The document provides 10 tips for improving economics papers. It emphasizes (1) focusing analyses on marginal changes rather than precise equilibrium points, (2) considering unintended consequences of policies and the dynamic nature of markets, and (3) accounting for how policies impact various stakeholders. It also recommends considering (4) different time periods, (5) non-linear demand and supply curves, (6) how changing elasticities can strengthen analyses, (7) interrelated markets, and (8) how relative prices and incentives affect behavior. Additionally, it notes the importance of (9) expectations and (10) applying the cost-benefit principle to evaluate policies.

1. Ten Thoughts on Improving
Your Economics Papers
Economics Revision
Geoff Riley, Tutor2u
May 2013

2. (1) Questioning marginal decisions
• In theory, many decisions are made at the margin
– Marginal revenue = marginal cost (profit max output)
– Marginal social benefit = marginal social cost (social equilibrium)
– Marginal utility of consumption compared to the price
• Few businesses / people have the capacity to reach
precise equilibrium points – or even seek to find them
• But……
– Marginal changes in behaviour can have a big effect if enough
people make them (e.g. Energy consumption decisions)
– Changing behaviour ‘at the margin’ can have important social
effects – social norms can change + policies can have an impact
– The fundamental value of something depends on the value of
the marginal unit – important in lots of markets (e.g. oil, food)

3. 2: The Law of Unintended
Consequences
• This is a root cause of ‘government failure’
• All interventions in a market have at least one and often
many unintended consequences
• Unintended consequences can be positive and negative
• Reasons:
– Economics is a social science about behaviour and choices
– Rational agents will look for ways to offset policies that cost them
– Information failure in government when setting policies
especially when they have not done randomised controlled trials
– Dynamic nature of markets – markets and the agents that inhabit
them move more quickly than government

4. 3: Stakeholders matter!
• A stakeholder is ‘Any person or organization that has a
legitimate interest in a specific project or policy decision.’
• Check to see the sources of information in data
response questions
• Identify and comment when value judgements are being
made / apparent bias – this scores high for evaluation
• Risk of government failure:
– Regulatory capture by powerful lobbying organisations
• Micro lobbying: Alcohol manufacturers
• Macro lobbying: Negotiations over international trade / climate change policy
– Policy decisions made to please a vested interest
– Inequitable impact between one group and another

5. Stakeholders
• Employees of a business
• Communities where a
business is located or
affected by a decision
• Suppliers
• Shareholders
• Creditors
• Government (and through
them – taxpayers)
• Trade unions (and the
workers they represent)

6. Stakeholders
• Employees of a business
• Communities where a
business is located or
affected by a decision
• Suppliers
• Shareholders
• Creditors
• Government (and through
them – taxpayers)
• Trade unions (and the
workers they represent)
• NGOs and other
advocacy groups (i.e.
World Bank, IMF,
Pressure Groups)
• Prospective employees
• Prospective customers
• Local communities
• National communities
• International community
• Competitors within a
market
• Professional associations

7. 4: Time Periods in Economics
• Be familiar with
– Immediate (momentary) especially in primary sectors
– Short run (at least 1 fixed factor, diminishing returns)
– Long run (all factor inputs are variable, economies and
diseconomies of scale)
• Applications of time periods in your analysis
– Elasticity of supply (micro and macro supply curves)
– Elasticity of demand (Ped, CPed, Income elasticity)
– ‘Discounting’ the future value of costs and benefits (CBA)
– Long run macroeconomic policies e.g. supply-side / trade policy
– Long run micro policies – e.g. liberalising a market,
nationalisation, renewable energy policies

8. 5: (a) Demand and supply curves
are often non-linear!
P P
Q
D
S
Changing elasticity of
supply as output increases
Q
Elasticity might vary across
different price ranges

9. 5(b): Upward sloping demand and
downward-sloping supply!
P P
Q
D
S1
S2
S2
Long run
supply with
economies
of scale
Q
Perverse upward
sloping demand
at high prices e.g.
When price
associated with
product quality

10. 6: Change the elasticity to build /
develop your analysis!
P
D
S
S + tax
Q1Q2
P1
P2

11. 6: Change the elasticity to build /
develop your analysis!
P
Q
D
S
S + tax
Q1Q2
P1
P2
P
Q
D1
S
S + tax
Q1Q2
P1
P2
D2
More close substitutes – higher CPED
Double diagrams can show examiners that you have a clear
grasp of ideas and include good analysis in your answers

12. 7: Most markets are inter-related
• Changes in relative prices / rewards in one market affect
resource allocation in others
• Key related-market concepts to revise:
– Substitutes
– Complements
– Derived demand
– Composite demand
– Joint supply
– Competitive supply
• Also important in macroeconomics
– Factor markets and the economic cycle (labour demand)
– Bond markets / currency markets / equity markets
– Macroeconomic effects of external demand/supply shocks

13. 8: Relative prices, preferences and
incentives
• Markets are powerful – don’t underestimate them –
especially the power of setting the right incentives
• Policy interventions seek to change behaviour of agents
• People do respond to incentives
– Govt failure if the incentives turn out to be perverse
– Govt failure if the incentives are not strong enough (ineffective)
• Behaviour changes when relative costs & benefits alter
– Leads to substitution effects (changes in demand for X and Y)
– Agents react to changes in costs and benefits of their actions
• This requires
– A sufficient change in relative prices to make a difference
– Availability and affordability of alternative courses of action
– Sufficient time for agents to respond and react

14. Examples of changes in relative
prices
• London congestion charge / underground fares
• National minimum wage
• Changes in relative prices of low and high carbon energy
• Relative prices of different crops in farming
• Relative price of ethical-products
• Relative prices and demand for exports / imports e.g.
Following an exchange rate change
• Relative prices of legal versus illegal transactions (e.g.
crime / organ sales)

15. 9: Expectations matter!
• Expectations of the future drive current behaviour!
– Housing market / property development / decisions on land use
– Capital investment decisions by businesses (expected profits)
– Food supply decisions – expected returns from different crops
– Currency demand and supply – speculative activity in FOREX
– Monetary policy / inflation – inflation expectations and wages
– Fiscal policy / tax cuts / govt borrowing – expectations of changes in
taxes
• Formation of expectations:
– Rational expectations
– Adaptive expectations
• In macro – changes in animal spirits among businesses, consumers
and other agents has a huge effect

16. 10: The cost-benefit principle
• The mother of all economic ideas is the cost-benefit
principle
• It says that should take an action if, and only if, the extra
benefit from taking it is greater than the extra cost
• The hard part is
– Identifying the relevant costs and benefits
– Measuring and valuing them
– Applying an appropriate discount rate to future costs and
benefits
• Individual rationality does not always lead to a socially
optimum / desirable outcome
• Behavioural economics questions the core rationality
embedded into conventional textbook economics

17. And finally….
• Most policy problems require a combination of strategies
• Understand the meaning of efficiency and equity in markets
(allocative, productive, dynamic efficiency)
• Have the courage to challenge the conventional wisdom
• Let your diagrams do the work for you – develop the
analysis with high quality diagrams
• Pick out bias in extracts – value judgements
• Use the data that is provided but be aware of limitations
• What is rational for individual agents can often leading to
outcomes that are damaging for society
• Be cautious about government intervention – markets often
find solutions to intractable problems in the long run – if the
incentives are strong enough

18. Recommended Paragraph Structure
One Main
Point/Argument
Analyse /
Connectives
Supporting
Examples &
Evidence
Evaluate the
actual point
made
Evaluate
Assess
Discuss
To what extent
Examine
Questions Requiring Evaluation

19. Most common errors
Not using the data in the extracts
Not evaluating in every paragraph
Not referring to/explaining diagrams
Not defining terms accurately
Short chains of analysis – missing links

20. Top Tips
Use signposting from the question
Spread your work out well
Large analysis diagrams
Work timing out beforehand
Short plan helps to frame work

21. Good Evaluation Phrases
It depends on….
In the short run…however in the long run
The magnitude of the effect….
The most important point…
This will also impact

22. Tutor2u
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