Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of six main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, and the Reading Hypothesis. The document then provides explanations of how each hypothesis can apply to second language teaching, with a focus on creating opportunities for natural communication, balancing accuracy and fluency, teaching language in the order it is naturally acquired, providing comprehensible input, establishing a low-anxiety classroom environment, and incorporating reading.
The document discusses Krashen's five proposals on language learning and their validity in Libyan EFL classes. It summarizes Krashen's proposals which include: 1) the distinction between language learning and acquisition, 2) the natural order hypothesis which states that language structures are acquired in a predictable order, 3) the monitor hypothesis which describes three types of language users, 4) the input hypothesis which argues that language is acquired through comprehensible input, and 5) the affective filter hypothesis which posits that learners with high motivation and self-confidence acquire language more readily. The document analyzes how these proposals can be adapted to better suit foreign language learning contexts.
1. Stephen Krashen developed five central hypotheses about language acquisition in the 1980s that transformed language teaching, including the acquisition-learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, input hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis.
2. The acquisition-learning hypothesis distinguishes between conscious learning and unconscious acquisition of a language and claims learning does not necessarily become acquisition.
3. The monitor hypothesis states that learned knowledge only functions as an editor and acquisition initiates fluency, with three problematic conditions for monitor use.
Presentation_The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second.pptxDrYasser Gomaa
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of 5 main hypotheses: 1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis which distinguishes between acquired and learned systems, 2) Monitor Hypothesis which defines the relationship between acquisition and learning, 3) Input Hypothesis which states that acquisition occurs when learners receive comprehensible input above their current level, 4) Affective Filter Hypothesis which describes how affective variables impact acquisition, and 5) Natural Order Hypothesis which proposes that acquisition follows a predictable order. Krashen believes acquisition, not learning, is crucial for language development and occurs through meaningful interaction and comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment.
MLE 501 - Language Acquisition, Education, and the Discovery of the Human Per...Bernard Paderes
The document discusses Stephen Krashen's five hypotheses of language acquisition. It summarizes Krashen's hypotheses which distinguish between language acquisition and learning, emphasize the importance of comprehensible input, posit a natural order of language acquisition, describe the role of affective factors like motivation and anxiety, and view errors as a natural part of the learning process rather than something to be eliminated. The document argues that Krashen's hypotheses provide guidance for effective language teaching by creating environments similar to natural language acquisition, ensuring comprehensible input, employing a communicative rather than grammatical syllabus, reducing anxiety and increasing motivation, and viewing errors as indicators of learning.
This document compares and contrasts second language acquisition theory and second language pedagogy. It discusses Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model theory, which posits that language is acquired through meaningful interaction rather than formal instruction. Language acquisition is a subconscious process, whereas learning is a conscious process. It also notes differences in how children and adults acquire a second language. Overall, it finds that while acquisition happens naturally, learning requires formal instruction and benefits from teaching methods, but acquisition allows for near-native fluency.
Chapter 4 explaining second language learningTshen Tashi
The document summarizes several perspectives on second language acquisition:
1) The behaviourist perspective viewed language learning as forming habits, but it did not adequately explain errors or first language influence.
2) The innatist perspective argued innate linguistic knowledge allows first language acquisition, but may not fully explain second language learning.
3) Krashen's Monitor Model proposed language is acquired through exposure to comprehensible input and learned through formal instruction, but questions remain about its sufficiency.
4) The cognitive perspective views language learning as involving cognitive processes like attention, memory, and practice, rather than being innate or distinct from other learning.
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of six main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning hypothesis, the Monitor hypothesis, the Natural Order hypothesis, the Input hypothesis, the Affective Filter hypothesis, and the Reading Hypothesis. The document then provides explanations of how each hypothesis can apply to second language teaching, with a focus on creating opportunities for natural communication, balancing accuracy and fluency, teaching language in the order it is naturally acquired, providing comprehensible input, establishing a low-anxiety classroom environment, and incorporating reading.
The document discusses Krashen's five proposals on language learning and their validity in Libyan EFL classes. It summarizes Krashen's proposals which include: 1) the distinction between language learning and acquisition, 2) the natural order hypothesis which states that language structures are acquired in a predictable order, 3) the monitor hypothesis which describes three types of language users, 4) the input hypothesis which argues that language is acquired through comprehensible input, and 5) the affective filter hypothesis which posits that learners with high motivation and self-confidence acquire language more readily. The document analyzes how these proposals can be adapted to better suit foreign language learning contexts.
1. Stephen Krashen developed five central hypotheses about language acquisition in the 1980s that transformed language teaching, including the acquisition-learning hypothesis, monitor hypothesis, natural order hypothesis, input hypothesis, and affective filter hypothesis.
2. The acquisition-learning hypothesis distinguishes between conscious learning and unconscious acquisition of a language and claims learning does not necessarily become acquisition.
3. The monitor hypothesis states that learned knowledge only functions as an editor and acquisition initiates fluency, with three problematic conditions for monitor use.
Presentation_The 5 hypotheses of Krashen's Theory of Second.pptxDrYasser Gomaa
Krashen's theory of second language acquisition consists of 5 main hypotheses: 1) Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis which distinguishes between acquired and learned systems, 2) Monitor Hypothesis which defines the relationship between acquisition and learning, 3) Input Hypothesis which states that acquisition occurs when learners receive comprehensible input above their current level, 4) Affective Filter Hypothesis which describes how affective variables impact acquisition, and 5) Natural Order Hypothesis which proposes that acquisition follows a predictable order. Krashen believes acquisition, not learning, is crucial for language development and occurs through meaningful interaction and comprehensible input in a low-anxiety environment.
MLE 501 - Language Acquisition, Education, and the Discovery of the Human Per...Bernard Paderes
The document discusses Stephen Krashen's five hypotheses of language acquisition. It summarizes Krashen's hypotheses which distinguish between language acquisition and learning, emphasize the importance of comprehensible input, posit a natural order of language acquisition, describe the role of affective factors like motivation and anxiety, and view errors as a natural part of the learning process rather than something to be eliminated. The document argues that Krashen's hypotheses provide guidance for effective language teaching by creating environments similar to natural language acquisition, ensuring comprehensible input, employing a communicative rather than grammatical syllabus, reducing anxiety and increasing motivation, and viewing errors as indicators of learning.
This document compares and contrasts second language acquisition theory and second language pedagogy. It discusses Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model theory, which posits that language is acquired through meaningful interaction rather than formal instruction. Language acquisition is a subconscious process, whereas learning is a conscious process. It also notes differences in how children and adults acquire a second language. Overall, it finds that while acquisition happens naturally, learning requires formal instruction and benefits from teaching methods, but acquisition allows for near-native fluency.
Chapter 4 explaining second language learningTshen Tashi
The document summarizes several perspectives on second language acquisition:
1) The behaviourist perspective viewed language learning as forming habits, but it did not adequately explain errors or first language influence.
2) The innatist perspective argued innate linguistic knowledge allows first language acquisition, but may not fully explain second language learning.
3) Krashen's Monitor Model proposed language is acquired through exposure to comprehensible input and learned through formal instruction, but questions remain about its sufficiency.
4) The cognitive perspective views language learning as involving cognitive processes like attention, memory, and practice, rather than being innate or distinct from other learning.
Krashen's hypotheses propose theories about second language acquisition. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis distinguishes between acquiring a language unconsciously through exposure versus consciously learning rules. The Monitor hypothesis explains that the acquisition system initiates speech while the learning system monitors for errors. The Natural Order hypothesis suggests learners acquire language structures in a predictable sequence regardless of teaching order. The Input hypothesis proposes that acquisition occurs through comprehensible messages beyond one's current level. The Affective Filter hypothesis indicates that emotional variables like anxiety can prevent input from reaching the acquisition system.
The Natural Approach is a language teaching method developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen that claims language is acquired similarly to a first language through meaningful communication. It focuses on providing comprehensible input through activities that are slightly above students' current language level. Students first develop comprehension skills through listening and reading before speaking. Speaking emerges gradually without early emphasis on grammatical accuracy. The approach is based on Krashen's theories including the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis.
This document discusses Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model of second language acquisition. It provides background on Krashen, including that he is an American linguist who developed five hypotheses around second language learning. One of the hypotheses is the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, which distinguishes between acquiring a language naturally through use (acquisition) versus learning a language through formal instruction. Another is the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which proposes that learners can be mentally blocked from learning if they have a high "affective filter" due to anxiety or other affective factors. The document provides examples of how teachers can lower students' affective filters to optimize language learning.
This document summarizes several key theories of second language acquisition (SLA), including: 1) Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, which focuses on differences and similarities between the first (L1) and second language (L2); 2) Error Analysis and Interlanguage, which examine learner errors to understand language development; and 3) Krashen's Monitor Model, including the Acquisition-Learning distinction, the Monitor Hypothesis, Natural Order Hypothesis, Input Hypothesis, and Affective Filter Hypothesis. The theories aim to explain how learners develop linguistic and communicative competence in a second language over time.
This document summarizes Stephen Krashen's theory of second language acquisition, which formed the basis for bilingual education in the US. The theory consists of 5 main hypotheses: 1) Acquisition-Learning, 2) Monitor, 3) Natural Order, 4) Input, and 5) Affective Filter. It explains that acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious, the role of monitoring, that structures are acquired in a predictable order, comprehensible input drives acquisition, and affective variables like anxiety and motivation impact the learning process.
The Natural Approach is a language teaching method based on theories of second language acquisition. It focuses on providing students with comprehensible input through meaningful communication activities. Students progress through three stages: pre-production, early production, and speech emergence. The teacher acts as a source of input, manager of the learning environment, and director of classroom activities. The key principles are that language acquisition occurs naturally through communication, errors are accepted, and students should not be forced to produce language before they are ready.
This document is a student paper that investigates the effect of age and motivation on second language acquisition. It explores theories of SLA and discusses factors like the age factor, motivation, and language exposure. The paper indicates that while age plays a role in SLA, motivation and exposure are even more important factors. If learners are not sufficiently motivated or exposed to the language, they may not achieve full proficiency regardless of their age. The conclusion is that motivation and exposure should be prioritized in language learning over the age factor alone.
This document is a student paper on second language acquisition that investigates the effect of age and motivation. It discusses several theories of SLA and examines research on young learners and bilingual children. It explores the five stages of SLA and how children acquire language simultaneously or sequentially. While some research indicates bilingual children are better language learners, others note potential delays. The paper also analyzes the role of age in SLA and the importance of motivation and language exposure for successful acquisition regardless of age.
Stephen Krashen developed the Monitor Model to explain second language acquisition. The model has five main hypotheses: 1) Language is acquired subconsciously through meaningful exposure similar to first language acquisition. 2) Language is acquired in a natural order that cannot be forced. 3) Learning involves conscious output monitoring but has limited role in acquisition. 4) Comprehensible input is necessary for acquisition but not conscious learning. 5) The affective filter hypothesis explains how anxiety can prevent input comprehension. Krashen's theories have influenced language teaching but also received criticism for lack of empirical evidence.
Chapter 4 how languages are learned - pasty m. lightbown and nina spadaTshen Tashi
This document summarizes several perspectives on second language acquisition:
- Behaviorism emphasized mimicry and memorization in the classroom and viewed language as habit formation.
- Innatism argued an innate language acquisition device allows children to learn language, but its role in second language learning is debated.
- Cognitive perspectives view language learning as involving information processing, usage-based learning of chunks rather than rules, and competition between first and second language systems.
- Sociocultural theory emphasizes that language learning occurs through social interaction and internalizing knowledge constructed collaboratively.
The document discusses the work and theories of Stephen Krashen, a linguist and researcher. It summarizes several of Krashen's influential theories on second language acquisition, including the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the input hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis, and the natural order hypothesis. It also discusses Krashen's views on topics like comprehensible input, sheltered instruction, and the role of error correction in language learning.
The document discusses several theories related to language acquisition for English language learners (ELLs). It covers Cummins' distinction between social and academic language, Krashen's theories of comprehensible input and affective filter, Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, and principles for meaningful learning from Brown and Bloom. The key points are that social language develops quickly through immersion but academic language requires direct instruction and takes 5-7 years to master, and that language acquisition is supported through scaffolding, meaningful interaction, and building confidence.
Krashens theory of language learning (1).pdfTausifMasud1
Stephen Krashen developed a theory of language acquisition consisting of five main hypotheses: 1) the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious, 2) the monitor hypothesis explains that learning serves as an editor but overuse can inhibit acquisition, 3) the natural order hypothesis proposes that acquisition follows a natural progression, 4) the input hypothesis claims we acquire via comprehensible input just beyond our level, and 5) the affective filter hypothesis argues that factors like anxiety can block acquisition. Krashen's theory transformed language teaching in the 1980s and remains influential in second language acquisition theory today.
The document discusses the Natural Approach developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen. Some key points:
- The Natural Approach focuses on teaching communicative abilities through meaningful input and a low-anxiety environment.
- Krashen's theories that underlie this approach include the acquisition/learning distinction, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.
- Learners' role is to process comprehensible input, while teachers' role is to provide a constant flow of comprehensible input through a variety of activities and a low-anxiety classroom environment.
- Total Physical Response is a suitable method as it maintains a constant flow of comprehensible
The document summarizes Stephen Krashen's five hypotheses about second language acquisition: the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. It then discusses criticisms of Krashen's Input Hypothesis and the relationship between comprehensible input and language acquisition. Finally, it covers Swain's Output Hypothesis and the role of output production in developing language skills.
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition, including behaviorism, cognitive theory, and creative construction theory. Behaviorism views language development as habit formation influenced by the first language. Cognitive theory sees acquisition as building knowledge systems that become automated through practice. Creative construction theory proposes that learners internally construct representations of the target language through listening and reading, with speech and writing being outcomes rather than causes of learning.
Krashen's theories of second language acquisition consist of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. These hypotheses emphasize that acquisition is more important than learning, acquisition occurs through comprehensible input, and affective factors like anxiety and motivation can help or hinder acquisition. The Natural Approach developed by Krashen focuses on providing meaningful input through activities and realia to develop communicative skills in a low-anxiety environment.
The document presents an overview of theories of second language acquisition (SLA). It discusses domains to consider in an SLA theory, including that SLA involves cognitive variations and is intertwined with culture learning. Several SLA theories are then summarized, including Krashen's Input Hypothesis with its sub-hypotheses, cognitive models focusing on attention and implicit/explicit knowledge, and Long's Interaction Hypothesis emphasizing the role of modified interaction between learners and native speakers. The theories represent innatist, cognitive, and social constructivist perspectives on SLA.
Assignment 2 Community Prevention ProgramAfter hearing that a n.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Community Prevention Program
After hearing that a neighbor’s child, Jeremy, age seven, was sexually assaulted in the local park, the parents of Cherry Hill township decide that their community needs a program to prevent sexual abuse of their children in the future.
Prepare a presentation for the parents, providing pertinent information they might like to include in a Sexual Assault Prevention program aimed at the children in their community. Suggest the psychoeducational and supportive approaches that can be effectively used at the community level, such as in community centers, schools, and social service agencies, to provide this information to the children. Address issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in your presentation.
Submit your PowerPoint presentation to the
W2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, July 19, 2017
. Your response should be at least 5 - 6 slides and include speaker notes for each slide. In addition, make sure you have included a title slide and a reference slide.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed pertinent information they deem relevant to the development of a Sexual Assault Prevention program
25
Described the psychoeducational information and supportive approaches that the community can effectively use to deal with the issue of sexual abuse of children
30
Addressed the issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in the context of intervention approaches
25
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources, displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Analyzing World CulturesMedia play a very large role.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Analyzing World Cultures
Media play a very large role in both the development and the perpetuation of cultural elements. You may never have watched a foreign movie or even clips evaluating other cultures. In this assignment, you will explore online videos or movies from a culture of your choice and analyze how cultural elements are presented, compared to your own culture.
Complete the following:
Choose a world culture you are not familiar with.
Identify two–three online videos or movies representative of this culture. These could be examples of cultural expressions such as a Bollywood movie from India or Anime videos from Japan.
Evaluate two hours of such a video. Using the readings for this module, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet, research articles about your selected culture.
Select a scholarly article that analyzes the same culture presented in the videos you have observed.
Write a paper describing the cultural differences you have observed in the video. How are these observations supported by the research article?
Be sure to include the following:
Describe the videos you have watched.
Explain the main points of the videos.
Examine what stood out about the culture.
Compare and contrast the similarities and differences of this culture with your own.
Examine the ways of this culture. Is it one you would want to visit or live in?
Would you experience culture shock if you immersed yourself in this culture? Why or why not?
Support your statements with examples and scholarly references.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
.
More Related Content
Similar to 109Learning OutcomesBy the end of this chapter you will
Krashen's hypotheses propose theories about second language acquisition. The Acquisition-Learning hypothesis distinguishes between acquiring a language unconsciously through exposure versus consciously learning rules. The Monitor hypothesis explains that the acquisition system initiates speech while the learning system monitors for errors. The Natural Order hypothesis suggests learners acquire language structures in a predictable sequence regardless of teaching order. The Input hypothesis proposes that acquisition occurs through comprehensible messages beyond one's current level. The Affective Filter hypothesis indicates that emotional variables like anxiety can prevent input from reaching the acquisition system.
The Natural Approach is a language teaching method developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen that claims language is acquired similarly to a first language through meaningful communication. It focuses on providing comprehensible input through activities that are slightly above students' current language level. Students first develop comprehension skills through listening and reading before speaking. Speaking emerges gradually without early emphasis on grammatical accuracy. The approach is based on Krashen's theories including the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis.
This document discusses Stephen Krashen's Monitor Model of second language acquisition. It provides background on Krashen, including that he is an American linguist who developed five hypotheses around second language learning. One of the hypotheses is the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, which distinguishes between acquiring a language naturally through use (acquisition) versus learning a language through formal instruction. Another is the Affective Filter Hypothesis, which proposes that learners can be mentally blocked from learning if they have a high "affective filter" due to anxiety or other affective factors. The document provides examples of how teachers can lower students' affective filters to optimize language learning.
This document summarizes several key theories of second language acquisition (SLA), including: 1) Contrastive Analysis Hypothesis, which focuses on differences and similarities between the first (L1) and second language (L2); 2) Error Analysis and Interlanguage, which examine learner errors to understand language development; and 3) Krashen's Monitor Model, including the Acquisition-Learning distinction, the Monitor Hypothesis, Natural Order Hypothesis, Input Hypothesis, and Affective Filter Hypothesis. The theories aim to explain how learners develop linguistic and communicative competence in a second language over time.
This document summarizes Stephen Krashen's theory of second language acquisition, which formed the basis for bilingual education in the US. The theory consists of 5 main hypotheses: 1) Acquisition-Learning, 2) Monitor, 3) Natural Order, 4) Input, and 5) Affective Filter. It explains that acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious, the role of monitoring, that structures are acquired in a predictable order, comprehensible input drives acquisition, and affective variables like anxiety and motivation impact the learning process.
The Natural Approach is a language teaching method based on theories of second language acquisition. It focuses on providing students with comprehensible input through meaningful communication activities. Students progress through three stages: pre-production, early production, and speech emergence. The teacher acts as a source of input, manager of the learning environment, and director of classroom activities. The key principles are that language acquisition occurs naturally through communication, errors are accepted, and students should not be forced to produce language before they are ready.
This document is a student paper that investigates the effect of age and motivation on second language acquisition. It explores theories of SLA and discusses factors like the age factor, motivation, and language exposure. The paper indicates that while age plays a role in SLA, motivation and exposure are even more important factors. If learners are not sufficiently motivated or exposed to the language, they may not achieve full proficiency regardless of their age. The conclusion is that motivation and exposure should be prioritized in language learning over the age factor alone.
This document is a student paper on second language acquisition that investigates the effect of age and motivation. It discusses several theories of SLA and examines research on young learners and bilingual children. It explores the five stages of SLA and how children acquire language simultaneously or sequentially. While some research indicates bilingual children are better language learners, others note potential delays. The paper also analyzes the role of age in SLA and the importance of motivation and language exposure for successful acquisition regardless of age.
Stephen Krashen developed the Monitor Model to explain second language acquisition. The model has five main hypotheses: 1) Language is acquired subconsciously through meaningful exposure similar to first language acquisition. 2) Language is acquired in a natural order that cannot be forced. 3) Learning involves conscious output monitoring but has limited role in acquisition. 4) Comprehensible input is necessary for acquisition but not conscious learning. 5) The affective filter hypothesis explains how anxiety can prevent input comprehension. Krashen's theories have influenced language teaching but also received criticism for lack of empirical evidence.
Chapter 4 how languages are learned - pasty m. lightbown and nina spadaTshen Tashi
This document summarizes several perspectives on second language acquisition:
- Behaviorism emphasized mimicry and memorization in the classroom and viewed language as habit formation.
- Innatism argued an innate language acquisition device allows children to learn language, but its role in second language learning is debated.
- Cognitive perspectives view language learning as involving information processing, usage-based learning of chunks rather than rules, and competition between first and second language systems.
- Sociocultural theory emphasizes that language learning occurs through social interaction and internalizing knowledge constructed collaboratively.
The document discusses the work and theories of Stephen Krashen, a linguist and researcher. It summarizes several of Krashen's influential theories on second language acquisition, including the acquisition-learning hypothesis, the input hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the affective filter hypothesis, and the natural order hypothesis. It also discusses Krashen's views on topics like comprehensible input, sheltered instruction, and the role of error correction in language learning.
The document discusses several theories related to language acquisition for English language learners (ELLs). It covers Cummins' distinction between social and academic language, Krashen's theories of comprehensible input and affective filter, Vygotsky's zone of proximal development, and principles for meaningful learning from Brown and Bloom. The key points are that social language develops quickly through immersion but academic language requires direct instruction and takes 5-7 years to master, and that language acquisition is supported through scaffolding, meaningful interaction, and building confidence.
Krashens theory of language learning (1).pdfTausifMasud1
Stephen Krashen developed a theory of language acquisition consisting of five main hypotheses: 1) the acquisition-learning hypothesis states that acquisition is subconscious while learning is conscious, 2) the monitor hypothesis explains that learning serves as an editor but overuse can inhibit acquisition, 3) the natural order hypothesis proposes that acquisition follows a natural progression, 4) the input hypothesis claims we acquire via comprehensible input just beyond our level, and 5) the affective filter hypothesis argues that factors like anxiety can block acquisition. Krashen's theory transformed language teaching in the 1980s and remains influential in second language acquisition theory today.
The document discusses the Natural Approach developed by Tracy Terrell and Stephen Krashen. Some key points:
- The Natural Approach focuses on teaching communicative abilities through meaningful input and a low-anxiety environment.
- Krashen's theories that underlie this approach include the acquisition/learning distinction, the monitor hypothesis, the natural order hypothesis, the input hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis.
- Learners' role is to process comprehensible input, while teachers' role is to provide a constant flow of comprehensible input through a variety of activities and a low-anxiety classroom environment.
- Total Physical Response is a suitable method as it maintains a constant flow of comprehensible
The document summarizes Stephen Krashen's five hypotheses about second language acquisition: the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. It then discusses criticisms of Krashen's Input Hypothesis and the relationship between comprehensible input and language acquisition. Finally, it covers Swain's Output Hypothesis and the role of output production in developing language skills.
This document discusses theories of second language acquisition, including behaviorism, cognitive theory, and creative construction theory. Behaviorism views language development as habit formation influenced by the first language. Cognitive theory sees acquisition as building knowledge systems that become automated through practice. Creative construction theory proposes that learners internally construct representations of the target language through listening and reading, with speech and writing being outcomes rather than causes of learning.
Krashen's theories of second language acquisition consist of five main hypotheses: the Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis, the Monitor Hypothesis, the Natural Order Hypothesis, the Input Hypothesis, and the Affective Filter Hypothesis. These hypotheses emphasize that acquisition is more important than learning, acquisition occurs through comprehensible input, and affective factors like anxiety and motivation can help or hinder acquisition. The Natural Approach developed by Krashen focuses on providing meaningful input through activities and realia to develop communicative skills in a low-anxiety environment.
The document presents an overview of theories of second language acquisition (SLA). It discusses domains to consider in an SLA theory, including that SLA involves cognitive variations and is intertwined with culture learning. Several SLA theories are then summarized, including Krashen's Input Hypothesis with its sub-hypotheses, cognitive models focusing on attention and implicit/explicit knowledge, and Long's Interaction Hypothesis emphasizing the role of modified interaction between learners and native speakers. The theories represent innatist, cognitive, and social constructivist perspectives on SLA.
Similar to 109Learning OutcomesBy the end of this chapter you will (20)
Assignment 2 Community Prevention ProgramAfter hearing that a n.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Community Prevention Program
After hearing that a neighbor’s child, Jeremy, age seven, was sexually assaulted in the local park, the parents of Cherry Hill township decide that their community needs a program to prevent sexual abuse of their children in the future.
Prepare a presentation for the parents, providing pertinent information they might like to include in a Sexual Assault Prevention program aimed at the children in their community. Suggest the psychoeducational and supportive approaches that can be effectively used at the community level, such as in community centers, schools, and social service agencies, to provide this information to the children. Address issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in your presentation.
Submit your PowerPoint presentation to the
W2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
by
Wednesday, July 19, 2017
. Your response should be at least 5 - 6 slides and include speaker notes for each slide. In addition, make sure you have included a title slide and a reference slide.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Analyzed pertinent information they deem relevant to the development of a Sexual Assault Prevention program
25
Described the psychoeducational information and supportive approaches that the community can effectively use to deal with the issue of sexual abuse of children
30
Addressed the issues of gender, diversity, and ethics in the context of intervention approaches
25
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources, displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Analyzing World CulturesMedia play a very large role.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Analyzing World Cultures
Media play a very large role in both the development and the perpetuation of cultural elements. You may never have watched a foreign movie or even clips evaluating other cultures. In this assignment, you will explore online videos or movies from a culture of your choice and analyze how cultural elements are presented, compared to your own culture.
Complete the following:
Choose a world culture you are not familiar with.
Identify two–three online videos or movies representative of this culture. These could be examples of cultural expressions such as a Bollywood movie from India or Anime videos from Japan.
Evaluate two hours of such a video. Using the readings for this module, the Argosy University online library resources, and the Internet, research articles about your selected culture.
Select a scholarly article that analyzes the same culture presented in the videos you have observed.
Write a paper describing the cultural differences you have observed in the video. How are these observations supported by the research article?
Be sure to include the following:
Describe the videos you have watched.
Explain the main points of the videos.
Examine what stood out about the culture.
Compare and contrast the similarities and differences of this culture with your own.
Examine the ways of this culture. Is it one you would want to visit or live in?
Would you experience culture shock if you immersed yourself in this culture? Why or why not?
Support your statements with examples and scholarly references.
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
.
Assignment 2 Communicating Bad News Leaders and managers often ha.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Communicating Bad News
Leaders and managers often have to deliver unpleasant or difficult information to other employees or other internal or external stakeholders. How well this news is delivered can affect employee relations as well as public perceptions.
Review the following scenario:
A new company claims it manufactures the best dog food in the market. It employs around 250 people worldwide. After six months in business, one of the company’s brands is found to contain harmful bacteria. Overnight, reports start pouring in from all over the country about pets falling sick, some critically. The company wants to communicate with its stakeholders through a memo before major news channels start to cover the disease.
Assume that you are an assistant to the company’s chairperson. Based on your analysis of the scenario and using the reading material covered in this module, draft two memos for the chairperson. One memo should address the board of directors and the other the company’s employees.
Make assumptions about whether it is the food product that has bacteria or if there is another explanation for the pets’ sickness.
Write a 1–2-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
.
Assignment 2 Communicating Bad NewsLeaders and managers often hav.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Communicating Bad News
Leaders and managers often have to deliver unpleasant or difficult information to other employees or other internal or external stakeholders. How well this news is delivered can affect employee relations as well as public perceptions.
Review the following scenario:
A new company claims it manufactures the best dog food in the market. It employs around 250 people worldwide. After six months in business, one of the company’s brands is found to contain harmful bacteria. Overnight, reports start pouring in from all over the country about pets falling sick, some critically. The company wants to communicate with its stakeholders through a memo before major news channels start to cover the disease.
Assume that you are an assistant to the company’s chairperson. Based on your analysis of the scenario and using the reading material covered in this module, draft two memos for the chairperson. One memo should address the board of directors and the other the company’s employees.
Make assumptions about whether it is the food product that has bacteria or if there is another explanation for the pets’ sickness.
Write a 1–2-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use the following file naming convention: LastnameFirstInitial_M2_A2.doc.
By
Wednesday, July 19, 2017
, submit your assignment to the
M2: Assignment 2 Dropbox
.
Assignment 2 Grading Criteria
Maximum Points
Effectively utilized the tips covered in the module, to write an appropriate memo addressing the board of directors to convey the bad news.
40
Effectively utilized the tips covered in the module, to write a suitable memo addressing the company’s employees to convey the bad news.
40
Wrote in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrated ethical scholarship in accurate representation and attribution of sources; and displayed accurate spelling, grammar, and punctuation.
20
Total:
100
.
Assignment 2 Case of Anna OOne of the very first cases that c.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Case of Anna O
One of the very first cases that caught Freud’s attention when he was starting to develop his psychoanalytic theory was that of Anna O, a patient of fellow psychiatrist Josef Breuer. Although Freud did not directly treat her, he did thoroughly analyze her case as he was fascinated by the fact that her hysteria was “cured” by Breuer. It is her case that he believes was the beginning of the psychoanalytic approach.
Through your analysis of this case, you will not only look deeper into Freud’s psychoanalytic theory but also see how Jung’s neo-psychoanalytic theory compares and contrasts with Freud’s theory.
Review the following:
The Case of Anna O.
One of the first cases that inspired Freud in the development of what would eventually become the Psychoanalytic Theory was the case of Anna O. Anna O. was actually a patient of one of Freud’s colleagues Josef Breuer. Using Breuer’s case notes, Freud was able to analyze the key facts of Anna O’s case.
Anna O. first developed her symptoms while she was taking care of her very ill father with whom she was extremely close. Some of her initial symptoms were loss of appetite to the extent of not eating, weakness, anemia, and development a severe nervous cough. Eventually she developed a severe optic headache and lost the ability to move her head, which then progressed into paralysis of both arms. Her symptoms were not solely physical as she would vacillate between a normal, mental state and a manic-type state in which she would become extremely agitated. There was even a notation of a time for which she hallucinated that the ribbons in her hair were snakes.
Toward the end of her father’s life she stopped speaking her native language of German and instead only spoke in English. A little over a year after she began taking care of her father he passed away. After his passing her symptoms grew to affect her vision, a loss of ability to focus her attention, more extreme hallucinations, and a number of suicidal attempts (Hurst, 1982).
Both Freud and Jung would acknowledge that unconscious processes are at work in this woman's problems. However, they would come to different conclusions about the origin of these problems and the method by which she should be treated.
Research Freud’s and Jung’s theories of personality using your textbook, the Internet, and the Argosy University online library resources. Based on your research, respond to the following:
•Compare and contrast Freud's view of the unconscious with Jung's view and apply this case example in your explanations.
•On what specific points would they agree and disagree regarding the purpose and manifestation of the unconscious in the case of Anna?
•How might they each approach the treatment of Anna? What might be those specific interventions? How might Anna experience these interventions considering her history?
Write a 2–3-page paper in Word format. Apply APA standards to citation of sources. Use .
Assignment 2 Bioterrorism Due Week 6 and worth 300 pointsAcco.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Bioterrorism
Due Week 6 and worth 300 points
According to the Department of Health and Human Services (2002), the nation's capacity to respond to bioterrorism depends largely on the ability of clinicians and public health officials to detect, manage, and effectively communicate in advance of and during a bioterrorism event.
Prepare a narrated presentation, using PowerPoint or other similar software, detailing a bioterrorism-related issue, analyzing the threat(s) that the bioterrorism-related issue poses.
In preparation for your presentation, research and review at least one (1) healthcare facility’s preparedness plan.
Note
: A video to help students record narration for the PowerPoint presentation is available in the course shell.
Prepare a twenty (20) slide presentation in which you:
Specify the key steps that healthcare managers should follow in preparing their organizations for a potential bioterrorism attack.
Outline at least two (2) possible early detection and surveillance strategies, and investigate the main ways those strategies may prompt timely interventions to effectively treat and diminish the impact of a bioterrorism threat.
Evaluate the specific preparation steps in the preparedness plan of a healthcare facility of your choosing.
Suggest at least one (1) possible improvement to promote early detection and enhanced surveillance.
Use at least four (4) recent (within the last five [5] years), quality academic resources in this assignment. Note: Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Apply decision making models to address difficult management situations.
Develop policies that ensure compliance of healthcare delivery systems with current legislation.
Use technology and information resources to research issues in Health Care Operations Management
.
Assignment 2 Affirmative ActionAffirmative Action is a controvers.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Affirmative Action
Affirmative Action is a controversial topic in American society. People of all races, genders, and classes are divided on where they stand on Affirmative Action. However, the media has oversimplified Affirmative Action and many do not truly understand the policy and what it means for schools and employers. For this assignment, you will examine Executive Order 10925 and determine where you stand on this topic.
Review Executive Order 10925. A copy can be found at:
http://www.thecre.com/fedlaw/legal6/eo10925.htm
.
Then, write an organized short response (3 paragraphs) where you explain:
What is Affirmative Action as a social policy?
What were the goals of Affirmative Action? Has it been successful?
What are the basic arguments for Affirmative Action and what are those against it? Which side do you find the most convincing and why?
Be sure to support your answer with references to the textbook, appropriate outside resources, and your own personal experiences.
Create a response in 3 paragraphs to the discussion question. Cite sources and include references in your response. Submit your response to the
Discussion Area
by
Saturday, August 26, 2017
. Through
Wednesday, August 30, 2017
, review and comment on at least two peers’ responses.
.
Assignment 2 Audit Planning and Control It is common industry kno.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: Audit Planning and Control
It is common industry knowledge that an audit plan provides the specific guidelines auditors must follow when conducting an external audit. External public accounting firms conduct external audits to ensure outside stakeholders that the company’s financial statements are prepared in accordance with generally accepted accounting principles (GAAP) or International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) standards.
Use the Internet to select a public company that appeals to you. Imagine that you are a senior partner in a public accounting firm hired to complete an audit for the chosen public company.
Write a four to six (4-6) page paper in which you:
Outline the critical steps inherent in planning an audit and designing an effective audit program. Based upon the type of company selected, provide specific details of the actions that the company should undertake during planning and designing the audit program.
Examine at least two (2) performance ratios that you would use in order to determine which analytical tests to perform. Identify the accounts that you would test, and select at least three (3) analytical procedures that you would use in your audit.
Analyze the balance sheet and income statement of the company that you have selected, and outline your method for evidence collection which should include, but not be limited to, the type of evidence to collect and the manner in which you would determine the sufficiency of the evidence.
Discuss the audit risk model, and ascertain which sampling or non-sampling techniques you would use in order to establish your preliminary judgment about materiality. Justify your response.
Assuming that the end result is an unqualified audit report, outline the primary responsibilities of the audit firm after it issues the report in question.
Use at least two (2) quality academic resources in this assignment.
Note:
Wikipedia and other Websites do not qualify as academic resources.
Your assignment must follow these formatting requirements:
Be typed, double spaced, using Times New Roman font (size 12), with one-inch margins on all sides; citations and references must follow APA or school-specific format. Check with your professor for any additional instructions.
Include a cover page containing the title of the assignment, the student’s name, the professor’s name, the course title, and the date. The cover page and the reference page are not included in the required assignment page length.
The specific course learning outcomes associated with this assignment are:
Plan and design a generalized audit program.
Determine the nature and extent of evidence accumulated to conduct an audit after considering the unique circumstances of an engagement.
Evaluate a company’s various risk factors and the related impact to the audit process.
Evaluate effective internal controls that minimize audit risk and potentially reduce the risk of fraud.
Use technology and information resources to r.
Assignment 2 American ConstitutionFollowing the Revolutionary War.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: American Constitution
Following the Revolutionary War and separation from England, the need for a new government was clear. A group of men, who became known as the “nation’s founders” or Founding Fathers, developed a new government based on principles and beliefs they knew through their experiences, readings, and study. The Founding Fathers had a great deal in common with each other, including property interests, education, and extensive political experience. These common experiences and birthrights created a strong consensus about what should be incorporated into the government that would replace England’s.
Troubles developed immediately upon establishment of the United States of America with the 1781 Articles of Confederation and Perpetual Union. Economic difficulties and means of dividing power between leaders and competing interests caused conflict. The conflicts had to be resolved, and some of the Founding Fathers and others, who would come to be known as the Framers went to Philadelphia to revise the Articles of Confederation. However, it became apparent immediately that the Articles could not be revised, and therefore, they were abandoned, and the Framers set about to create a new form of government. Though the effort was eventually successful and resulted in the Constitution, there was a great deal of conflict during its development in the summer of 1787. The form of government established incorporated the ideas of diverse groups, as well as the Framers’ recognition of the need for compromise.
Research the history of the American Constitution using the Argosy University online library resources. Respond to
one
question from each of the question sets A and B.
A. Creating the Constitution
Consider the three constitutional proposals: the Virginia Plan, the New Jersey Plan, and the Great Compromise, also known as the Connecticut Compromise. If you were a delegate and without the experience of the past 200 years, which constitutional proposal would you have supported? Why?
Why do you think the framers were silent on the issue of slavery in the wording of the Constitution? What were the strengths and weaknesses of the Articles of Confederation?
What were the issues in the Constitutional Convention? Who were the Federalists and Anti-Federalists?
B. Living with the Constitution
What are the formal and informal methods of constitutional change?
How do checks and balances work in the lawmaking process today? Which current and important events do you think are examples of the success of checks and balances?
Do you think the Constitution is a relevant political document for the twenty-first century? What new amendments might be appropriate today?
Write your response to each in 150–200 words.
By
Saturday, February 4, 2017
, post your response to the appropriate
Discussion Area
. Through
Wednesday, February 8, 2017
, review and comment on at least three peers’ responses.
.
Assignment 2 A Crime in CentervaleWhile patrolling during his shi.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: A Crime in Centervale
While patrolling during his shift, a Centervale police officer, Detective Johnson, saw two men standing on a street corner. Johnson observed the two proceed alternately back and forth between the street ahead and the corner, pausing and returning to conference. Detective Johnson found this strange as the Love's Jeweler shop was down the street. The two men repeated this ritual alternately three to four times, which appeared as if they were looking out for someone or were about to steal something. Detective Johnson saw a third man approach and handing something to one of the two men, which he stuffed into his pocket.
Detective Johnson approached the three men and identified himself as a policeman. He saw the man that stuffed the item in his pocket place his hand in his pocket again. Detective Johnson kept his eyes on the man and asked their names. Before they could answer, the detective turned the man around, patted down his outside clothing, and felt a hard object. The man objected saying, "Hey man, you can't do that. I have rights. I want my lawyer." Detective Johnson sneered, "Oh! you'll get your lawyer." Upon feeling the object, the officer removed his gun and asked the three to raise their hands and place them on the wall. The officer patted each man down and found a gun in the pocket of one man. He removed the jacket of another man and found a diamond ring in the inside pocket. The third man did not have anything in his pockets.
The three were taken to the police station and charged with grand theft and burglary. One of the men was also charged for carrying a concealed weapon. Detective Johnson ran the information concerning the gun and found that it matched the gun related to an aggravated battery and rape case from a year ago. The detective questioned Danny, the man who had the gun. At first, Danny did not want to say anything, but the detective continued questioning him. After three hours, Danny confessed to the aggravated battery and rape case. He denied being involved in the grand theft and burglary.
Danny had a first appearance in the court within three days, whereupon he is appointed an attorney but denied bail. Danny does not see his attorney until the next court appearance. The attorney asks what he wants to do and Danny said, "I want to fight it man." The attorney tells Danny, "That's not going to work; the DA is offering you a good deal if you plea." Over the objection of the victim in the court, the DA offers Danny probation if he testifies against the other two in the burglary case. The DA wants the other two to be sentenced to ten years in that case. While shaking his head, Danny pleads guilty above the cries of the victim. The DA asks the judge to hold off on sentencing until after he testifies in the other trial.
After Danny testifies against the other two defendants and they are sentenced to ten years, Danny goes back to the court. The judge, not agreeing with the deal, decides to sent.
Assignment 2 (RA 1) Analysis of Self-ImageIn this assignment, yo.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 2: (RA 1): Analysis of Self-Image
In this assignment, you will identify and discuss factors that contribute to self-image during middle childhood and adolescence.
Write a 6-page research paper on factors influencing self-image during middle childhood and adolescence.
Tasks:
Conduct a review from professional literature—articles from peer-reviewed journals and relevant textbooks—on the factors influencing self-image during middle childhood and adolescence. Topics to consider include:
Family constellation
Risk and protective factors
Various aspects of cultural identity
Physical characteristics
Social interactions with peers
.
Assignment 1Write a 2-3 page outline describing the health to.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment
1:
Write a 2-3 page outline describing the health topic you’ve been assigned and develop a justification/rationale for an educational intervention.
Assignment
2:
Develop a graphic organizer for their topic.
The Graphic Organizer is intended to provide visual cues to enhance learning.
The graphic organizers should be included with your unit plan.
.
assignment 1The idea of living in a country where all policy sh.docxBenitoSumpter862
assignment 1
The idea of living in a country where “all policy shall be based on the weight of evidence” seems unreal for me. However this idea does not seems so crazy for Neil deGrasse Tyson, who believes this idea could work in a country. But could it really work?
The ‘Rationalia’ proposal is about that every idea need to be based on something. It means everything has to follow a process which is gathering data, observation, experimenting and having a conclusion. For a policy to get approved it needs to have the weight of evidence to support it, if it does not have it, then it will not get approve. I found it very interesting how white supremacy supported African slavery and how there was an effort to restricted the reproduction of other races. I feel like this would turn into a chaotic country because there are so many things that science cannot explain, scientist have theories only. Like most of the ancient civilization that had big constructions, ex: The Incas in Peru, there is no explanation for how the Machu Picchu ruins were constructed, or like the Pyramids in Egypt. As the scientist keep researching, new theories originate and no conclusion is made.
I do not think religion has all the answers also. Why were women not able to touch their husbands or feed their animals while menstruating? Why a women would be considered contaminated or not pure base on something as normal as menstruation. Or the idea of it is okay for men to have multiple wives but it was not okay for women to get married twice? I do believe that there is a God, but the idea of the men been superior in both science and religion makes me feel frustrated as a woman. It would be very difficult for a country to be ruled by science or by God only. I feel that there should always be a balance between science and religion, even though both want to compete with each other and have the ultimate opinion. There are somethings that I disagree with both of them. There is no need to keep fighting against each other, even the pope supported the scientific view of evolution, and as the article “Nonoverlapping Magisteria” by Stephen Jay Gould said “The Catholic Church had never opposed evolution and had no reason to do so”. For some people like me, science and religion go together.
assigment 2
In the first reading “Reflections on Rationalia” by Neil deGrasse Tyson, Tyson discusses an idea of developing a virtual world in which all its policies have to be founded based on evidence, meaning that the state would be undergoing constant research, forming a foundation for its government and how its citizens should think. Within the proposal for the new state, Tyson says that a great amount of funding will be given to the continued study of the human sciences, along with extensive training for the young to learn how to obtain, analyze and gather conclusions on data, and citizens would have the freedom to be irrational, simply no policies will be made with.
Assignment 1Recognizing the Role of Adhering to the Standar.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1:
Recognizing the Role of Adhering to the Standard of Care
When providing health care, there are standards of care which a reasonably prudent provider should follow. Providers at all levels are held to these standards of care. Failure to provide competent care to your patients will put you at risk for malpractice. Remaining current with the evidenced-based guidelines and providing optimal care will minimize the risk of liability.
For this Assignment, you will create a PowerPoint presentation that explains any legal implications that exist for failure to adhere to a standard of care, the key elements of malpractice, and compare the differences in malpractice policy options.
To prepare:
Consider the importance of using professional resources such as the National Guideline Clearinghouse to guide care delivered
Create a PowerPoint presentation no more than 15 slides in length that addresses the following:
Identify and explain any legal implications that exist for failure to adhere to a standard of care
Identify and explain the key elements of malpractice
Compare the differences in malpractice policy options
.
Assignment 1Argument MappingWrite a four to five (4-5.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1:
Argument Mapping
Write a four to five (4-5) page paper in which you:
(
Note:
Refer to Demonstration Exercise 3 located at the end of Chapter 1 for criteria 1-3.)
1.
Create an argument map based on the influence diagram presented in Case 1.3 and complete all the criteria provided in the exercise, beginning with this claim: “The U.S. should return to the 55- mph speed limit in order to conserve fuel and save lives.”
2.
Include in the map as many warrants, backings, objections, and rebuttals as possible.
3.
Assume that the original qualifier was
certainly;
indicate whether the qualifier changes as we move from a simple, static, uncontested argument to a complex, dynamic and contested argument.
(
Note:
Refer to Demonstration Exercise 3 located at the end of Chapter 8 for criterion 4.)
4.
Apply the argument mapping procedures presented in Chapter 8 to analyze the pros and cons (or strengths and weaknesses) of the recommendations that the United States should
not
intervene in the Balkans.
(
Note:
Refer to Demonstration Exercise 4 located at the end of Chapter 8 for criteria 5-7.)
Demonstration exercise 3 chapter 1
Create an argument map based on the influence diagram presented in Case 1.3. Begin with the following claim: “The United States should return to the 55 mph speed limit in order to conserve fuel and save lives.” Include in your map as many warrants, backings, objections, and rebuttals as you can. Assuming that the original qualifier was certainly, indicate whether the qualifier changes as we move from a simple, static, uncontested argument to a complex, dynamic, and contested argument
Influence diagram presented in case 1.3
CASE 1.3 THE INFLUENCE DIAGRAM AND DECISION TREE—STRUCTURING PROBLEMS OF ENERGY POLICY AND INTERNATIONAL SECURIY
Along with other policy-analytic methods discussed earlier in this chapter (Figure 1.1), the influence diagram and decision tree are useful tools for structuring policy problems.52 The influence diagram (Figure C1.3) displays the policy, the National Maximum Speed Limit, as a rectangle. A rectangle always refers to a policy choice or decision node, which in this case is the choice between adopting and not adopting the national maximum speed limit of 55 mph. To the right and above the decision node are uncertain events, represented as ovals, which are connected to the decision node with arrows showing how the speed limit affects or is affected by them. The rectangles with shaved corners represent valued policy outcomes or objectives. The objectives are to lower fuel consumption, reduce travel time, reduce injuries, and avert traffic fatalities. To the right of the objectives is another shaved rectangle, which designates the net benefits (benefits less costs) of the four objectives. The surprising result of using the influence diagram for problem structuring is the discovery of causally relevant economic events, such as the recession and unemployment, .
Assignment 121. Create a GUI application that contains textboxes.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 12
1. Create a GUI application that contains
textboxes
for first name, last name and title. The app should also contain one button (with the text "Format!"). Once a user filles in textboxes and clicks the button the user-entered info should be displayed in a
label
formatted with one space between the title, first name, and last name.
2. Create a GUI higher/lower guessing game that lets a user guess a number between 1 and 111 (you can either randomly assign the secret number or hardcode it). Let the user enter his/her guess in a
textbox
then click a Submit button to submit his/her guess. If the guess is too low change the form color to YELLOW. If the guess is too high change the form color to BLUE. If the guess is correct change the form color to GREEN and display the number of guesses it took.
.
Assignment 1.3 Assignment 1.3 Article Review Read the article .docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1.3
Assignment 1.3 Article Review
Read the article Social Service or Social Change, available in attachments. Review this article, using the Article Review format provided. Please note there are three sections of an article review.
The first is a brief summary of the article. The second, the Critique, is
about
your opinion of the information presented in the article, and the third, the Application, is about how you might use this information in the future. The Article Review template is located in attachments.
.
Assignment 1Answer the following questions concisely (no.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1
Answer the following questions concisely (no more than half a page per question)
1.
What is the National Prevention Strategy and who is responsible for it?
2. What are the differences among community health, population health, and global health?
3. Which federal department in the United States is the government’s principal agency for protecting the health of all Americans and for providing essential human services, especially to those who are least able to help themselves? What major services does this department provide?
4. How do state and local health departments interface?
5. What significance do you think Healthy People 2020 will have in the years ahead?
.
Assignment 1 Victims’ RightsThe death penalty is one of the mos.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1: Victims’ Rights
The death penalty is one of the most controversial topics in the criminal justice system. In the US criminal justice system, the government represents the victim. At the time of sentencing, many states allow victim impact statements. There are additional issues to consider in the application of the death penalty. Some of these issues are race, age, and cost.
Use the Argosy University Online Library resources to research the role of the victims in sentencing a defendant.
Submission Details:
By
June 28
, 2017
, post your responses to the following topics to this
Discussion Area
.
Discuss what you learned, focusing on such topics as racial disparity, juveniles, and victim impact statements. Be sure to cite your sources of information in the APA style.
Describe a specific case you learned about in the news where victims' rights figured prominently (either in a positive or in a negative way).
.
Assignment 1 Unreasonable Searches and SeizuresThe Fourth Amend.docxBenitoSumpter862
Assignment 1: Unreasonable Searches and Seizures
The Fourth Amendment to the US Constitution protects citizens' rights to be free from unreasonable governmental intrusion. The text of the amendment reads: "The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers, and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated, and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the persons or things to be seized."
There are many legal safeguards in place to ensure that police officers interfere with citizens' Fourth Amendment rights under limited circumstances. In Centervale, there have been several citizen complaints about Fourth Amendment violations by the local police department. The Centervale chief of police, Charles Draper, has determined that the behavior of some police officers reveals a lack of consistent understanding of the criminal justice concepts dealing with the Fourth Amendment prohibition against unreasonable searches and unreasonable seizures.
Submission Details:
By
Monday
, post to the
Discussion Area
your response to the following:
Explain what constitutes an unreasonable search or seizure.
Use examples to support your response.
Explain how the exclusionary rule and fruit of the poisonous tree apply.
.
How to Add Chatter in the odoo 17 ERP ModuleCeline George
In Odoo, the chatter is like a chat tool that helps you work together on records. You can leave notes and track things, making it easier to talk with your team and partners. Inside chatter, all communication history, activity, and changes will be displayed.
Thinking of getting a dog? Be aware that breeds like Pit Bulls, Rottweilers, and German Shepherds can be loyal and dangerous. Proper training and socialization are crucial to preventing aggressive behaviors. Ensure safety by understanding their needs and always supervising interactions. Stay safe, and enjoy your furry friends!
How to Build a Module in Odoo 17 Using the Scaffold MethodCeline George
Odoo provides an option for creating a module by using a single line command. By using this command the user can make a whole structure of a module. It is very easy for a beginner to make a module. There is no need to make each file manually. This slide will show how to create a module using the scaffold method.
This slide is special for master students (MIBS & MIFB) in UUM. Also useful for readers who are interested in the topic of contemporary Islamic banking.
ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, and GDPR: Best Practices for Implementation and...PECB
Denis is a dynamic and results-driven Chief Information Officer (CIO) with a distinguished career spanning information systems analysis and technical project management. With a proven track record of spearheading the design and delivery of cutting-edge Information Management solutions, he has consistently elevated business operations, streamlined reporting functions, and maximized process efficiency.
Certified as an ISO/IEC 27001: Information Security Management Systems (ISMS) Lead Implementer, Data Protection Officer, and Cyber Risks Analyst, Denis brings a heightened focus on data security, privacy, and cyber resilience to every endeavor.
His expertise extends across a diverse spectrum of reporting, database, and web development applications, underpinned by an exceptional grasp of data storage and virtualization technologies. His proficiency in application testing, database administration, and data cleansing ensures seamless execution of complex projects.
What sets Denis apart is his comprehensive understanding of Business and Systems Analysis technologies, honed through involvement in all phases of the Software Development Lifecycle (SDLC). From meticulous requirements gathering to precise analysis, innovative design, rigorous development, thorough testing, and successful implementation, he has consistently delivered exceptional results.
Throughout his career, he has taken on multifaceted roles, from leading technical project management teams to owning solutions that drive operational excellence. His conscientious and proactive approach is unwavering, whether he is working independently or collaboratively within a team. His ability to connect with colleagues on a personal level underscores his commitment to fostering a harmonious and productive workplace environment.
Date: May 29, 2024
Tags: Information Security, ISO/IEC 27001, ISO/IEC 42001, Artificial Intelligence, GDPR
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Introduction to AI for Nonprofits with Tapp NetworkTechSoup
Dive into the world of AI! Experts Jon Hill and Tareq Monaur will guide you through AI's role in enhancing nonprofit websites and basic marketing strategies, making it easy to understand and apply.
বাংলাদেশের অর্থনৈতিক সমীক্ষা ২০২৪ [Bangladesh Economic Review 2024 Bangla.pdf] কম্পিউটার , ট্যাব ও স্মার্ট ফোন ভার্সন সহ সম্পূর্ণ বাংলা ই-বুক বা pdf বই " সুচিপত্র ...বুকমার্ক মেনু 🔖 ও হাইপার লিংক মেনু 📝👆 যুক্ত ..
আমাদের সবার জন্য খুব খুব গুরুত্বপূর্ণ একটি বই ..বিসিএস, ব্যাংক, ইউনিভার্সিটি ভর্তি ও যে কোন প্রতিযোগিতা মূলক পরীক্ষার জন্য এর খুব ইম্পরট্যান্ট একটি বিষয় ...তাছাড়া বাংলাদেশের সাম্প্রতিক যে কোন ডাটা বা তথ্য এই বইতে পাবেন ...
তাই একজন নাগরিক হিসাবে এই তথ্য গুলো আপনার জানা প্রয়োজন ...।
বিসিএস ও ব্যাংক এর লিখিত পরীক্ষা ...+এছাড়া মাধ্যমিক ও উচ্চমাধ্যমিকের স্টুডেন্টদের জন্য অনেক কাজে আসবে ...
A review of the growth of the Israel Genealogy Research Association Database Collection for the last 12 months. Our collection is now passed the 3 million mark and still growing. See which archives have contributed the most. See the different types of records we have, and which years have had records added. You can also see what we have for the future.
The simplified electron and muon model, Oscillating Spacetime: The Foundation...RitikBhardwaj56
Discover the Simplified Electron and Muon Model: A New Wave-Based Approach to Understanding Particles delves into a groundbreaking theory that presents electrons and muons as rotating soliton waves within oscillating spacetime. Geared towards students, researchers, and science buffs, this book breaks down complex ideas into simple explanations. It covers topics such as electron waves, temporal dynamics, and the implications of this model on particle physics. With clear illustrations and easy-to-follow explanations, readers will gain a new outlook on the universe's fundamental nature.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Strategies for Effective Upskilling is a presentation by Chinwendu Peace in a Your Skill Boost Masterclass organisation by the Excellence Foundation for South Sudan on 08th and 09th June 2024 from 1 PM to 3 PM on each day.
Your Skill Boost Masterclass: Strategies for Effective Upskilling
109Learning OutcomesBy the end of this chapter you will
1. 109
Learning Outcomes
By the end of this chapter you will be able to accomplish the
following objectives:
1. In the context of Krashen’s input hypothesis, analyze and
interpret the importance of compre-
hensible language input.
2. Explain how affective factors can interfere with learning and
how teachers can help to reduce
their impact.
3. Define the interaction hypothesis and assess its role in
language teaching and learning.
4. Summarize the principle characteristics of communicative
language teaching and explain its
relationship to communicative competence.
5. Identify and evaluate the factors that contribute to ELLs
becoming long-term language
learners.
5Teaching English Language Learners
Monkeybusinessimages/iStock/Thinkstock
CO_TX
CO_NL
3. filter hypothesis, which we will
examine along with the interaction hypothesis proposed by
Michael Long (1996). To under-
stand how these three hypotheses are realized in classroom
practice, we will examine the
four defining characteristics of communicative language
teaching.
As we delve deeper into communicative teaching practices, we
begin with a basic question:
What is the teacher’s main objective in teaching ELLs? Simply
stated, it is to help ELLs acquire
all the English they need for social and academic purposes
while simultaneously learning the
content knowledge appropriate to their grade level. With some
young learners, and under
certain conditions, teachers can meet this objective fairly
quickly, sometimes within the
school year. For others, especially those who begin later than
kindergarten or first grade, it
takes longer, and although the authors of most accountability
measures assume that it takes
three years (Chapter 3), that is not the case for all learners. The
overarching goal in teaching
ELLs, then, is to keep them from becoming long-term English
language learners (LTELLs),
meaning those who have been in school for more than six years
but have not yet attained
adequate linguistic proficiency or the content knowledge
appropriate to their grade level. But
the truth is that most teachers, especially those in the middle
school and high school years,
will almost certainly encounter LTELLs, and so we conclude
this chapter with a discussion
of the conditions under which ELLs become LTELLs, not only
because early intervention can
5. infant or toddler, they make cer-
tain accommodations—they talk about concrete things (e.g.,
pointing to the family dog when
speaking its name), they simplify their language by using
familiar words, and they repeat
and expand upon the child’s utterance. They make these
accommodations to ensure that the
input is comprehensible, meaning that the child understands. It
makes sense, then, that the
first rule of effective ELL teaching is this: Make language
comprehensible. Whatever theoreti-
cal belief a teacher might hold about language learning,
whatever the age and grade level of
the learner, the language used every day in every class has to be
presented in such a way that
the learner understands the intended meaning—it has to be
comprehensible. That may seem
obvious—to learn anything we have to be able to comprehend
enough of what we hear or
read to, at the least, begin to construct meaning. Consider the
following passage:
何か不測の事態が発生した場合は、直ちに当社の社員にお知らせください。
Do you understand it? Most likely not. Because the symbols
mean nothing to us and because
we have no context for the sentence, most of us wouldn’t even
know how to find out what the
symbols mean. Some of us wouldn’t even know what langua ge
this is and certainly not that it
is a perfectly grammatical sentence in Japanese. Now consider
this passage:
Krashen’s Five Hypotheses (continued)
2. The monitor hypothesis, building on the postulated
distinction between learning and
6. acquisition, defines the influence of learning on acquisition.
Krashen’s view is that
learners have an “acquisition system” that serves to initiate,
while the “learning system”
(resulting from overtly learned rules) serves as monitor or
editor of the utterance. Over-
active monitors and underactive monitors can impede language
production and prog-
ress, while optimal monitors somehow strike an appropriate
balance between the two.
3. The natural order hypothesis is based on research evidence
that in every language there
is a mostly predictable sequence in which children learn
grammatical structures. Not
every child acquires structures such as the regular past tense
form, the possessive, or
the regular plural in exactly the same order, but the similarities
are significant. Because
there are differences in the order of acquisition—speakers of
Mandarin may acquire
English grammatical morphemes in a different order from
speakers of German, for
example—and because the most important factor is the content
being taught, Krashen
makes it clear that the syllabus should not be structured
according to a presumed order.
4. The input hypothesis is an effort to explain how learners
acquire language. It is not con-
cerned with learning per se, but Krashen stresses that an
environment can be created
for second language learners that makes learning more closely
resemble acquisition.
8. even the general subject the
sentence addresses. Why? Because the content is outside our
experience, of little interest, and
a little too difficult—which brings us to Krashen’s input
hypothesis.
According to Krashen, learners will acquire language when the
language they hear is challenging
but easy enough to understand without making a conscious
effort to learn it—in other words,
they can figure it out given the context. The hypothesis holds
that the input learners receive
should be just beyond their level of competence (Krashen,
1985). It should be noted that Krashen
also stated that language acquisition differs from language
learning in that acquisition is an
unconscious process and the product of normal interaction,
whereas learning is the product of
formal instruction (Krashen & Terrell, 1983; Krashen, 1985).
His view of comprehensible input
was that it was linked to acquisition but not to learning.
However, he also believed that acquisi-
tion could happen in the classroom. What this means in practice
is that teachers should strive to
make the classroom as authentic and communicative as possible:
The experience in the class-
room needs to more closely mirror first language acquisition.
The significance of this hypothesis
to communicative language teaching (CLT), as we saw in the
example above, is this:
The goal of any language program is for learners to be able to
communicate
effectively. By providing as much comprehensible input as
possible, especially
in situations when learners are not exposed to the TL (target
9. language) out-
side of the classroom, the teacher is able to create a more
effective opportu-
nity for language acquisition. (Bilash, 2009)
Now consider this passage:
The three competing theories for economic contractions are (1)
the Keynesian,
(2) the Friedmanite, and (3) the Fisherian. The Keynesian view
is that normal
economic contractions are caused by an insufficiency of
aggregate demand (or
total spending). This problem is to be solved by deficit
spending. The Fried-
manite view, one shared by our current Federal Reserve
chairman, is that
protracted economic slumps are also caused by an insufficiency
of aggregate
demand, but are preventable or ameliorated by increasing the
money stock.
(Hoisington & Hunt, 2011, p. 1)
The difference between this passage and the two previous, for
most of us, is that although we
could not accurately paraphrase it because we don’t know all
the word meanings in this context,
we can at least see the potential for understanding the meaning
by drawing on what we do know
of the word meanings in other contexts and, perhaps, using a
dictionary or asking for explanations.
The issue for teachers is how to find input that is challenging
enough to motivate learners but
not so difficult that it frustrates and causes them to give up. In
oral communication, there is
11. not reach that
part of the brain responsible for language acquisition, or the
language acquisi-
tion device. Those with attitudes more conducive to second
language acquisi-
tion will not only seek and obtain more input, they will also
have a lower or
weaker filter. They will be more open to the input, and it will
strike “deeper.”
(Krashen, 1987, p. 31)
The notion of an affective filter resonates with practitioners
because experience has taught
them that children who are bored, angry, or frustrated are
resistant to learning and thus
harder to teach. But when they are interested, contented, and
engaged, they are more recep-
tive to learning and it is easier for teachers to design effective
learning activities (Bilash, 2009;
Poole, 2011). The practical application of this hypothesis is
obvious: to maximize language
learning and find ways to lower the affective filter. Although
many different attitudes and feel-
ings can contribute to the existence and strength of the affective
filter, they are all subsumed
under four factors: motivation, attitude, self-confidence, and
anxiety level.
Motivation
Every teacher knows the importance of motivation, and
hundreds of books and thousands
of articles have been written on the subject. Definitions vary,
but most educators concur
with Gardner that motivation is “the extent to which the
individual works or strives to learn
the language because of a desire to do so and the satisfaction
13. Department or to pass a test for a graduate degree are motivated
instrumentally. The two are
not mutually exclusive, and research on which is more likely to
predict success in second lan-
guage learning is mixed. Although there is no definitive
evidence that one form of motivation
is superior to the other—because the different ages of subjects,
studies, and many other fac-
tors contribute to success—“. . . it is important to note that
instrumental motivation has only
been acknowledged as a significant factor in some research,
whereas integrative motivation is
continually linked to successful second language acquisition”
(Norris-Holt, 2001).
Although there is no compelling research evidence either way,
it is safe to assume integrative
motivation is a stronger force for children up through the
elementary years than instrumen-
tal motivation for acquiring English. It is also clear that the
strength of motivation affects the
receptiveness to a new language, but although it has an impact
on learners’ success, it also
interacts with other factors including attitude, self-confidence,
and anxiety levels.
Attitude
We all understand what is meant by attitude—it is how we think
or feel about something. As
a psychological construct, attitude refers to evaluative,
emotional reactions to people, objects,
or events. There is strong evidence that affect influences
cognition: “An extensive review of
the latest brain-based research (Jensen, 1995) has clearly shown
the critical links between
emotions and cognition and has concluded that in a positive
14. state of mind, the learner is able
to learn and recall better” (de Andres, 2002–2003).
Attitude is believed to influence language acquisition in three
ways:
1. Learners with positive attitudes tend to learn the new
language more easily and
faster, whereas those with negative attitudes are more resistant
and make slower
progress.
2. Attitude helps determine learners’ commitment. Those who
give up easily are more
likely to have a negative attitude.
3. Learners with positive attitudes are more likely to participate
in class and thus take
advantage of interaction.
In terms of the affective filter, a positive attitude tends to make
the filter more permeable (or
keep it lowered), while a negative attitude makes it denser (or
keeps it raised). As noted, how-
ever, attitude interacts with the other three components of the
affective filter.
Anxiety Level
Culture shock is a phenomenon that can affect ELLs’ ability to
learn (Chapter 2). One of the
underlying causes of culture shock is the necessity to learn a
new language, often very quickly,
and language anxiety or fear can make it harder for learners to
acquire a new language. This,
in turn, creates more anxiety. For children who have attended
school in another country,
16. within them rather than in the teaching approach.
Equally common is to carry that failure, in their lack
of self-confidence, into the next language learning
experience where it might well impact their abil-
ity to learn. Lack of confidence tends to go hand in hand with
inhibition—learners who have no
confidence in their abilities are less likely to try anything that
involves a risk of failure because
failure only serves to confirm their feelings of inadequacy.
Language learning always involves
making mistakes, and learners who cannot tolerate making
mistakes are less likely to engage in
the kinds of language activities that will help them learn. In
contrast, learners who have fewer
inhibitions, as well as a higher tolerance for uncertainty, are
more likely to engage in classroom
activities, conversations, and other kinds of interactions with
native speakers. These kinds of
interactions, as we will see, are crucial to the acquisition
process.
5.3 The Importance of Interaction
Children learn their first language without being taught
(Chapter 3). But even though they are
innately wired to acquire language, they would not do so in the
absence of human interaction.
It is interaction that is believed to “trigger” and facilitate the
development of language. Jerome
Bruner, in discussing how the natural instinct of humans to
acquire language is activated by
cultural factors that are necessary for the development of
language, states:
. . . language acquisition “begins” before the child utters his
first lexicogram-
matical speech. It begins when mother and infant create a
18. interaction with native speakers
provides ELLs the opportunity to learn language, but also that
the interaction itself con-
tributes to second language acquisition (Long, 1996; Gass &
Selinker, 2008). The type of
interaction that appears to facilitate language acquisition best is
the negotiation of mean-
ing—when partners in conversation have to work together to
express what they intend
to express. Usually, this happens when there is a failure to
communicate intended mean-
ing—one party in a conversation says something that the other
does not understand or
misunderstands. The two then have to use various strategies to
move the conversation
forward (Richards & Schmidt, 2002). These strategies are often
accommodations made by
the native speaker—slowing down of speech or speaking more
precisely or paraphrasing.
Second language learners may also attempt a paraphrase or a
repair, but will more often
ask for clarification or simply fail to respond, which signals a
communication breakdown.
Consider the following interaction:
Lara: How many car you have?
Teacher: How many cars do I have?
If Lara’s next response is “Yes. How many cars you have?” or
even “How many cars do you
have?”, then the exchange has resulted in a repair, or two, and
the conversation can proceed.
She has received feedback on grammar that she was able to use
to correct her utterance.
But if Lara were to respond with “I don’t know”, then the repair
19. has gone unheeded, which
might happen, especially with young children who are more
likely to focus on meaning
than form.
The effectiveness of interaction is dependent to a large extent
on the type and quality of inter-
action. If it is used as an opportunity for overt correction of
errors, then it can become a nega-
tive experience. Young learners are often confused and don’t
benefit from overt correction.
Young learners and older learners alike are likely to become
frustrated if their attempts at
conversation are constantly interrupted by correction of
grammar, pronunciation, or word
choice, especially when the correction does not help to clarify
their meaning. Consider the
following dialogue between Cal, age six, and his teacher:
Cal: Give me other one, please.
Teacher: The other what?
Cal: (Points to the apple slices on the table.) Other one, please.
Teacher: You want another apple slice?
Cal: Yes, please. Other one.
Teacher: Apple, Cal. It’s an apple slice. Can you say apple
slice?
Cal: Appo sice.
pip82223_05_c05_109-134.indd 116 6/30/15 11:12 AM
21. 1. Authenticity. In the dialogue between Cal and his teacher, the
exchange stops being
authentic at the point she says: “Apple, Cal. It’s an apple slice.
Can you say apple
slice?” She has hijacked the conversation, which began as a
simple request for some-
thing Cal wanted, and turned it into an instructional event—and
an ineffective one at
that.
2. Clarity. Sometimes ELLs do not understand the teacher’s
question or the reason
for asking it. That should have been clear to Cal’s teacher when
he got up and tried
to get her an apple slice. Here, he understood the words
perfectly; what he misun-
derstood was her reason for uttering them. He was still trying to
participate in an
authentic conversation! Not only should the meaning of an
exchange be clear, so
should its purpose.
3. Elaboration. There were many different ways this exchange
could have gone. What
would have happened had the teacher said to Cal, after
establishing that what he
wanted was another apple slice, “I don’t blame you for wanting
another one. They’re
really good. What other fruit do you like?” That would have
been an example of
elaboration, one of many possible, and it would have made more
sense to Cal.
4. Connection. Connecting with the learner’s interest and
experience is probably the
most critical characteristic of an effective interaction. By
23. Feedback Matters: Twelve Useful Responses
To keep learners engaged in discussions, try the following
responses:
1. I think you’re right! Can you tell me more?
2. That’s right. How did you learn that?
3. That’s right. Why do you think it’s important?
4. I think you’re right about ____, but why do you think ____?
5. That’s close, but something’s missing. What about . . . ?
6. I think I understand what you mean, but in English we
usually say____.
7. I’m not sure I understand. Can you say it another way?
8. That’s a good question to ask. That’s how we learn.
9. You are asking (teacher paraphrases the question). Right?
Who can help me with an
answer to that?
Sometimes learners do not respond, either because they need
more time or because they lack
the language to respond. Helpful responses are still possible:
10. Think about it and let me know when you’re ready.
11. Can you draw it or act it out?
12. Let’s ask the question this way and you can tell me “yes” or
“no.”
The goal of responses in any kind of interaction is to elaborate,
expand, and build learners’
language and content knowledge.
Positive, supportive, helpful responses help create a safe
environment for interaction that
helps to grow language proficiency. As Mohr and Mohr point
out, the teacher’s behavior can
yield other positive benefits for learners: “If teachers model the
25. The Chomskyan View of Language Acquisition
Rejecting the “blank slate” view of the infant mind, Chomsky
contended that children are born
with an innate capacity, or a language acquisition device, that
makes language learning an
inevitability—all they need is exposure. His theory was based
on several observations about
children learning language:
• There is an optimal age for language learning. Children are
most likely to learn lan-
guages fully and fluently between the ages of three and ten.
Learning after puberty is
possible, but it is more difficult.
(continued)
that first and second language acquisition were very similar
processes. Stephen Krashen and
Tracy Terrell took the goal of communicative competence even
further and developed the
natural approach, which eschewed use of the first language and
emphasized helping learn-
ers to develop vocabulary through meaningful interaction
(Krashen & Terrell, 1983; Govoni,
2011). The natural approach has been adapted, modified, and
tweaked by practitioners over
the years, but its tenets remain central to what we now refer to
broadly as communicative
language teaching, or the interactive approach. Any effective
teaching method begins with the
goal for the learner. For ELLs, the goal is clear—being a
successful communicator. What does
that entail? It requires the learner to know
26. • How to use English for a variety of purposes and functions,
• How to adjust language according to the participants and the
setting of the
conversation,
• How to read and write different types of text, and
• Strategies to use to sustain communication even with limited
linguistic ability.
The theoretical underpinnings of the communicative/interactive
approach, consistent with
the Chomskyan View of Language Acquisition but refined and
added to in recent decades,
assume that language learning is a result of processes such as
• Interaction between learners and other users of the language.
• The collaborative construction and negotiation of meaning
(speaker and hearer
work together to reach understanding).
• Paying attention to language input and actively incorporating
new forms.
• Paying attention to feedback.
• Trying out new forms of language, even if imperfect.
• Experimenting with different ways of saying things (adapted
from Richards,
2006, p. 4).
These assumptions about what students need to learn and how
they learn it are consistent
with the four characteristics that have come to define
communicative language teaching
(Richards, 2006; Spada, 2006). We will examine each of these
characteristics in the following
sections.
28. • Teachers tailor classroom activities to the interest, age, and
language levels of
learners.
• Teachers create environments that optimize opportunities for
interaction and
learning. The first step in creating such an environment is
establishing how the
classroom will be configured for optimal language learning.
There are several
options, some of which are more conducive to language learning
than others
(Figure 5.1).
The Chomskyan View of Language Acquisition (continued)
• Children do not need a “trigger” for the process to begin.
Parents do not need to teach
or coach children to speak. If they are surrounded by language,
they will pick it up on
their own.
• As they acquire their first language, there are certain kinds of
errors children never
make—they do not get the basic constituent order wrong
(subject-verb-object
in English).
• Developmental errors do occur as children figure out the rules
of the language, but
these tend to be of a lesser magnitude —the wrong tense or the
wrong plural—
indicating that children are in the process of working out just
how the rules work.
• Correcting these developmental errors is not effective. For
31. it has to be followed by opportunities for learners to use the
correct form in meaningful and
relevant contexts. It frustrates, discourages, and sometimes
confuses a child who is trying to
communicate something to have the teacher interject to fix her
verb form. Consider the fol-
lowing exchange between Maria, age seven, and her teacher:
Maria: I forgotted my lunch, so I buyed some.
Teacher: I forgot my lunch so I bought some.
Maria: Really? What did you get?
Maria was oblivious to her teacher’s attempt to correct her
mistake and so the teacher
persisted:
Teacher: Maria, the word is forgot. I forgot my lunch.
Maria: I know. Me too. I forgotted my lunch.
There are times when it is appropriate to correct errors.
However, teachers who understand
that Maria’s “forgotted” and “buyed” are both positive
indications that she is acquiring the
regular past tense form will realize that she will get it sorted out
by herself in time. Correcting
her now serves no purpose and may even keep her from
speaking. The error in Maria’s verb
forms did not interfere with her making herself understood, and
so attempting to focus her
attention on a grammatical form is pointless. On the other hand,
consider the following utter-
ances, both made by Spanish speakers:
32. I buy (this book) at library.
I like cheap chocolate cookie.
In Spanish, libreria means “bookstore,” In fact, many Latin
languages have a similar root, and
this Spanish speaker assumed that English would behave like
Spanish. This lexical (word mean-
ing) error is called a cognate, and in this case, it interferes with
meaning. There are two errors
in the second sentence, one a phonological error and the other a
word order error. Spanish does
not mark the distinction between long and short “i” in the way
that English does, and so chip/
cheap is not an unusual error. The word order mistake could
have several explanations, includ-
ing the fact that the learner will have heard “cheap” as an
adjective occurring before a noun in
many different contexts. All three errors in these two sentences
potentially interfere with the
meaning that a learner wants to create, and so the thoughtful
teacher will listen carefully to the
learner. If the errors or similar errors are repeated, then
correction may be needed. If so, it is
important to not make the learner feel uncomfortable and to
make the exercise as meaningful
and relevant as possible. In the case of the distinction between
chip and cheap, it is sometimes
helpful to illustrate how the written language distinguishes
between the long and short “i.”
Communicative Teaching Emphasizes Listening and Speaking
The abilities to converse in social settings and to communicate
effectively in school are essential
components of communicative compete nce, as we have seen.
Literacy is also built on a firm foun-
dation of oral language. Teachers using communicative methods
34. a series of short active sen-
tences that that correspond to activities that the learners can
perform. For example, a TPR
routine might consist of the following:
I pick up the book.
I open the book.
I find page 3.
I close the book.
For beginners, this is considered an authentic language activity
because it teaches them
words they will need in the classroom in the context of the
classroom. Having the learners
perform the appropriate activity with each sentence is a way of
engaging kinetic memory
to reinforce linguistic memory. Consider that this simple
exercise has used only nine words
and two sentence structures. Students can learn it easily, and the
teacher can build upon it to
teach both new vocabulary and classroom routines
simultaneously:
I put the book in my bag .
I lift the bag.
I carry the bag to the door .
I open the door.
Notice that a new structural component has been introduced
with the two prepositional
phrases (highlighted), as well as a new pronoun (my), two new
nouns, and three new verbs.
Obviously, TPR will not work as the only method of instruction
and would not be effective
with more advanced learners, but its principles are sound and
useful for teaching basic vocab-
36. With early-stage learners, compelling content will need more
than language as a mode of
presentation. To state the obvious, early-stage learners are not
going to be compelled by what
they cannot understand, and a teacher monologue absent any
visual props will not motivate
them to learn.
As we have seen, communicative language teaching is a broad
approach defined by four
principles and can embrace a variety of methods with the
ultimate goal of preventing ELLs
from becoming long-term language learners, but providing
guidance for teachers of those
who do.
The Long-term Language Learner
Most of the preceding discussion has focused on teaching
elementary school learners, espe-
cially, but not exclusively, beginners. The goal for these
learners is to keep them from becom-
ing long-term language learners, those who have been in school
for more than six years
(although some standards specify an upper limit of three years)
but have not yet attained
adequate linguistic proficiency or the content knowledge
appropriate to their grade level. For
a number of reasons, some outside the control of the schools, a
significant number will reach
middle school without the language or academic proficiency
they need and with a great deal
less time to acquire them.
5.5 Identifying the Long-term Learner (LTELL)
Researchers in California have determined that an ELL child
entering kindergarten has a 50%
37. chance of becoming a long-term language learner. A recent
study of more than 175,000 learn-
ers in 40 California school districts revealed that 59% of
secondary ELLs are long-term learn-
ers, a number that is likely to increase (Olsen, 2010). These
learners are part of a national
population of ELLs, half of who were born in this country—
some may be second- or even
third-generation immigrants—and have attended U.S. schools
since kindergarten (Ferlazzo &
Sypnieski, 2012). These are the learners considered to be long-
term language learners. Many
will have high levels of proficiency in social English but will
lack the literacy skills they need
to succeed in the content areas. Arguably, the various
accountability movements, by putting
pressure on schools to achieve rapid language acquisition, have
increased the number, but
many other factors contribute.
How ELLs Become LTELLs
One of the reasons why half of ELLs who enter kindergarten in
this country will become
LTELLs is that many spend long periods of time with little or
no language learning support.
Unfortunately, many school districts in this country do not
have, or have not had, a sufficient
number of teachers professionally trained to identify and
appropriately place ELLs or to
teach them. Without specially trained teachers, and facing the
kinds of pressures described
in Chapters 1 and 2, it is unlikely that these districts will have
the kinds of curricular and
learning support materials that they need to provide for the
needs of ELLs. Similarly, as the
demography of the country has changed, often quickly, schools
39. students often move
in and out of bilingual education, ESL, and mainstream
classrooms. (Menken,
Kleyn, & Chae, 2007, p. 1)
English language learners may also have been assigned to
specialized intervention programs
for native speakers, often on the basis of achievement or
proficiency test scores. Proficiency
and progress assessments designed for native speakers are often
unfair, under representing
what ELLs know or the progress they have made (Chapter 4).
The result is that too many ELLs
are assigned to programs for the learning disabled or to
remedial reading or speech language
programs designed for native speakers (Chapter 9). These are
generally not helpful and, in
fact, severely limit ELLs’ opportunity to learn at grade level.
This is not the only practice that
exacerbates the problem. Other seemingly appropriate options
can result in ELLs having lim-
ited access to the full curriculum. If, for example, ELLs are in
“pull-out” programs (Chapter 4)
in which they are removed from the mainstream class for
English lessons, without careful
scheduling they will routinely miss content instruction in the
class. Learners who have had
these kinds of experiences along with those who represent a
small proportion of school popu-
lation may come to experience social and linguistic isolation.
Feelings of isolation and exclu-
sion greatly reduce the likelihood that they will engage in the
kinds of interaction conducive
to learning English and succeeding in school (Olsen, 2010).
This is a lesson that sixth grade
teacher Kara Crosby learned firsthand, as we see in A Teacher’s
41. LTELLs but are not. Between 9%
and 20% of ELLs in this age group are newcomers or refugees.
“While some of these stu-
dents come with high literacy skills and content knowledge, the
majority . . . are students with
interrupted formal education . . . who have had two or more
years of interrupted schooling in
their home country” (Ferlazzo & Sypnieski, 2012, Adolescent
ELLs & long-term ELLs, para. 1).
A Teacher’s Story: Life Interrupted is the story of one such
child. With such limited formal
education and low levels of first language literacy, these
learners have a great deal of catching
up to do and, because of their ages, not much time in which to
do it. Long-term learners, then,
are a major challenge for schools and teachers. If we are to
assist LTELLs across the academic
hurdles they face and avoid creating more LTELLs, we must
first address some of the miscon-
ceptions about LTELLs.
A Teacher’s Story: Life Interrupted
Not long ago I ran into a former student of mine. Years before,
Kam had arrived in my third
grade class a few weeks after the year began, speaking almost
no English. From what I could
learn, I estimated that Kam had attended school very
sporadically for the previous two years,
and it showed in his lack of preparation. He couldn’t read in
Vietnamese, English, or any other
language. But by June, I thought that Kam was well on his way
to becoming a success story.
I was assigned a 3-4 split for the following year, and I was
hoping that Kam would be in the
class. It certainly made sense that he would be since he hadn’t
42. reached fourth grade proficiency
in language or social studies, although he had made great
strides. But Kam didn’t return to
school, and I never knew what happened to him until he came
up to me in Baskin-Robbins and
introduced himself. A grown man now, Kam was well spoken
and soft spoken. I asked about
(continued)
A Teacher’s Story: Marta (continued)
Mrs. Hayes was new to the school, having arrived from a middle
school outside Chicago. She
promised to investigate further. A few days later she came back
with what she believed was
the answer. She explained that the program designed for Marta
by Mrs. Hayes’ predecessor
had required that she spend a good part of each day in an ESL
class, which she had done for
two years. She made excellent progress there, and even though
she missed some important
content in fourth grade, she quickly caught up during fifth grade
as her English got stronger
and stronger. The problem clearly wasn’t academic, but Mrs.
Hayes strongly suspected it was
caused by social isolation. She believed that Marta had felt
isolated and perhaps hadn’t even
been in the general classroom enough to make close friends,
and, as I knew, she was at an age
when friendships had become especially important. She
suggested that I refocus my attention
on using group activities in the class and monitor them to see
which other students Marta was
best able to relate to. I did that, and as I identified first one, and
then two, and then three others
44. and literacy in the home lan-
guage can frequently acquire both academic English and content
and exit special programs
within two years or so (Short, 2011).
Another common misconception is that LTELLs cannot learn to
read and write without being
proficient in oral language. For younger children, this is
generally true, but for adolescent
learners, it is not necessarily the case. They need a variety of
authentic language experiences,
oral and written, but with their greater cognitive and “puzzle
solving” abilities, they can usu-
ally benefit from exposure to content text better than younger
learners. Some adolescent
learners struggle with correct pronunciation and because of
their age are less willing to speak
for fear of making errors. For these learners, especially, time
spent on reading and writing
provides them with opportunities to expand their vocabulary,
knowledge of sentence struc-
ture, and content-area knowledge in a nonthreatening way.
Is There Hope for LTELLs?
Undoubtedly, for learners who have been in school for more
than six years, the prognosis is
grim if we rely on what the numbers tell us. But teachers don’t
teach numbers: They teach
individuals, and for most of them there is hope. Often, it is a
matter of finding the appropriate
approach to use with these learners. While some aspects of
language learning are easier for
younger learners, adolescent learners may have an advantage in
learning and applying the
rules of language. Whereas with younger learners, we might
take a more natural approach,
46. Adolescence is also a time of great creativity and the incipience
of higher order thinking skills,
all of which make them faster learners than younger learners
(Sparks, 2011). They have more
highly developed metacognitive ability, meaning that they are
able to examine and reflect on
their own language learning processes and to make use of
previous language learning experi-
ences. They can, in fact, be far more efficient in learning
English—it’s just that they have so
much more to learn than five- or six-year-olds. Still, the
potential is there to be tapped. If a
teacher can find out what interests and inspires the LTELL to
want to learn—to find the com-
pelling material described earlier—then a great deal of progress
is possible.
Meeting the Needs of Long-term Learners
If teachers are to help LTELLs make progress, they should
begin by building relationships.
They should get to know their students and their families, if
possible, to build trust, respect,
and a sense of partnership in the business of learning. Research
supports the importance of
relationship building for LTELLs: A five-year study of over 400
immigrant children revealed
that “supportive school-based relationships strongly contribute
to . . . the academic engage-
ment of the participants” (Suárez-Orozco, Pimentel, & Martin,
2009, p. 713). Creating an envi-
ronment of trust and safety is only the first step in assisting
LTELLs. What comes next?
There is a genuine urgency to help LTELLs. Since they are a
heterogeneous group, differenti-
47. ated instructional strategies will be necessary, and many of the
techniques and strategies
suggested throughout the remainder of the book will be
appropriate, with some modification.
One of the significant differences is that each LTELL will need
an individualized instructional
plan that takes into account his or her particular ability or skill
gaps. Even though a learner
may have an especially notable deficit in one domain, such as
writing, every learner needs an
approach that includes attention to all four domains plus critical
thinking skills. In particular,
it is important to concentrate on reading in the content area
because all academic learning
is dependent on the ability to read and to close gaps in content
knowledge. To help LTELLs,
especially those who appear to be “fossilized,” schools need to
consider the following:
1. Focused reading, writing, and vocabulary across the
curriculum (subject-specific).
Advance organizers can be of help! Graphic organizers can be
helpful especially for
younger or beginning learners (one is illustrated in Chapter 6).
Older learners can
benefit from text-based organizers that show them what to
expect from the text, as
shown in Example of a Text-based Organizer.
2. Careful selection of texts to ensure rigorous content in
comprehensible language.
3. Build background for students before they read (or listen or
watch a film)
so that they know what to expect and look for. “This is a story
of a gruesome
49. Point it out, provide
or elicit another example or two, and move on.
10. Link reading and writing and focus on reading
comprehension rather than oral reading.
11. Keep portfolios of work to assist in determining progress
(which should be carefully
monitored).
12. Individual, group, or class projects focusing toward a
common goal that they work
toward over time.
13. Finally, the fact that 70% of all ELLs speak Spanish (Short,
2011) means that
schools may be able to benefit from bilingual programs such as
those described in
Chapter 4. Even if school leaders are unable to establish a
bilingual program, they
may have the resources to assess and help ELLs develop the
Spanish literacy skills
that can benefit them.
Example of a Text-based Organizer
Text-based organizers, sometimes in the form of outlines, can
be used to help ELLs, particu-
larly older learners, anticipate what is to come in a text. The
following is an example of one
such organizer:
The Organization of Chapter 4 (example)
Introduction
Principles of Assessment
Categories of Assessment
51. the teachers’ control, some will
struggle through six or more years of schooling without
reaching grade level in language and
content. They are at higher risk for dropping out, for
unemployment or underemployment, or
for being channeled into low-paying jobs. They deserve and
need the concentrated attention of
schools and teachers engaged in productive, and often
individualized, instruction.
Before leaving this chapter, let’s hear again from a teacher who
learned on his own how to
implement communicative language teaching as he struggled to
make content meaningful for
his ELLs. In Why I Teach: A Year to Remember, we see how
Jorge developed methods consistent
with the comprehensive achievement test approach and put them
into practice.
Assessment Accommodations for ELLs
Although research results cannot determine which, if any,
particular accommodation is
unequivocally reasonable, most states allow some
accommodation for ELLs for taking tests,
particularly standardized tests measuring achievement in
content areas. They typically fall
into four categories, and some of the more commonly used ones
include
Timing/Scheduling
• Increased test time.
• Breaks during test period.
• Text schedule extended (ELLs have more time to prepare).
Setting
52. • Test administered individually or in small group.
• Test given in setting with minimal distraction.
• Test administered in ESL classroom.
• Additional individual support provided in mainstream
classroom (e.g., ESL teacher or
aide).
Presentation
• Directions repeated in English.
• Directions read aloud in English.
• Key words in directions highlighted.
• Directions simplified.
• Directions explained or clarified in home language.
• Test items read aloud in English.
• Simplified English version of test provided.
Response
• Copying assistance provided between drafts (essays or essay
answers).
• Spelling assistance/spelling dictionaries or spelling and
grammar checker
provided.
• Test taker dictates or uses a scribe to respond in English.
Source: Educational Testing Service, Research report no. 2008-
6, Testing accommodation for English
language learners: A review of state and district policies.
Retrieved from http://www.ets.org/Media
/Research/pdf/RR-08-48.pdf
pip82223_05_c05_109-134.indd 130 6/30/15 11:12 AM
54. the skills they lack, almost all will lack adequate cognitive
academic language proficiency
and therefore will not be able to meet grade-level content
standards. Literacy skills are
at the heart of the problem, and they are also the solution. In
Chapter 6 we will examine
in greater detail some of the approaches to teaching literacy that
have been shown to be
effective and the importance of these approaches.
Key Ideas
1. The main goal of all ELL teachers is to help learners acquire
all the English they need
for social and academic purposes while simultaneously learning
the content knowl-
edge appropriate to their grade level.
Why I Teach: A Year to Remember
That was a very long year. When I got over my initial panic, I
did a quick refresher on the
FCAT (Florida Comprehensive Achievement Test) to see what
my kids would be up against. I
started to devise strategies to teach them to take a test like this,
but a it only took me about
two weeks to abandon that strategy. I decided instead to focus
on the content of the math and
getting that across any way I could. I used all kinds of objects
to make the lessons more inter-
esting, thinking that if they could touch and manipulate objects,
the concepts would be more
tangible, more real. Reading worried me more. I knew that I
could get an exemption for the
girl who was a true beginner, and when I looked at all the
different kinds of text they’d have
to respond to, I wished I could exempt them all. But then I
56. guage input but, when lowered, make the
input available to the learner for processing.
communicative language teaching A
teaching approach that recognizes the simi-
larities between first and second language
acquisition, emphasizing interaction in
authentic settings as the way in which learn-
ers acquire a second language.
instrumental motivation Motivation to
learn that focuses on the practical advan-
tages that will accrue to the learner as a
result of learning the language.
integrative motivation Motivation to learn
that results from a learner’s genuine interest
in or affection for the language, its culture,
and its people.
interaction hypothesis A hypothesis
that focuses not so much on the language
that learners hear (the input hypothesis),
but on the importance of the communica-
tive environment. In its strongest form, the
hypothesis holds not only that interaction
with native speakers provides ELLs the
opportunity to learn language, but also that
the interaction itself contributes to second
language acquisition.
kinetic memory A form of procedural
memory that involves consolidating a spe-
cific motor task—such a dance movements,
bicycle riding, and steering a car—into
memory through repetition.
57. 2. No matter what theoretical stance a teacher might take, the
language used every day
in every class has to be presented in such a way that the learner
understands the
intended meaning—it has to be comprehensible and at a level
that is challenging but
not frustrating.
3. Affective factors can create barriers to language acquisition,
but teachers can reduce
their impact by providing a safe, positive, and supportive
environment.
4. The quality of interaction that occurs between ELLs and
native speakers plays an
important role in the ELLs’ learning. In general, the more
authentic, the better.
5. Authenticity does not mean that teachers should ignore
grammar, pronunciation, or
vocabulary development or overt teaching. It means that
instruction should always
expand upon the broader context of the lesson.
6. Teachers using communicative methods understand that it is
important to provide
ample opportunity for listening and speaking in the classroom.
7. Error correction must be done judiciously, focusing on
mistakes that cause or have
the potential to cause miscommunication. Especially with
younger ELLs, it is helpful
to think of most oral language errors as “developmental.”
8. Early identification and correct placement of ELLs is critical
59. total physical response (TPR) A teaching
approach based on the notion that learning
occurs with physical movement.
Critical Thinking Questions
1. Read the box Why I Teach: A Year to Remember again. How
does Jorge’s experience
illustrate the importance of the comprehensible input
hypothesis, the interaction
hypothesis, and the affective filter hypothesis?
2. Krashen states that despite his belief that learners acquire
grammatical forms in a
mostly predictable order, this order should not be used for
designing a syllabus or
course (see the box Krashen’s Five Hypotheses). Why? (Hint:
Would it violate any of
the tenets of communicative language teaching?)
3. What are the theoretical and practical reasons for teaching all
levels of ELLs using
only English?
4. Construct a short TPR (total physical response) routine
appropriate for first-grade
beginners in English. Explain why you chose the topic you
chose for them.
5. As stated in this chapter, “The goal is not to replace the home
language but to add a
new language, and the belief is that learners will master English
sooner if they focus
entirely on learning it.” How do you reconcile this statement
with this book’s asser-
63. Lucy and Dinh are both in third grade, and they are both
bilingual: Portuguese-English in
Lucy’s case and Vietnamese-English in Dinh’s. Their teachers
would say that Lucy is a more
fluent speaker, although she didn’t start school in English until
second grade, while Dinh
began in kindergarten, but they would also praise Dinh’s
reading ability. At home, Dinh’s fam-
ily exposed him to English from the time he was three years old,
but Lucy had no exposure
until she started school. Both children are in a mainstream
classroom now, and they require
little additional language support. Yes, both children are
bilingual and share the same class-
room, but they took different paths to get there, as did the other
eight English language learn-
ers in the class.
In this chapter we explore different paths to bilingualism. By
examining the similarities and
differences between first and second language acquisition, we
see how, for example, young
learners might take a different path than older learners. We also
see that whatever the route
to bilingualism, most second language learners go through the
same five stages. However, the
time it takes to arrive at the final destination can vary widely,
depending on a number of dif-
ferent factors. The ultimate goal in teaching ELLs is that they
become functioning bilinguals,
so we begin with a brief discussion of bilingualism.
“Bilingualism refers to the ability to speak
two languages, and bilinguals are those who do so” (Piper,
2012, p. 84). Not everyone who is
bilingual is equally so—most people feel more comfortable in
one language or the other, and
64. will also rate their own proficiency higher in one or the other.
Some are highly proficient in
speaking their second language but less confident in writing it,
and there are numerous other
variations in skill sets among bilinguals. But fundamentally,
some degree of functional ability
in two or more languages gives one the right to claim
bilingualism.
3.1 Becoming Bilingual
Although the number of bilinguals is definitely increasing,
monolingualism is still the norm
in this country. That trend is changing, however, as we saw in
Chapter 1, and so it is impor-
tant that teachers understand that there may be significant
differences in how their monolin-
gual and bilingual students learn. In part, this is because
acquiring two languages affects the
brain differently than acquiring just one. In recent years,
researchers have discovered that the
benefits of bilingualism have a basis in brain structure and
function.
The benefits of bilingualism are well documented in the
research literature. Researchers
have found, for example, that bilingual or multilingual children
and adults are more toler-
ant of ambiguity. Tolerance of ambiguity is associated with
personality traits and with learn-
ing style. Those with a higher tolerance for ambiguity tend to be
more open-minded and
less rigid, authoritarian, or dogmatic than those with low levels
of tolerance for ambiguity
(Dewaele & van Oudenhoven, 2009; Dewaele, 2013). People
who know and use two or more
languages have also been found to have higher levels of
66. appear very early in life:
. . . researchers have shown bilingualism to positively influence
attention
and conflict management in infants as young as seven months.
In one study,
researchers taught babies growing up in monolingual or
bilingual homes that
when they heard a tinkling sound, a puppet appeared on one side
of a screen.
Halfway through the study, the puppet began appearing on the
opposite side
of the screen. In order to get a reward, the infants had to adjust
the rule they’d
learned; only the bilingual babies were able to successfully
learn the new rule
(Kovacs & Mehler, 2009). This suggests that even for very
young children, nav-
igating a multilingual environment imparts advantages that
transfer beyond
language. (Marian & Shook, 2012, para. 11)
There is additional evidence that learning multiple languages in
childhood will pay lifelong
benefits. In one study, monolingual and bilingual subjects in
their 60s
. . . underwent brain scans while performing a cognitive task
that required
them to switch back and forth among several different ideas.
Both groups per-
formed the task accurately, but bilinguals were faster, as well as
more meta-
bolically economical, in executing the cognitive mission, using
less energy in
the frontal cortex than the monolinguals. (Kluger, 2013, para.
68. resale or redistribution.
Section 3.1 Becoming Bilingual
and the degree of structural reorganization in this region is
modulated by the
proficiency attained and the age of acquisition. (Rodriguez,
2014, p. 7)
The positive effects of bilingualism on the brain appear to be
strongest in those who acquired
their two languages before the age of five, when the brain still
exhibits its most robust neural
plasticity (Petitto, 2009; Rodriguez, 2014). Because children
who are exposed to and learn two
languages from birth reach the same milestones as monolinguals
at roughly the same time—age
of speech onset, age when 50 words have been attained, and so
on—psychologists and educa-
tors have long believed that a single process or mechanism is
used for both. In recent years, this
belief has been sustained by research findings. Specifically, the
brains of early bilinguals “. . . uti-
lize overlapping classic language areas within the left
hemisphere for each of their languages, and
crucially, the same language areas universally observed in
monolinguals” (Petitto, 2009, p. 190).
Learning two languages before the age of five is considered to
be simultaneous bilingualism,
but the benefits to bilingualism do not vanish if the learning
occurs later than age five.
Later bilingualism changes “. . . the typical pattern of the
brain’s neural organization for lan-
69. guage processing, but early bilingual exposure does not”
(Petitto, 2009, p. 191). In general,
the changes are in the brain structure (youngest bilinguals) and
in the organization of the
brain (older learners), and these changes impact all learning;
bilinguals are generally more
flexible in their thinking, more focused, and better able to
concentrate (Perry, 2008; Petitto,
2009). For educators, it is important to remember that there may
be fundamental differences
among the learners in their schools—differences between
bilinguals and monolinguals, and
differences among bilinguals. A bilingual is not just two
monolinguals residing in one brain.
Educators refer to learning a second language before puberty as
early second language
acquisition (SLA). Puberty does not end the possibility of
learning a new language, of course,
but phonological processing, which affects accent as well as
reading, is more difficult for post-
pubescent learners (Pettito, 2009). Early SLA is similar to
simultaneous language acquisition,
the major difference being that learners quickly figure out that
their first language doesn’t
work in an English environment and will often respond with a
silent period when they pro-
duce little language but are actively processing the language
they hear (Piper, 2012, Chapter
4). In general, the younger children are when they begin to learn
an additional language, the
more the process will resemble first language acquisition.
Learning Two Languages at Once
Children who learn two languages before the age of five or six
are essentially learning two
71. laic expressions in one language, for example, are sometimes
interspersed with the other
language, as in “Bonjour, Papa. Do you have to work today?”
One aspect of language that is
rarely affected by code-switching, at least in young children, is
the sound system. It is rare for
a bilingual child to mix up the sounds of the two languages or
even to assign the wrong stress
pattern to a word or sentence.
Theorists ponder how to fit all these occurrences into a single
explanation of the language
learning process in bilinguals; simply put, the question is, does
the young bilingual child have
one language system or two? These kinds of data do not resolve
the issue, but happily, for
teachers of ELLs, it doesn’t matter very much. Neither code-
mixing nor code-switching is a
cause for concern. Code/language switching refers to the ability
of proficient bilinguals to
select the correct language according to the situational context
or topic of conversation. Bilin-
gual children as young as two or three routinely switch to the
language that matches the
person with whom they are speaking, and the ability to switch
easily between languages in
different situations is the ultimate goal of learning a second
language.
Simultaneous language acquisition is no doubt the easiest
because, as we saw earlier, these
children learn their two languages in essentially the same way
as they would learn one. Chil-
dren who learn English as one of their two languages from birth
or very early childhood,
therefore, rarely present as ELLs. Nevertheless, it is important
72. to understand how these young
children acquire language in order to develop effective
strategies for ELLs who have not had
substantial exposure to English by the time they are five or six.
It also helps to understand
why it is rarely true that students need no special assistance to
acquire English, that somehow
they will “just pick it up.”
Children become bilingual in a variety of ways. In much of the
world, children acquire one
language in the home but pick up another in the wider
community outside the home. In
Miami, for example, there are many children of Spanish-
speaking parents who learn Eng-
lish at daycare, on the playground, and from English-speakers in
the predominantly English-
speaking community. By the time they get to school, they are
functioning bilinguals. Some
children are bilingual because they have a mother who speaks
one language and a father
who speaks another, or grandparents or other caregivers who
speak a language different
from their parents. Monique and Jacqueline are the daughters
of a Francophone mother and
an Anglophone father. Both girls are fully functioning
bilinguals, even though their patterns
of education differed—Monique attended English Montessori
School from the time she was
two and a half, transferring to a French language school when
she was in first grade. Jacque-
line attended only French school, beginning at age four in pre-
kindergarten. Now nine and
seven respectively, the girls are reading at grade level in both
French and English, although
the medium for instruction in their school is only French. They
74. Sequential language learners arrive at school with varying
competencies in their home lan-
guage. Whatever their age and degree of linguistic attainment,
they will be placed in school
where they have to learn both the content of the curriculum and
the English language. Most
will have a good foundation in spoken language, although some
children may appear to have
limited speaking ability for cultural rea-
sons (Chapter 2). Some ELLs, particularly
in the later grades, will be literate in the
home language as well, although some will
not. Among those who are, there will be
some variation in their reading and writing
abilities (Chapter 2).
With so much variability in what ELLs bring
to school, it is to be expected that they will
also vary in the length of time it takes them
to reach proficiency in English. The speed
and ease with which they acquire the lan-
guage will depend on a number of factors,
among them age, context or situation,
teaching method, and degree of literacy in
the home language.
Age When the Second Language Is Introduced
In general, the younger the learner, the faster she will learn a
second language. There are a
number of reasons for this, including plasticity of the brain, the
fact that younger learners
have less language to learn and fewer inhibitions about learning
it, and the recent experi-
ence of acquiring the first language. For many decades,
researchers in several disciplines—
76. accent, but generally they will learn the structural properties
and vocabulary of the language
faster because they are more experienced learners. The reason
they struggle is the amount
of material to be learned—the tasks are unequal. If a 5-year-old
and a 15-year-old are given
the task to learn 250 words of everyday English vocabulary, the
15-year-old will learn much
faster. The difference is that a 250 word vocabulary is woefully
inadequate for a 15-year-old
but could serve the 5-year-old fairly well. Or to put it another
way, if the task is to reach a
degree of proficiency appropriate for a 5-year-old child, the 15-
year-old will get there much
faster, but, of course, no 15-year-old wants to sound like a 5-
year-old. In short, although the
level of proficiency eventually achieved may vary, learners of
any age can learn language.
The Contexts in Which the New Language Is Introduced
One of the apparent advantages that younger learners have over
older learners is contextual:
What is the purpose for learning the new language, and where is
it learned? In most cases,
younger preliterate children will learn in a social setting,
whether in the community, place of
worship, playground, or even the home. Sometimes, for
instance, a family will have a care-
giver who speaks English and “teaches” the language to the
child in the context of normal
everyday activities. The caregiver may have even exposed the
child to books in English. In
such a situation, the child is exposed to the same kind of
language for the same kind of pur-
pose that the first language was learned. In other instances,
young ELLs will have played with