of output. As throughput declines,
unit costs rise, thus undermining BMC’s viability and its ability to pay competitive
prices for cattle inputs.
2.15. Excess capacity due to Francistown abattoir a major contributor to BMC’s problems.
The excess capacity noted above has been one of the major contributors to BMC’s
problems, and this is primarily the result of the decision taken by BMC and
government in the early 1980s to build a second export abattoir in Francistown. The
Francistown abattoir, which is also accredited for exports to the EU, accounts for
around one-third of BMC’s total slaughter capacity13. However, in only one year since
Francistown was opened in 1990 has BMC slaughter throughput exceeded the
maximum capacity of Lobatse14, and average slaughter over the past ten years of
around 147 000 is well below the capacity of the Lobatse abattoir alone. While the
decision to build Francistown was based on anticipated increases in throughput, this
has not in fact materialised, and the capacity at Francistown has turned out to be
11 The BMC’s daily capacity is 1200 head (800 at Lobatse, 400 at Francistown), and nominal annual
capacity is 240 000 head. However, this is based on less than 10 months operation a year, with an
annual shutdown for “maintenance”. On the basis of 52-week operation, 5 days a week, with
maintenance done at weekends as per industry practice elsewhere, true annual capacity is 312 000
head.
12 In 2003, Botswana exported 8 763 tonnes to the EU, against a quota of 19 000 tonnes (Stevens, C.
and J. Kennan (2005), Botswana Beef Exports and Trade Policy, (Brighton: Institute of Development
Studies). This was prepared as part of a broader study, funded by the World Bank, on Export
Diversification for Botswana).
13 400 cattle per day, equivalent to 104 000 a year at maximum (12 month working) throughput, 80 000
a year at “normal” (9.5 months working) throughput.
14 In 1993 BMC slaughter was 237 000, compared to maximum Lobatse capacity of 208 000. Additional
capacity (up to 25 000) was also then available at Maun.
6
9. redundant15. Instead, Francistown has added significantly to BMC’s overhead costs,
reducing its ability to pay competitive prices to farmers, and contributing to the
decline of the industry.
Chart 3: BMC Unit Costs and Output
4.50 45,000
4.00 40,000
Production (CDM-tonnes)
Unit Costs (Real P/kg)
3.50 35,000
3.00 30,000
2.50 25,000
2.00 20,000
1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Costs CDM Trend Trend
2.16. Competition from growing domestic market has cut supplies to BMC, and will
continue to do so. BMC has also suffered from a rising share of total offtake
accounted for by formal and informal slaughter for the domestic market, which is
estimated at around 140 000 – 160 000 head of cattle per year16. What is disturbing for
the BMC is that its share of total offtake has declined to less than 50%, despite the fact
that domestic retail beef prices have fallen in real terms between 1995 and 2003 and
that BMC offers a price premium, at least for some grades of cattle, over and above
local slaughter prices. This suggests that BMC is increasingly unable to compete in the
domestic cattle market, notwithstanding its access to a high price export market,
because the prices it offers are insufficient to compensate for the more complicated
procedures involved in selling to the BMC, and the risk to farmers of having their
cattle condemned, detained or downgraded on arrival at BMC if they do not meet
applicable standards. As the domestic market grows with Botswana’s population,
there will be steadily fewer cattle available for BMC, unless overall cattle supplies rise
sharply, and/or beef imports are permitted. Hence BMC’s supply problems will
intensify.
2.17. BMC has also suffered from declining real prices for beef in its main markets.
External price trends have put further pressure on BMC. Real prices per unit of BMC’s
output have declined steadily over the past 15 years, as Chart 4 shows. This is related
to both market developments and the long-term decline in average carcass (CDM)
weight of Botswana cattle17. BMC has therefore been squeezed between rising unit
15 The decision to build the Francistown abattoir was taken on the basis of a feasibility study carried
out in 1980, and reflected a belief that capacity at Lobatse was inadequate for the country’s
requirements and a bottleneck to expanded beef exports (National Development Plan 6, 1985-91, p.
181, and Hartland-Thunberg, P. (1978) Botswana: An African Growth Economy (Boulder: Westview
Press), p.43).
16 With an average 10%-11% offtake rate from a herd of 2.5 million, this gives total offtake of 250 000 –
275 000 a year, leaving approximately 100 000 – 125 000 for the BMC.
17 Heavier carcasses tend to realise a higher price per kg, other things being equal, as the proportion
of bone tends to be lower.
7
10. costs (as throughput has declined) and declining unit revenues due to market price
trends. These factors have combined to reduce the price paid to farmers, in real terms.
Chart 4: BMC Prices (Real)
25
20
Pula per kg CDM (2000 prices)
15
10
5
0
1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003
Cattle costs Revenues Trend Trend
2.18. BMC would be insolvent if not for Government subsidies. Declining throughput,
rising unit costs and falling real prices have contributed to the losses being suffered by
BMC. The Corporation’s survival so far has only been achieved by securing a
government guarantee for overdraft financing, but this is only a temporary solution
while attempts are made to resolve the deeper underlying problems facing BMC18.
2.19. Exchange rate depreciation during the 1990s hid BMC’s underlying problems, while
Pula appreciation since 2002 has exposed them. While the problems faced by the
BMC have been emerging over a long period of time, they were to a certain extent
disguised by exchange rate developments during the 1990s. Although EU prices for
beef were roughly constant (in nominal GBP or USD terms) between 1992 and 2002, in
nominal pula terms they increased significantly. The decline in real EU prices was,
therefore, hidden to a certain extent. The reversal of long-term exchange rate trends
with the appreciation of the pula against major international currencies since 2002 has
simply served to shine the light on BMC’s underlying problems, reflected in the very
large loss experienced by BMC in 2003.
2.20. BMC prices are now relatively low by regional standards, undermining the
viability of the cattle sector, and meaning that farmers would have an incentive to
export cattle (or beef) if they were permitted to. In early April 2005, SA auction prices
for weaner calves up to 260kg were approximately P6.50/kg live weight19, while
Namibian weaner calf exports to South Africa achieved P5.30 – P6.40 per kg at
auction. If live cattle exports were permitted, Botswana weaner calves auctioned for
export to SA would be likely to achieve a price between the SA and Namibia prices
(the latter are lower due to transport costs, weight loss etc.), say P5.50-P6/kg. There is
no comparable weaner auction system in Botswana to provide direct price
comparisons, but the closest available price is from BMC’s Direct Cattle Purchase
18 As the Executive Chairman of BMC was quoted as telling Lobatse Town Council on April 28, 2005:
“BMC is not creditworthy . . . were it a private enterprise, it could have closed shop” (Botswana
Daily News, May 3, 2005). The same article reported BMC having an accumulated overdraft of P160
million, with a government guarantee for P63 million.
19 As at April 8th 2005
8
11. Scheme, which currently pays P2.40/kg for live cattle from 240kg-300kg. While
acknowledging that this does not quite compare like with like (weaners with potential
for weight gain with lightweight cattle for slaughter), the price differential is huge -
and in this example at least it can be seen that Botswana farmers could achieve a
significantly higher price for weaners if allowed to export their cattle. Price
differentials are also evident at the abattoir for fully grown cattle. For instance, as at
May 2005, the average carcass (CDM) price across all grades of sound cattle at BMC
was P6.71/kg, whereas in Namibia, the comparable export abattoir average price was
P9.47/kg, approximately 40% above the BMC price20.
2.21. Low prices paid by BMC have also made feedlots uneconomic in Botswana. As noted
above, feedlots buy in weaners at 180-260kg, feed them intensively for 100-110 days,
and then sell for slaughter. For feedlots to be viable, the increase in value of the animal
over this period must be greater than the cost of feed and related expenses. With the
low prices being offered by BMC for slaughter animals, this is not the case, and hence
there is no significant feedlot purchasing to provide a market for weaners and heifers
in Botswana. The only market is from BMC and other abattoirs, for fully grown
slaughter animals, which have to be raised on the range.
2.22. The combined impact of these developments has undermined the viability of cattle
rearing in Botswana. Indicative figures provided by a commercial cattle-rearing
operation in Ghanzi show losses approximating 10% of turnover in 2003-04; i.e., the
price realised from selling to BMC covers only 90% of the cost of rearing the cattle
(without including any cost of land or capital). Such figures are reported to be
indicative of the commercial cattle sector as a whole. In this environment, farmers are
reported to be running down their breeding herds in order to maintain cashflow.
2.23. The cattle industry in general, and BMC in particular, is facing a vicious circle of
decline unless drastic measures are undertaken to restructure and improve
efficiency and productivity. The current situation can be characterised as follows:
o BMC is in downward spiral of decline, marked by excess capacity and
operational inefficiency, high overhead costs per unit of throughput, declining
market prices, and low prices paid to producers. As the local market for beef
grows, throughput at BMC will decline further (unless beef imports are
permitted), thus raising unit (overhead) costs further, pushing BMC producer
prices down, and raising BMC losses. If nothing is done, the end point of this
process is the collapse of BMC, assuming that government will not continue (as it
should not) to indefinitely subsidise rising BMC losses. The speed and intensity
of the downward spiral will partially depend upon price trends in the EU and
exchange rate developments; however, the decline of real EU beef prices and/or
the intensification of competition/weakening of Botswana’s privileged status,
both of which are likely under the CAP reforms tabled by the EU, will worsen
BMC’s problems. Pressures would be eased by a depreciation or devaluation of
the pula vis a vis the pound and the euro, but this would not change the
fundamental problems facing the BMC, only postpone the day of reckoning.
o Botswana cattle farmers are currently getting a poor deal from the marketing
system. They only have access to two markets – BMC and local butcheries – and
cannot directly access more profitable export markets, such as South Africa
where both cattle and beef fetch higher prices than in Botswana. The combination
20 Price differentials vary across grades, ranging from 16% higher in Namibia for the highest grades
and 64% higher for the lowest grades (excluding cattle detained, condemned or for canning).
Source: BMC and Meat Board of Namibia (www.nammic.com.na). Namibia also has a
concessionary quota for exports to the EU. Namibian beef is marketed in Europe by Allied Meat
Importers, a subsidiary of BMC.
9
12. of BMC inefficiencies, overcapacity and the bans on export of live cattle and beef
(other than by BMC) are collectively costing the cattle industry considerable
amounts. While the country benefits from the high beef export prices currently
realised in the EU, these revenues are dissipated in the current production and
marketing system. The reasons for this wastage include the maintenance of
unused excess capacity, and inefficiencies associated with BMC’s status as a
publicly-owned monopoly. Presumably for the same reason, BMC has also failed
to respond to supply shortages in a rational economic manner, by raising its
purchase prices.
2.24. Protection from competition is counter-productive and contributes to BMC’s
inefficiency. While the current set-up, which dates back to 1965, originated from a
desire to develop what was historically Botswana’s main export industry, and indeed
the main economic activity in the country, it is clear that it is now counter-productive.
It is widely recognised that efficiency in any industry or economy is promoted by (i)
allowing competition through the operation of market forces, and (ii) having
productive enterprises run by private entities and not by governments. Operating the
beef export industry as a state-owned monopoly (and monopsony) may perhaps have
been appropriate in the circumstances of 1965, but forty years later the expected
problems of inefficiency in the industry have clearly emerged.
2.25. The industry is facing a major crisis. The implications of a continuation of the current
set-up are clear. With sub-economic prices being paid for cattle and the viability of
cattle production declining, rational cattle farmers will run down their herds and
invest elsewhere. Therefore, not only will BMC collapse, so will much of the cattle
industry, with negative implications for the rural economy, incomes and employment,
exports, and efforts to diversify the economy. The only winners from the current
situation are domestic consumers of beef, for whom prices in the local market are
being held down, ironically, by the low prices paid to farmers by the BMC and the
prohibition of competition for local butcheries from live cattle exports.
2.26. Problems recognised by World Bank Export 2005 Diversification Study. This
situation has been recognised by other assessments. The beef sector study carried out
for the BIDPA/World Bank Botswana Export Diversification study concluded that the
beef export sector was “facing serious problems”, that its future is “very bleak” and
that “on present trends the export of beef from Botswana to non-regional markets
looks set to become uncompetitive within a few years” (p.28).
2.27. Supply shortages a result of the oxen production system. The cattle and beef sector
problems are not entirely the result or fault of BMC. Declining market prices,
especially in the EU, are out of the BMC’s control. Low capacity utilisation and high
operating costs reflects excess capacity resulting from the unnecessary Francistown
abattoir, for which government shares responsibility. Low capacity utilisation also
reflects major problems on the supply side. As the above study noted, there is general
agreement that “that the fundamental problem facing the sector is that the cattle off-
take rate is too low” (p.31). There are many reasons for this, including, poor herd
management practices in the traditional sector and free access to communal land, but
it is likely that low prices are also to blame, as they reduce the incentives to invest in
improved management and higher offtake. However, the overall offtake rate is
consistent with an oxen production system, and countries in the region that achieve
higher offtake rates (such as Namibia and South Africa) have done so through the
adoption of weaner production systems.
2.28. Drastic reforms are needed. While it is beyond the scope of this paper to propose
comprehensive solutions to the problems facing the cattle industry – other studies
10
13. currently under way are addressing these issues21 - certain essential components of
any reform package are apparent:
(i) on the farming side, higher prices are necessary to restore the viability of cattle
farming in Botswana, and to generate the supply of cattle necessary to enable
BMC to operate closer to full capacity;
(ii) with respect to BMC, improvements in efficiency are required to enable a
reduction in BMC’s unit costs;
(iii) the protection from competition (both from live cattle exports and other beef
exporters) that BMC has enjoyed throughout its existence has led to BMC
becoming an inefficient producer, and the removal of such protection is
essential to expose BMC to market forces, enhance competition in the
cattle/beef industry, and thereby improve efficiency;
(iv) the removal of protection and raising of efficiency at BMC would enable prices
paid to producers would move towards export parity prices, thus enhancing
the viability of cattle rearing; and
(v) in exposing BMC to competition, it will be necessary to restructure BMC, to cut
costs and improve efficiency. Components of such restructuring should include
(a) taking it out of state ownership and (b) closing down excess capacity. The
former would be consistent with the Government’s broader privatisation
strategy, while the latter could most easily be achieved by closing down (or
mothballing) the Francistown abattoir, as Lobatse can easily handle the entire
BMC throughput, even if doubled from current levels.
3. HOW TRADE LIBERALISATION CAN HELP
3.1. As noted above, an industry operating in a liberalised trading environment, facing
competition in domestic and export markets, would be expected to be more
competitive and efficient than one operating in a protected environment. In the
remainder of this paper, we trace how one particular element of trade liberalisation,
permitting the export of live cattle, could contribute to enhancing the viability of the
industry and bringing about a restructuring that would ensure the future of both
export cattle rearing and the BMC22.
(a) The Potential for Live Cattle Exports to South Africa.
3.2. South Africa dependent upon imports of beef and cattle. The South African beef
industry operates predominantly on the basis of a weaner production system and
feedlots, which provide most of the slaughter cattle to abattoirs. However, the cattle
farming sector is unable to meet the country’s demand for beef, hence the deficit has
to be met by imports of beef and/or live cattle. Imports of weaner calves from
Namibia meet part of this deficit, but South African feedlots still have a shortfall
reported at around 200 000 weaner calves a year, relative to their annual capacity of
1.5 million. Hence there is a demand for live weaner imports from Botswana23.
21 Strategic Review of BMC being carried out by International Development Ireland (IDI) and the
Government of Botswana Livestock Sector Study.
22 Full trade liberalisation would also open up the potential for exports of beef and processed meat
products, and for imports of beef. These aspects will not be discussed in any detail in this paper,
but would also be beneficial. For instance, allowing the importation of the particular cuts of beef
that are preferred by the local market (forequarter) would release more cattle for slaughter by the
BMC and sale to export markets, where different cuts are preferred.
23 Report of BCPA/Ministry of Agriculture Task Force Fact Finding Mission on the Potential for Live
Weaner Exports to the RSA Feedlot Market (May 2005).
11
14. 3.3. SA feedlot buyers have a preference for lightweight cattle such as those produced
on Botswana’s communal rangelands. Feedlot operators have a preference for
lightweight cattle (180-240kg) that offer the maximum potential weight gain, and
hence the best potential return. As a result, a premium price is paid for lightweight
cattle of the type that are raised on communal rangeland in Botswana. Furthermore
there is only a very limited market for these cattle at present in Botswana, as BMC
only buys cattle over 240kg, and there is very limited purchasing by feedlots in
Botswana.
3.4. Weaner auction system proposed, similar to the system operating successfully in
Namibia, resulting in exports that would meet South Africa’s cattle shortfall, along
with higher prices for Botswana farmers. To meet this shortfall, the Botswana cattle
Producers Association (BCPA) has made a proposal to allow the export of live
weaners and heifers to South Africa. The BCPA’s intention is that this would take
place via regular cattle auctions, at which the main bidders would be South African
feedlot operators, who would buy weaners and heifers for fattening and eventual sale
to South African abattoirs.
3.5. The proposal essentially replicates the system that operates in Namibia, which also
has export abattoirs producing beef for sale to the EU (under the same EU-ACP Beef
Protocol as Botswana), but additionally operates an auction system whereby weaners
are sold to SA buyers. Namibia sells approximately 140 000 weaners annually to SA, a
substantial proportion of which are provided by farmers operating on communal
lands. As at early April 2005, Namibian live cattle auction prices ranged from P5.30 –
P6.40 per kg.
(b) Short-term Impacts of Weaner Exports
3.6. Higher prices for cattle exports would benefit farmers, improve the viability of
cattle farming, and provide an incentive for a switch to weaner production. The
most dramatic and immediate benefits of live weaner exports would be felt by cattle
farmers, both commercial and traditional. An immediate market would be created for
weaners and heifers, for which farmers would receive a price in the range of
approximately P5 - P6 per kg live weight for cattle in the 180kg – 240kg range. BMC
does not purchase such cattle at present, but this price represents a premium of 100% -
150% over the BMC live weight price for cattle in the 240kg – 300kg range. So the
impact on farmers would be twofold. First, a new market would be created for
weaners and heifers, yielding immediate cash flow for farmers whose margins have
recently been under pressure. Second, the value of these cattle would rise sharply,
increasing the viability of cattle farming. A third impact would be, in the short-term,
to provide farmers with an incentive to reduce cattle numbers on the range, and thus
reduce the environmental impact of excessive cattle numbers at a time of drought24.
3.7. This substantial change in the economics of cattle rearing would be expected to have
further medium and long term impacts that would include a significant supply
response by producers; this will be discussed further below. However, the other short-
term impact that needs to be considered is that which will be felt by BMC, and this
will work through various channels.
3.8. Cattle exports should not affect supplies to BMC in the short term. In the very short
term, the sale of weaners to SA would have no impact on cattle supplies to BMC, as
these cattle are not purchased by BMC. The same numbers of older cattle (cows and
oxen) will be available for sale to BMC (and other slaughter purchasers), and hence in
the short term BMC should be able to maintain throughput at current levels. The
24 Indeed, in view of the current drought, farmers are being urged by the Ministry of Agriculture to
reduce numbers by selling weaners and heifers, but this advice ignores the fact that the main
market for such animals is selling to other farmers, who will simply graze them elsewhere.
12
15. impact of increased offtake of weaners would only be felt by BMC after 1-2 years, as
the weaners that would have been exported would no longer available as mature
animals for sale to BMC for slaughter. However, the combination of an appropriate
price response from BMC and the likely supply response from cattle farmers should
be sufficient to ensure that BMC continues to receive sufficient cattle.
3.9. BMC will need to compete and pay higher prices to secure supplies. The removal of
the ban on live cattle exports will change the way in which market forces determine
cattle prices. At present, live cattle prices in Botswana are largely determined by BMC
as the monopoly (monopsony) purchaser of cattle for export beef production, with
beef producers for the local market competing with the BMC price; however, as noted
above, BMC prices are artificially low (relative to regional market prices) due to
BMC’s inefficient structure and operation, and its protection from international
competition. However, competition from export sales will eventually force BMC to
raise its prices in order to secure continued supplies of slaughter cattle. This is not
because BMC is competing directly with weaner exports to SA feedlots; it is not.
However, as farmers focus increasingly on selling weaners (due to the attractive
export prices), BMC supplies will come to depend on the emergence of Botswana
feedlots to produce slaughter cattle, and as Botswana feedlots will have to compete
with the SA market to purchase their weaner inputs, higher BMC prices for slaughter
cattle will be necessary to generate sufficient supplies. Therefore, the advent of export
competition will tend to raise producer prices in Botswana, and this price-raising
effect will require both BMC and other slaughter purchasers to pay higher prices to
secure supplies of slaughter cattle. As a result, the domestic price of beef will tend
towards South African levels. The movement of Botswana beef and cattle prices
towards regionally competitive levels will be strengthened if BMC’s beef export
monopoly is removed along with the ban on live cattle exports.
3.10. Financial pressures caused by the need to compete will force the necessary
restructuring on BMC. Having to pay higher prices to maintain throughput may
temporarily worsen BMC’s financial problems. However, this will simply hasten the
necessary restructuring and cost cutting at BMC. Such reform and restructuring is
required for BMC’s survival regardless of the introduction of live weaner exports. In
the medium to long term, the impact of live weaner exports on BMC is likely to be
much more favourable, as farmers respond and farming practices change. This
medium term response is outlined below.
(c) Medium-long term supply response
3.11. Permitting live cattle exports will also encourage the restructuring of the cattle
sector towards a more efficient weaner production system. While part of the
motivation for introducing auctions and weaner exports is to achieve an immediate
improvement in the prices paid to cattle farmers, a longer term motivation is to
encourage transformation in the cattle sector. More specifically, the intention is to
encourage farmers to move from the existing oxen/range grazing production system
to a weaner/feedlot production system (see para 2.11 above). The latter type of
production system characterises cattle rearing in more advanced economies, and is
generally associated with more productive and efficient cattle rearing practices.
3.12. The process of transformation in Botswana cattle rearing can be envisaged as follows:
o the option of weaner exports, and hence the establishment of a market for weaners
at a competitive (export-parity) price, encourages farmers to sell their animals as
weaners (at 7 - 9 months) rather than keep them on the range to be sold as oxen (at
the age of 2-3 years);
o assuming that BMC purchase prices are also at competitive (export parity) levels,
the establishment of Botswana feedlots would become viable, thus providing a
local market for weaners for eventual sale as slaughter cattle to BMC; Botswana
feedlots would provide competition for SA buyers at weaner auctions;
13
16. o under such a system, (almost) all male calves would be sold to feedlots, along with
a substantial proportion of female calves (the remainder would be kept as
replacement heifers and eventual breeding cows;
o as the farming system evolves from an oxen production system to a weaner
production system, the bulk of existing stocks of tollies and oxen would be sold for
slaughter (although some would be kept for “liquidity” purposes)25;
o the structure of cattle herds would evolve towards one comprising mainly
breeding cows, replacement heifers, and calves, along with a small proportion of
bulls, plus cattle held on feedlots;
o relative to the present herd composition, a herd oriented towards weaner
production would have higher proportions of breeding cows and calves;
o also relative to the present set-up, productivity would be higher (as a larger
proportion of the herd would comprise breeding cows), offtake would be higher
(ditto, plus the fact that calves would be sold at an age of less than one year rather
than held to the age of 2-3 years);
o the environmental burden would be reduced (as a larger proportion of the herd
would comprise calves, which are mainly milk-fed rather than grass-fed);
o the reduced environmental burden would permit an expansion of the national
herd within existing environmental constraints;
o the focus on weaner production would provide an incentive for improved calving
rates;
o minimising the time spent on the range (because most cattle are sold as weaners to
feedlots) would reduce losses caused by disease, predators and theft, thus
improving productivity further.
3.13. A weaner production system would be more productive and efficient, dealing with
the long-standing problem of low offtake and inadequate cattle supplies for both
the domestic market and exports. Although some cattle would be exported, the
long-term result would be an increase in cattle available for slaughter by BMC. The
impact on the Botswana cattle sector could therefore be substantial. Among the
benefits would be higher productivity and improved offtake/supplies, thereby
addressing one of the long-standing problems of the Botswana cattle sector, that of
low offtake and insufficient supplies.
3.14. Should the anticipated supply response be forthcoming, the impact on the BMC in the
medium to long-term would be positive, as significantly more cattle would become
available, even if large numbers of weaners are exported to SA (this effect is shown in more
detail in the example below). Furthermore, although it would take several years for
the incentives to work through the system and transform it as indicated above, the
adjustment process would release additional oxen and heifers from existing herds as a
“one-off”; this would provide a buffer for BMC and mitigate the impact of reduced
supplies resulting from the sale of weaners for export26.
3.15. The effect of a switch to a weaner system on cattle supplies could be dramatic. The
potential impact of the change in the production system is illustrated in the table
below. Assuming relatively modest improvements in productivity rates (improved
25 Having a few oxen enables farmers to sell cattle and raise cash immediately to meet unforeseen
needs; in a weaner production system, the timing of weaner and cow sales is much less flexible.
26 According to the 2002 Annual Agricultural Survey Report, there were approximately half a million
tollies and oxen in the national herd of 2.5 million. The majority of these cattle would not be needed
in a herd oriented towards weaner production, and hence would be available for slaughter.
14
17. calving and offtake, reduced mortality), and a full switch to weaner production,
annual offtake is projected to more than double from 270 000 cattle to 556 000, without
any increase in the size of the national herd. Even with weaner exports of 150 000
(similar to Namibia), and local non-BMC slaughter of 150 000, this leaves 250 000 head
for BMC – nearly double current BMC throughput, and taking the Lobatse abattoir to
full capacity. In the second future scenario, where the national herd expands by
approximately 20% to 3 million, total offtake rises by around 150% to 667 000. Even
with substantial weaner exports to SA, this leaves sufficient cattle for BMC to operate
at full capacity, plus local consumption, plus cattle for other (non-BMC) beef
exporters27. While such numbers represent an extreme case of a full switch to weaner
production, the main point is to illustrate how much more productive the weaner
production system can be. Even in the more likely case of a partial switch, the increase
in cattle supplies should be dramatic.
3.16. Therefore, if the opening up of the Botswana market to weaner exports induces the
Oxen and Weaner Production Systems: Cattle offtake scenarios
Existing Future I Future II
(Expanded weaner prod.
(Oxen prod. System) (Weaner prod. System) System)
Productivity rates
Calving 53% 63% 63%
Mortality 12% 9% 9%
Offtake 11% 22% 22%
Herd size 2,500,000 2,500,000 3,000,000
LSU equivalent [1] 1,909,250 1,650,000 1,980,000
Offtake 270,000 556,250 667,500
o/w cull cows 125,000 150,000
weaners 431,250 517,500
Note: [1] LSU = livestock unit (450kg)
Source: own projections (full details available on request)
anticipated transformation of the cattle sector, the (somewhat counterintuitive) result
would be increase the supply of cattle to BMC. Rather than undermining BMC,
weaner exports could contribute to its viability and survival.
3.17. Positive impact on GDP. A move to weaner production would help to stem the
decline in the contribution of agriculture to GDP. The offtake rate is one of the main
determinants of the cattle sector’s contribution to GDP, and an increase in offtake
would boost the growth rate of the agricultural sector. An increase in BMC
throughput would contribute to manufacturing sector growth. Both developments
would contribute to economic diversification.
3.18. Government acknowledges, in NDP 9, that getting prices right is important; policy
is that prices should be at competitive, export parity levels to encourage appropriate
production and investment decisions. An increase in cattle and beef prices would
be consistent with this objective; removing the BMC’s monopoly and allowing
exports of cattle (and beef) would provide an appropriate competitive benchmark
for BMC. There are a number of prerequisites for ensuring that the desired
27 Although this scenario envisages a 20% increase in the size of the national herd in terms of
numbers of cattle, the effective size of the herd in terms of mature livestock units (LSUs) is
unchanged from the present, at just under 2 million, because of the replacement of oxen and tollies
by calves in the composition of the herd.
15
18. transformation takes place. First, the role of prices is central. BMC has to raise
slaughter cattle prices to realistic, export parity levels, to make feedlotting viable in
Botswana and to ensure its own future through securing adequate supplies of cattle.
NDP 9 acknowledges that “prices of agricultural commodities strongly influence the
performance of the sector and the well-being of both producers and consumers”.
Inappropriate pricing is central to both the malaise at BMC and the depressed state of
the cattle sector. NDP 9 also states that Government policy is that “export parity prices
will be used for export crops . . . such a pricing system will ensure that . . . producers
are guided in their production decisions by competitive domestic and international
prices”28.
3.19. Although BMC in principle pays export-related prices at present, the fact that BMC’s
own costs are too high means that the desired link with export-parity prices has been
lost, and producers are not being guided in their production decisions by competitive
prices. Such a link can only be restored by introducing competition for BMC from
other export channels – preferably both live cattle exports and other beef exporters –
and hence the removal of the BMC’s export monopoly is the second prerequisite for
achieving efficiency in the beef/cattle sector. This should be accompanied by the
establishment of a transparent and flexible price determination system for cattle, such
as through regular auctions, with prices for different types and grades of cattle
regularly published in a range of different media. BMC and other major buyers would
then have to compete for available cattle supplies and prices would more accurately
reflect supply and demand, thus providing a better guide for production and
consumption decisions.
3.20. Protection of BMC is inconsistent with the principles of SACU membership. The
Southern African Customs Union (SACU) Agreement enshrines the principles of free
trade within the SACU area; trade restrictions may only be imposed for a limited
range of reasons, and should be time limited. Imposing the permanent bans that have
been used to protect BMC are certainly inconsistent with the spirit of the SACU
agreement, if not the letter.
3.21. There are good prospects of a positive supply response from both traditional and
commercial farmers to the proposed changes. The transformation of the cattle sector
from oxen production to weaner production, which is crucial to ensure a continued
supply of cattle to BMC alongside live weaner export to SA, depends of course on the
response of cattle farmers. While this is to a certain extent an unknown quantity, there
is good reason to believe that the necessary response will be forthcoming. First, all
that is being projected is a rational economic response to the changed price and
market environment that will result from allowing live weaner exports, and farmers,
like other economic agents, should be trusted to respond in line with their best
interests, if they are allowed to. It would, however, be necessary to reorient Ministry
of Agriculture extension staff to the new production system, which requires more
intensive oversight than an oxen production system.
3.22. The Namibian experience provides an encouraging precedent. The experience of
Namibia is instructive. Namibia has a slightly smaller national herd than Botswana,
around 2 million cattle, but has an offtake of over 400 000, or over 20%. And as in
Botswana, most cattle are kept on communal land29. Both commercial and traditional
cattle farmers have responded positively to similar price incentives derived from the
existence of a weaner auction system, resulting in much higher productivity and
efficiency levels than in Botswana, and the continued existence of beef exports to the
28 Both quotations are from p.190.
29 Although the proportions of cattle on communal and commercial land in Namibia, at 60:40, are
somewhat different to Botswana (85:15).
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19. EU, alongside weaner calf exports to South Africa. Interestingly, Namibia operates on
an entirely market-based system, with prices determined at auction and varying from
month to month, depending on supply and demand. It is also noteable that Namibian
cattle, with an average carcass CDM of 240kg, are significantly heavier than Botswana
cattle, which have an average carcass CDM around 200kg. The higher carcass weight,
which is a characteristic of grain-fed feedlot cattle being supplied to abattoirs rather
than grass-fed cattle, makes an important contribution to the viability of the industry.
While the adjustment in Botswana will no doubt take some time to work through the
sector, there is no reason to believe that Botswana farmers would not respond in the
same way as their Namibian counterparts.
4. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
4.1. The Botswana cattle and beef sector is currently depressed and characterised by
declining throughput and rising losses at the BMC, declining viability of cattle
farming, and low offtake from the national herd contributing to supply problems. The
downward spiral, if continued unchecked, will eventually lead to the collapse of
BMC, a reduction in the size of the national herd and a smaller cattle industry focused
mainly on supplying the domestic market, with negative implications for the rural
economy and farming incomes.
4.2. Part of the problem is the low prices paid by BMC, which are discouraging sales to
BMC, depressing local market prices, and undermining the viability of the cattle
sector. The reason, in turn, for BMC’s low prices is its monopoly position and
associated inefficiencies.
4.3. Drastic changes are required if the cattle/beef sector is to be revived in order to
generate significant export earnings and provide a vibrant economic base for the rural
areas. The fundamental change required is for offtake and supply to increase, which
in turn, requires the appropriate price incentives for farmers. This can be achieved by
changing the focus of the cattle production system from an oxen production system to
a weaner production system, which entails taking cattle off of the range at a much
younger age and fattening in feedlots, thus increasing productivity, offtake and
supply, and reducing the environmental impact of cattle rearing. A successful
example of a weaner production system is that followed by both commercial and
communal farmers in Namibia, in conditions very similar to those in Botswana
4.4. A prerequisite for a weaner production system is the existence of feedlot operators as
an intermediary stage between the farmers and the abattoir. Viable feedlotting
depends on a favourable relationship between farm gate prices, slaughter purchase
prices and feed prices, and this does not exist in Botswana at present. Hence there is
no significant weaner market for Botswana farmers.
4.5. Lifting the existing ban on live cattle exports would allow Botswana farmers to sell
their weaner calves to feedlot operators in South Africa, thus enabling farmers to
realise the much higher prices paid in South Africa, improve cattle farming viability,
and stimulate a move towards weaner production.
4.6. Beyond these immediate benefits, permitting live weaner exports would in due course
benefit the BMC, contrary to concerns raised in some quarters that it would deprive
BMC of cattle. Because a weaner production system has much higher offtake rates and
hence supply potential, it would eventually lead to more cattle being supplied to BMC
even if significant numbers of weaners are exported to South Africa. It would also
entail a move towards free trade and the efficient operation of the price mechanism in
the cattle/beef sector, which is necessary for an efficient industry to emerge. Such a
move would also be in line with the government’s agriculture sector policy as
expressed in NDP 9 as well its privatisation and competition policies and Botswana’s
membership of the Southern African Customs Union.
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20. 4.7. Removing BMC’s protection would force BMC to pay competitive, regional export-
parity prices to farmers. In the short-run, however, this would cause further financial
stress for BMC, which is already making losses. But for BMC to survive, it has to
operate at international (or at least regional) levels of efficiency. Allowing
competition, besides benefiting farmers, would force the necessary restructuring on
BMC. This is likely to include major cost-cutting and restructuring measures such as
selling off non-core assets, reducing excess capacity through the closure of the
Francistown abattoir, a wage and hiring freeze, and cutting back on other
expenditure. The overall combination of promoting free trade and competition in the
cattle and beef sector, drastic restructuring of the BMC, and a switch to a more
efficient weaner production system should be all be important components of a
coherent plan for the long-term development of Botswana’s beef and cattle sector.
4.8. Summary of Recommendations
(i) immediately lift the ban on live cattle exports (permitted through Ministerial
decision under the BMC Act); [MoA]
(ii) initiate a revision of the BMC Act to remove the prohibition of non-BMC export
slaughterhouses and beef exports; [MoA]
(iii) lift the ban on beef imports; [MoA/MTI?]
(iv) undertake a downsizing of BMC to align capacity with throughput; most likely,
this would be through the closure of the Francistown abattoir; [BMC/MoA]
(v) undertake a drastic cost-cutting exercise at BMC to align costs to competitive
levels, and sell off non-core assets; [BMC]
(vi) develop Ministry of Agriculture extension services to support the adoption of
weaner production systems by communal farmers; [MoA]
(vii) introduce auctions for sales of weaner calves and heifers to feedlot operators
(from Botswana and South Africa); [BCPA]
(viii) consider introduction of national auction system as primary method of cattle
sales and price determination, along with widespread and regular publication
of cattle and beef prices [BCPA, MoA].
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21. Appendix A
Oxen Production System
Calves
Male weaners Female weaners
Tollies Heifers
Oxen Cows
Abattoir
Low productivity – high environmental impact
Weaner production System
Calves
Male weaners Female weaners
Feed-
lot
Heifers
Cows
Abattoir
High productivity – low environmental impact
19