1
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[Name]
South University Online
[Template instructions: Replace the information in red with your work-then delete this line]
2
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[APA formatted reference for source (list in alphabetical order) using a hanging indent]
[Underneath the reference, give a summary of the article then an analysis:
Summary of article: 1-2 paragraphs that describe the following information in your own words
in paragraph format (not bullet points).
• Why the article was written?
• What are the major points of the article?
• If the article was a study, describe:
o The methods used in the research: Include the participants, how the research question(s)
was tested or measured (e.g. survey, interview, formal testing…)
o The results of the study: What did the researchers find out?
o The conclusions: What did the researchers conclude from the study? What were the
limitations of the research?
NOTE: Do not include citations for the article you are summarizing in an annotated
bibliography. You have already given credit by listing the reference first. This is different
from a paper.]
[Analysis of the article: 1-2 paragraphs describing the following: Whether or not the
points made by the author are logical and supported by evidence and whether the author
demonstrates any bias in presenting the arguments. Were other arguments or possibilities
considered? Are the author’s conclusions supported? Do they fit with your understanding
of the topic and your textbook's description (cite the textbook and any other sources you
use for analyzing your article – include any additional sources you cite as part of your
analysis in your reference list)? Why or why not (provide support for your opinion)?]
3
Example of formatting:
Boonstra, A., & Broekhuis, M. (2010). Barriers to the acceptance of electronic medical records by
physicians from systematic review to taxonomy and interventions. BMC Health Services
Research, 10(1), 231-248. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-231
Authors conducted a systematic review of research papers between 1998 and 2009 that
examined physician perceptions of barriers to implementation of electronic medical
records. An examination of 1671 articles….
DeVore, S. D., & Figlioli, K. (2010). Lessons Premier hospitals learned about implementing electronic
health records. Health Affairs, 29(4), 664-667. doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0250
Premier healthcare alliance is a network of 2300 non-profit hospitals and 63,000
outpatient facilities in the United States, This paper summarized lessons learned from
reviewing implementation practices within their system….
4
References
List any references you cited in your analyses of your chosen sources. DO NOT list the references for
the articles you chose as you already referenced them in your an ...
Final Project Sampling 2FINAL PROJECT SAMPL.docxvoversbyobersby
Final Project Sampling 2
FINAL PROJECT SAMPLING
Student
UNIVERSITY
PSY302-A01 Research Methods
Professor
April 8, 2015
Assignment 2: Assignment 2: Final Project: Sampling
Based on the feedback you received on your submission from last week, submit a revised draft of your paper with this additional information:
1. Five additional references that could be used for your research paper and include a 1-2 sentence description for each of the five additional references, explaining how they fit with the research topic and the research question proposed. Make sure that these references come from scholarly sources using Argosy's library resources.
2. A very detailed outline of what you would like to cover in the intro/lit review of your paper. Write it as an outline and think about what you want each paragraph or section to cover. Paste your references into each section where the information from that article applies to the topic. Below is an example of the outline although the references have not been pasted in yet:
a. Introduction or Statement of the Problem (e.g. Predictors of Depression in Men)
i. Research question (E.g. What factors predict depression in men? For example, age, marital status, family history, stressors).
ii. Why is it important/implications (E.g. xx% of men are depressed; less likely to seek treatment; if we can identify who is at risk, may be able to direct them to treatment sooner)
iii. Revised hypothesis based on feedback from the instructor
b. Review of the Literature (the following is an example for above topic):
i. Brief description of depression, symptoms, and any unique symptoms for men (Cite articles from which you will obtain this information).
ii. How widespread is it? Stats on depression in general but also stats on depression in men (Cite articles from which you will obtain this information).
iii. List factors that put men at risk for depression (Cite articles).
1. Difficulty communicating distress or sadness (Cite articles).
2. Job/work pressures (Cite articles).
iv. Demographic characteristics (Cite articles).
1. Relationship between age and depression (Cite articles).
2. Relationship between marital status and depression (Cite articles).
3. A 1-2 page description of the sample you would like to use for your study, that provides the answer to the following questions:
a. What sampling technique would you use?
b. Does the sample generalize to the population? Explain why or why not.
c. What inclusion criteria would be used? What exclusion criteria would be used, if any?
d. What ethical issues might be encountered when collecting your information from this sample?
4. Be sure to also submit all your ten references (the five from last week and the five new ones you added) in an APA-style reference page. Be sure to also include an APA-style title page with your submission. Your paper should be at least 2-3 pages long. Make sure you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate eth ...
The Case StudyMany disciplines use various forms of the ca.docxmamanda2
The Case Study
Many disciplines use various forms of the case study to examine an individual or phenomenon within a specified context. The approach and application of case study designs also can vary widely between various disciplines such as medicine, law, and the social sciences. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, case studies are often referred to as uncontrolled studies. Yin (2013) defined the case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-world context, when the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident, in which multiple data sources are used. Yin referred to the case study as a “method” as opposed to confining it to only an approach or a “tradition” within the various forms of qualitative research (e.g., Creswell, 2012). Generally, the focus of the case study is on developing a narrative or revealing a phenomenon based on an in-depth, real-time, or retrospective analysis of a case. Therefore, issues related to experimental control and internal validity are nonfactors within this approach. Although case studies do not infer causation and the results should not be generalized, the findings can provide rich insight toward phenomena and serve as support for theories and the generation of hypotheses. However, if desired, Yin does offer approaches and models for researchers interested in attempting to infer causation from case study designs (which differs from QCA analysis).
The emphasis in a case study is primarily the qualitative method; however, cross sections of quantitative data are usually collected as supplementary data throughout the analyses (see mixed method embedded case study design). The label of case study is often applied to many social science examinations as a catchall term, many times misapplying the concept (Malcolm, 2010). However, the case study design can be applied to any of the approaches within the qualitative method, such as the most commonly applied narrative and phenomenological approach in psychology (Singer & Bonalume, 2010a) or the ethnographic approach in education (Creswell, 2014). Creswell took a different angle than Yin (2013) regarding the type and description of designs for the case study. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) succinctly described a case study “as (a) the in-depth study of (b) one or more instances of a phenomenon (c) in its real-life context that (d) reflects the perspective of the participants involved in the phenomenon” (p. 447).
Confusion does arise when authors use different terminology for similar constructs. These semantic differences can be seen in the work of Yin, who uniquely defined and applied the terms holistic and embedded (see Appendix B) differently than their traditional uses; for example, the term embedded has an entirely different meaning when used by Creswell. Another example of this is the term case study design, used within the qualitative method and most often associated with the ethnographic and phenomeno.
The Case StudyMany disciplines use various forms of the ca.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Case Study
Many disciplines use various forms of the case study to examine an individual or phenomenon within a specified context. The approach and application of case study designs also can vary widely between various disciplines such as medicine, law, and the social sciences. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, case studies are often referred to as uncontrolled studies. Yin (2013) defined the case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-world context, when the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident, in which multiple data sources are used. Yin referred to the case study as a “method” as opposed to confining it to only an approach or a “tradition” within the various forms of qualitative research (e.g., Creswell, 2012). Generally, the focus of the case study is on developing a narrative or revealing a phenomenon based on an in-depth, real-time, or retrospective analysis of a case. Therefore, issues related to experimental control and internal validity are nonfactors within this approach. Although case studies do not infer causation and the results should not be generalized, the findings can provide rich insight toward phenomena and serve as support for theories and the generation of hypotheses. However, if desired, Yin does offer approaches and models for researchers interested in attempting to infer causation from case study designs (which differs from QCA analysis).
The emphasis in a case study is primarily the qualitative method; however, cross sections of quantitative data are usually collected as supplementary data throughout the analyses (see mixed method embedded case study design). The label of case study is often applied to many social science examinations as a catchall term, many times misapplying the concept (Malcolm, 2010). However, the case study design can be applied to any of the approaches within the qualitative method, such as the most commonly applied narrative and phenomenological approach in psychology (Singer & Bonalume, 2010a) or the ethnographic approach in education (Creswell, 2014). Creswell took a different angle than Yin (2013) regarding the type and description of designs for the case study. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) succinctly described a case study “as (a) the in-depth study of (b) one or more instances of a phenomenon (c) in its real-life context that (d) reflects the perspective of the participants involved in the phenomenon” (p. 447).
Confusion does arise when authors use different terminology for similar constructs. These semantic differences can be seen in the work of Yin, who uniquely defined and applied the terms holistic and embedded (see Appendix B) differently than their traditional uses; for example, the term embedded has an entirely different meaning when used by Creswell. Another example of this is the term case study design, used within the qualitative method and most often associated with the ethnographic and phenomeno.
Final Project Sampling 2FINAL PROJECT SAMPL.docxvoversbyobersby
Final Project Sampling 2
FINAL PROJECT SAMPLING
Student
UNIVERSITY
PSY302-A01 Research Methods
Professor
April 8, 2015
Assignment 2: Assignment 2: Final Project: Sampling
Based on the feedback you received on your submission from last week, submit a revised draft of your paper with this additional information:
1. Five additional references that could be used for your research paper and include a 1-2 sentence description for each of the five additional references, explaining how they fit with the research topic and the research question proposed. Make sure that these references come from scholarly sources using Argosy's library resources.
2. A very detailed outline of what you would like to cover in the intro/lit review of your paper. Write it as an outline and think about what you want each paragraph or section to cover. Paste your references into each section where the information from that article applies to the topic. Below is an example of the outline although the references have not been pasted in yet:
a. Introduction or Statement of the Problem (e.g. Predictors of Depression in Men)
i. Research question (E.g. What factors predict depression in men? For example, age, marital status, family history, stressors).
ii. Why is it important/implications (E.g. xx% of men are depressed; less likely to seek treatment; if we can identify who is at risk, may be able to direct them to treatment sooner)
iii. Revised hypothesis based on feedback from the instructor
b. Review of the Literature (the following is an example for above topic):
i. Brief description of depression, symptoms, and any unique symptoms for men (Cite articles from which you will obtain this information).
ii. How widespread is it? Stats on depression in general but also stats on depression in men (Cite articles from which you will obtain this information).
iii. List factors that put men at risk for depression (Cite articles).
1. Difficulty communicating distress or sadness (Cite articles).
2. Job/work pressures (Cite articles).
iv. Demographic characteristics (Cite articles).
1. Relationship between age and depression (Cite articles).
2. Relationship between marital status and depression (Cite articles).
3. A 1-2 page description of the sample you would like to use for your study, that provides the answer to the following questions:
a. What sampling technique would you use?
b. Does the sample generalize to the population? Explain why or why not.
c. What inclusion criteria would be used? What exclusion criteria would be used, if any?
d. What ethical issues might be encountered when collecting your information from this sample?
4. Be sure to also submit all your ten references (the five from last week and the five new ones you added) in an APA-style reference page. Be sure to also include an APA-style title page with your submission. Your paper should be at least 2-3 pages long. Make sure you write in a clear, concise, and organized manner; demonstrate eth ...
The Case StudyMany disciplines use various forms of the ca.docxmamanda2
The Case Study
Many disciplines use various forms of the case study to examine an individual or phenomenon within a specified context. The approach and application of case study designs also can vary widely between various disciplines such as medicine, law, and the social sciences. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, case studies are often referred to as uncontrolled studies. Yin (2013) defined the case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-world context, when the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident, in which multiple data sources are used. Yin referred to the case study as a “method” as opposed to confining it to only an approach or a “tradition” within the various forms of qualitative research (e.g., Creswell, 2012). Generally, the focus of the case study is on developing a narrative or revealing a phenomenon based on an in-depth, real-time, or retrospective analysis of a case. Therefore, issues related to experimental control and internal validity are nonfactors within this approach. Although case studies do not infer causation and the results should not be generalized, the findings can provide rich insight toward phenomena and serve as support for theories and the generation of hypotheses. However, if desired, Yin does offer approaches and models for researchers interested in attempting to infer causation from case study designs (which differs from QCA analysis).
The emphasis in a case study is primarily the qualitative method; however, cross sections of quantitative data are usually collected as supplementary data throughout the analyses (see mixed method embedded case study design). The label of case study is often applied to many social science examinations as a catchall term, many times misapplying the concept (Malcolm, 2010). However, the case study design can be applied to any of the approaches within the qualitative method, such as the most commonly applied narrative and phenomenological approach in psychology (Singer & Bonalume, 2010a) or the ethnographic approach in education (Creswell, 2014). Creswell took a different angle than Yin (2013) regarding the type and description of designs for the case study. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) succinctly described a case study “as (a) the in-depth study of (b) one or more instances of a phenomenon (c) in its real-life context that (d) reflects the perspective of the participants involved in the phenomenon” (p. 447).
Confusion does arise when authors use different terminology for similar constructs. These semantic differences can be seen in the work of Yin, who uniquely defined and applied the terms holistic and embedded (see Appendix B) differently than their traditional uses; for example, the term embedded has an entirely different meaning when used by Creswell. Another example of this is the term case study design, used within the qualitative method and most often associated with the ethnographic and phenomeno.
The Case StudyMany disciplines use various forms of the ca.docxarnoldmeredith47041
The Case Study
Many disciplines use various forms of the case study to examine an individual or phenomenon within a specified context. The approach and application of case study designs also can vary widely between various disciplines such as medicine, law, and the social sciences. However, in the social and behavioral sciences, case studies are often referred to as uncontrolled studies. Yin (2013) defined the case study as an empirical inquiry that investigates a phenomenon within its real-world context, when the boundaries between phenomena and context are not clearly evident, in which multiple data sources are used. Yin referred to the case study as a “method” as opposed to confining it to only an approach or a “tradition” within the various forms of qualitative research (e.g., Creswell, 2012). Generally, the focus of the case study is on developing a narrative or revealing a phenomenon based on an in-depth, real-time, or retrospective analysis of a case. Therefore, issues related to experimental control and internal validity are nonfactors within this approach. Although case studies do not infer causation and the results should not be generalized, the findings can provide rich insight toward phenomena and serve as support for theories and the generation of hypotheses. However, if desired, Yin does offer approaches and models for researchers interested in attempting to infer causation from case study designs (which differs from QCA analysis).
The emphasis in a case study is primarily the qualitative method; however, cross sections of quantitative data are usually collected as supplementary data throughout the analyses (see mixed method embedded case study design). The label of case study is often applied to many social science examinations as a catchall term, many times misapplying the concept (Malcolm, 2010). However, the case study design can be applied to any of the approaches within the qualitative method, such as the most commonly applied narrative and phenomenological approach in psychology (Singer & Bonalume, 2010a) or the ethnographic approach in education (Creswell, 2014). Creswell took a different angle than Yin (2013) regarding the type and description of designs for the case study. Gall, Gall, and Borg (2007) succinctly described a case study “as (a) the in-depth study of (b) one or more instances of a phenomenon (c) in its real-life context that (d) reflects the perspective of the participants involved in the phenomenon” (p. 447).
Confusion does arise when authors use different terminology for similar constructs. These semantic differences can be seen in the work of Yin, who uniquely defined and applied the terms holistic and embedded (see Appendix B) differently than their traditional uses; for example, the term embedded has an entirely different meaning when used by Creswell. Another example of this is the term case study design, used within the qualitative method and most often associated with the ethnographic and phenomeno.
BIOETHICS METHODS IN THE ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND SOCIALIMPLICATI.docxAASTHA76
BIOETHICS METHODS IN THE ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND SOCIAL
IMPLICATIONS OF THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT LITERATURE
REBECCA L. WALKER AND CLAIR MORRISSEY
Keywords
bioethics methods,
ELSI,
human genome,
ethics
ABSTRACT
While bioethics as a field has concerned itself with methodological issues
since the early years, there has been no systematic examination of how
ethics is incorporated into research on the Ethical, Legal and Social Impli-
cations (ELSI) of the Human Genome Project. Yet ELSI research may bear
a particular burden of investigating and substantiating its methods given
public funding, an explicitly cross-disciplinary approach, and the perceived
significance of adequate responsiveness to advances in genomics. We
undertook a qualitative content analysis of a sample of ELSI publications
appearing between 2003 and 2008 with the aim of better understanding the
methods, aims, and approaches to ethics that ELSI researchers employ.
We found that the aims of ethics within ELSI are largely prescriptive and
address multiple groups. We also found that the bioethics methods used in
the ELSI literature are both diverse between publications and multiple
within publications, but are usually not themselves discussed or employed
as suggested by bioethics method proponents. Ethics in ELSI is also
sometimes undistinguished from related inquiries (such as social, legal, or
political investigations).
INTRODUCTION
Bioethics as a field or area of inquiry has concerned itself
with methodological issues since the early years.1 This has
led to the development of a rich literature on bioethics
methods as diverse as feminist,2 narrative,3 principles-
based4 and casuistry.5 Enrichment added through histori-
cal, legal, sociological, and many other disciplinary
perspectives has created a multi-disciplinary arena of
bioethics methods scholarship.6 Consideration of ethics
methods has a long history within philosophical ethics.
For example, Henry Sidgwick introduces his Methods of
Ethics by writing, ‘a “Method of Ethics” is explained to
mean any rational procedure by which we determine what
individual human beings “ought” – or what is “right” for
1 B. Steinbock. 2007. Introduction. In The Oxford Handbook of Bioeth-
ics. B. Steinbeck, ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press: 1–14;
C.M. Spicer. 1995. Introduction. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1995; 5(3): 7–9.
2 L.M. Purdy. 1996. Good Bioethics Must be Feminist Bioethics. In
Philosophical Perspectives on Bioethics. L.W. Sumner & J. Boyle, eds.
Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press: 143–162; S.M. Wolf. 1996.
Feminism and Bioethics: Beyond Reproduction. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press; M.O. Little. 1996. Why a Feminist Approach to
Bioethics? Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1996; 6(1): 1–18; A.L. Carse & H.L.
Nelson. Rehabilitating Care. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1996; 6(1): 19–35.
3 H.L. Nelson. 1997. Stories and Their Limits: Narrative Approaches to
Bioethics. New York: Routledge; R. Charon & M. Montello. 2002.
Stories Matter: The Rol ...
PAGE 52What is Action ResearchViaA review of the Literat.docxgerardkortney
PAGE
52What is Action Research?
Via
A review of the Literature
A Dissertation Extract
By
Dr. George SlentzIf you choose to use this document as part of your research, use the following reference notation:Slentz, G.M. (2003). A collaborative action research approach to developing
statewide information standards supporting the Delaware education
network.
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Inclusion Criteria
After determining the focus of this dissertation, several Wilmington College faculty members including academic advisors offered suggestions of relevant literature references. In addition to those recommendations, two annotated AR bibliographies by Dick (2002a & 2002b) provided a wealth of relevant material to review.
The Internet served as both an independent resource as well as a method to access EBSCOhost an electronic search engine which accesses numerous academic databases, such as Academic Search Premier, Masterfile, and Business Source Elite. Only articles that offered text availability through EBSCOhost were reviewed. Most Internet searches were conducted using www.Google.com an excellent, in depth publicly available search engine. In utilizing either EBSCOhost or Google, various combinations of search words were used. For example, one search would consist of “research and action” and the second “action research.” Since most search engines used, search, based on word sequence, interchanging the searching sequence of the words was essential. The searches centered in two specific topic areas: action research methodologies and information technology standards.
The Wilmington College Library provided some additional resources dealing with “research” and “researching techniques,” as well completed Wilmington College dissertations.
Overview of Action Research Literature
Action research literature was reviewed first, including definitions, methodologies, origins, and evolution. An in depth examination of AR literature revealed there was no universal AR methodology, but rather a confusing conglomeration of methodologies all alleged to be AR. In some instances, the differences were subtle, such as who identified the research setting, the researcher, or the client (Schein, 2001). In other more diverse examples, conflicting paradigms, epistemologies, and methodologies emerged (Heron & Reason, 1997). Swepson (1998) said, “I found some of the literature on the practice of action research to be contradictory and this left me confused about how to practice it” (p.2). Comments such as this one helped this researcher appreciate that other researchers were equally confused. The context of an AR study may appear disparate to different researchers. This lack of clarity and definition was quite common in AR literature, and these discrepancies often hindered understanding and comprehension of AR processes.
A variety of reasons for the shortcomings in AR discipline were identified: a lack of integration in the literature, de.
Page 291LEARNING OBJECTIVES· Discuss the issues created by.docxkarlhennesey
Page 291
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
· Discuss the issues created by generalizing research results to other populations, including potential problems using college students as research participants.
· Discuss issues to consider regarding generalization of research results to other cultures and ethnic groups.
· Describe the potential problem of generalizing to other experimenters and suggest possible solutions.
· Discuss the importance of replications, distinguishing between exact replications and conceptual replications.
· Distinguish between narrative literature reviews and meta-analyses.
Page 292IN THIS CHAPTER, WE WILL CONSIDER THE ISSUE OF GENERALIZATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS. When a single study is conducted with a particular sample and procedure, can the results then be generalized to other populations of research participants, or to other ways of manipulating or measuring the variables? Recall from Chapter 4 that internal validity refers to the ability to infer that there is a causal relationship between variables. External validity is the extent to which findings may be generalized.
GENERALIZING TO OTHER POPULATIONS
Even though a researcher may randomly assign participants to experimental conditions, rarely are participants randomly selected from the general population. As we noted in Chapters 7 and 9, the individuals who participate in psychological research are usually selected because they are available, and the most available population consists of college students—or more specifically, first- and second-year students enrolled in the introductory psychology course to satisfy a general education requirement. They may also be from a particular college or university, may be volunteers, or may be mostly males or mostly females. So, are our research findings limited to these types of subjects, or can we generalize our findings to a more general population? After considering these issues, we will examine the larger issue of culture and how research findings can be generalized to different cultural groups.
College Students
Smart (1966) found that college students were studied in over 70% of the articles published between 1962 and 1964 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology and the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Sears (1986) reported similar percentages in 1980 and 1985 in a variety of social psychology journals; Arnett (2008) found that 67% of the articles in the 2007 volume of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology used college student samples. The potential problem is that such studies use a highly restricted population. Sears points out that most of the students are first-year students and sophomores taking the introductory psychology class. They therefore tend to be young and to possess the characteristics of emerging adults: a sense of self-identity that is still developing, social and political attitudes that are in a state of flux, a high need for peer approval, and unstable peer relationships. They are intelligent ...
For my final project I am choosing the environmental influences on.docxrhetttrevannion
For my final project I am choosing the environmental influences on personality particularly about childhood experiences and their effect on an individual’s personalities. I am contrasting childhood experiences that are caused by their environment to the effect on their personality, I will use the correlation research method. A questionnaire will be used in order to obtain the information I would need. This method would admit me to have a larger sample base, have a better image of the relationship, and numerous variables providing for better research circumstances down the road. The disadvantage to this technique would be, I would not have a personal relationship from those apart of the study and this could cause a lack of dishonesty. Second, establishing a questionnaire that was both dependable and accurate could be an issue. Lastly, I would only get a view at what those in the group went through.
Ethically, I would run into a problem of confidentiality and making sure all of the questionnaires were kept secret and those taking them were offered secrecy. Anyone who take part in the activity would be able to eliminate themselves from the research if they wanted to and if they left the documents it would be destroyed. I would maintain their best interest and would be real and honest with them regarding what the study is being used for and why it was being done. Still, because there isn’t a personal relationship but just general on this could be difficult to prove and cause doubt and that could be an ethical crisis.
References:
APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2017) (PDF, 272KB)
APA Manual (Publication manual of the American Psychological Association). (2010). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Cervone, D. (2019). Personality theory and research (14th ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley &sons.
1
PSY 216 LITERATURE REVIEW TEMPLATE 7
PSY 216 Literature Review Template
Student Name
Institution Affiliation
Course Number and Name
Submission Date
Article One
What is the title of the article? Provide a citation for the article in APA format.
Birth Order Effects on Personality and Various Achievement within Families.
Paulhus, D.L., Trapnell, P.D.,& Chen, D. (1999). Birth Order Effects on Personality and various Achievement within Families. Psychology Science, 10(6), 482-488.
What is the purpose of the article, and how does the purpose relate to personality development?
The main objective of this research article is generally to investigate on the effect of character and diverse achievements that occur due to confinement order.
What is the hypothesis of the study? In other words, what claims do the authors make in the article?
Throughout the literature review reading, it is clear that firstborn mostly stayed nominated as attaining and contentious. Concurrent, most children, born later, were profoundly stated to be most insubordinate and courteous.
What variables (factors) are being looked .
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and
epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on
and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
(Discussion 1)Describe a social theory that was discussed in the Socia.docxchristina345678
(Discussion 1)
Describe a social theory that was discussed in the “Social Relationships and Health” journal article and indicate how it was used to support the research.
From my understanding of the journal for this week, the social theory was how some ones health can be effected with or with out social relations. From the research it touches on how a person or people can be happy and also live longer with better health, when practicing social relationships. The article discuss how the theory of social relationships can make people stringer and healthier. It was used to support the research because the researchers conducted studies not only on humans but animals as well to prove this theory.
Choose one of the quantitative research results presented in the article; describe the evidence presented and indicate which variables of the experiment were highlighted.
The quantitative research results that I choose from the article was when the researchers were discovering that social relationships can cause a risk factors of mortality, and probably morbidity, from a wide range of diseases. From the readings the researchers shown that they used criteria include strength and consistencies of statistical association across a wide range of studies an cause and effect with animals and humans. An experiment of behavior pattern as an risk factor for (type A) heart disease. 1964 Surgeon general had evidence that social relationship and health increased that cigarette smoking was a cause or risk factor for mortality a range of disease. These factors are important because the researchers seen that there is less association of social relationships when it comes to smoking, because smoking is also linked to cancer.
Determine the article’s conclusion in regards to social relationships in society. Based on the accompanying media piece “Why Facebook Could Be Good for Your Health Links to an external site.,” how could modern social media sites support the research findings in the journal article?
Although social relationships as independent, overruling, and moderating variables affecting stress, health, or the relationships between them have been widely studied over the past decade, almost no attention has been paid to social relationships as dependent variables ( House, Landis & Umberson, 1988). I believe that modern social media sites support the claims that social variables determine both health and the nature of social relationships, both link social relationship to health. Modern social media is where you can give updates on thoughts and at one point it was some where you can express freedom of speech.
The course text reading discussed how research can also use the transformative paradigm in social theory to impact social change. How does it do this and what types of societal populations can the transformative paradigm specifically impact?
The researcher's role and the selection of particular paradigmatic perspectives are affected by the interse.
1 Question Information refinement means taking the system requi.docxmercysuttle
1
Question: Information refinement means taking the system requirements you find during requirements determination and ordering them into tables, diagrams, and other formats that make them easier to translate into technical system specifications.
A
True
B
False
2
Question: Agile Methodologies focus on the roles that people perform.
A
True
B
False
3
Question: In the ____, like that shown in the accompanying figure, the result of each phase, which is called a deliverable or end product, flows sequentially into the next phase in the SDLC.
A
Interactive model
B
Requirements model
C
Waterfall model
D
Object model
4
Question: The goal of operational feasibility is to understand the degree to which a proposed system will likely solve the business problems or take advantage of opportunities.
A
True
B
False
5
Question: Which of the following focuses on the frequent production of working versions of a system that have a subset of the total number of required features?
A
Use-case modeling
B
Limited production
C
Structured analysis
D
Structured programming
E
Iterative development
6
Question: Component focusing allows the systems analyst to break a system into small, manageable, and understandable subsystems.
A
True
B
False
7
Question: Greater user involvement in the system development process usually results in ____.
A
Poorer communication
B
More satisfied users
C
Slower development times
D
Both b and c
8
Question: Agile approaches work best when the system being developed operates in a stable environment.
A
True
B
False
9
Question: Dependence of one part of the system on one or more other system parts best describes
A
Interrelated components
B
Component
C
Dependency
D
Cohesion
E
Boundary
10
Question: A systems development technique is the series of steps used to mark the phases of development for an information system.
A
True
B
False
11
Question: Analyzing an organization's activities to determine where value is added to products and/or services and the costs incurred best describes
A
Affinity clustering
B
Value chain analysis
C
Resource availability
D
Business process reengineering
E
Technical difficulty
12
Question: A ____ path includes all tasks that are vital to the project schedule.
A
Vital
B
Baseline
C
Critical
D
Foundational
13
Question: Referencing enterprise solutions, the difference between the modules and traditional approaches is that the modules are integrated to focus on the business functional areas, rather than on business processes.
A
True
B
False
14
Question: The document sent to vendors asking them to propose hardware and software that will meet the requirements of your new system is called a
A
Requirements statement
B
Systems service request
C
Baseline Project Plan
D
Business case
E
Request for proposal (RFP)
15
Question: The first step in creating a WBS is to ____.
A
Mark all recognizable events
B
Determine ...
1 pageApaSourcesDiscuss how an organization’s marketing i.docxmercysuttle
1 page
Apa
Sources:
Discuss how an organization’s marketing information skills and resources contribute to its distinctive capabilities
Refereence
Cravens, D., & Piercy, N. (2013). Strategic marketing (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1 page
A
pa
S
ources:
Discuss how an organization’s marketing information skills and resources contribute to its distinctive
capabilitie
s
Refereence
Cravens, D., & Piercy, N. (2013). Strategic marketing (10th ed.). New York: McGraw
-
Hill
.
...
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BIOETHICS METHODS IN THE ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND SOCIALIMPLICATI.docxAASTHA76
BIOETHICS METHODS IN THE ETHICAL, LEGAL, AND SOCIAL
IMPLICATIONS OF THE HUMAN GENOME PROJECT LITERATURE
REBECCA L. WALKER AND CLAIR MORRISSEY
Keywords
bioethics methods,
ELSI,
human genome,
ethics
ABSTRACT
While bioethics as a field has concerned itself with methodological issues
since the early years, there has been no systematic examination of how
ethics is incorporated into research on the Ethical, Legal and Social Impli-
cations (ELSI) of the Human Genome Project. Yet ELSI research may bear
a particular burden of investigating and substantiating its methods given
public funding, an explicitly cross-disciplinary approach, and the perceived
significance of adequate responsiveness to advances in genomics. We
undertook a qualitative content analysis of a sample of ELSI publications
appearing between 2003 and 2008 with the aim of better understanding the
methods, aims, and approaches to ethics that ELSI researchers employ.
We found that the aims of ethics within ELSI are largely prescriptive and
address multiple groups. We also found that the bioethics methods used in
the ELSI literature are both diverse between publications and multiple
within publications, but are usually not themselves discussed or employed
as suggested by bioethics method proponents. Ethics in ELSI is also
sometimes undistinguished from related inquiries (such as social, legal, or
political investigations).
INTRODUCTION
Bioethics as a field or area of inquiry has concerned itself
with methodological issues since the early years.1 This has
led to the development of a rich literature on bioethics
methods as diverse as feminist,2 narrative,3 principles-
based4 and casuistry.5 Enrichment added through histori-
cal, legal, sociological, and many other disciplinary
perspectives has created a multi-disciplinary arena of
bioethics methods scholarship.6 Consideration of ethics
methods has a long history within philosophical ethics.
For example, Henry Sidgwick introduces his Methods of
Ethics by writing, ‘a “Method of Ethics” is explained to
mean any rational procedure by which we determine what
individual human beings “ought” – or what is “right” for
1 B. Steinbock. 2007. Introduction. In The Oxford Handbook of Bioeth-
ics. B. Steinbeck, ed. New York, NY: Oxford University Press: 1–14;
C.M. Spicer. 1995. Introduction. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1995; 5(3): 7–9.
2 L.M. Purdy. 1996. Good Bioethics Must be Feminist Bioethics. In
Philosophical Perspectives on Bioethics. L.W. Sumner & J. Boyle, eds.
Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press: 143–162; S.M. Wolf. 1996.
Feminism and Bioethics: Beyond Reproduction. New York, NY: Oxford
University Press; M.O. Little. 1996. Why a Feminist Approach to
Bioethics? Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1996; 6(1): 1–18; A.L. Carse & H.L.
Nelson. Rehabilitating Care. Kennedy Inst Ethics J 1996; 6(1): 19–35.
3 H.L. Nelson. 1997. Stories and Their Limits: Narrative Approaches to
Bioethics. New York: Routledge; R. Charon & M. Montello. 2002.
Stories Matter: The Rol ...
PAGE 52What is Action ResearchViaA review of the Literat.docxgerardkortney
PAGE
52What is Action Research?
Via
A review of the Literature
A Dissertation Extract
By
Dr. George SlentzIf you choose to use this document as part of your research, use the following reference notation:Slentz, G.M. (2003). A collaborative action research approach to developing
statewide information standards supporting the Delaware education
network.
CHAPTER II
Literature Review
Inclusion Criteria
After determining the focus of this dissertation, several Wilmington College faculty members including academic advisors offered suggestions of relevant literature references. In addition to those recommendations, two annotated AR bibliographies by Dick (2002a & 2002b) provided a wealth of relevant material to review.
The Internet served as both an independent resource as well as a method to access EBSCOhost an electronic search engine which accesses numerous academic databases, such as Academic Search Premier, Masterfile, and Business Source Elite. Only articles that offered text availability through EBSCOhost were reviewed. Most Internet searches were conducted using www.Google.com an excellent, in depth publicly available search engine. In utilizing either EBSCOhost or Google, various combinations of search words were used. For example, one search would consist of “research and action” and the second “action research.” Since most search engines used, search, based on word sequence, interchanging the searching sequence of the words was essential. The searches centered in two specific topic areas: action research methodologies and information technology standards.
The Wilmington College Library provided some additional resources dealing with “research” and “researching techniques,” as well completed Wilmington College dissertations.
Overview of Action Research Literature
Action research literature was reviewed first, including definitions, methodologies, origins, and evolution. An in depth examination of AR literature revealed there was no universal AR methodology, but rather a confusing conglomeration of methodologies all alleged to be AR. In some instances, the differences were subtle, such as who identified the research setting, the researcher, or the client (Schein, 2001). In other more diverse examples, conflicting paradigms, epistemologies, and methodologies emerged (Heron & Reason, 1997). Swepson (1998) said, “I found some of the literature on the practice of action research to be contradictory and this left me confused about how to practice it” (p.2). Comments such as this one helped this researcher appreciate that other researchers were equally confused. The context of an AR study may appear disparate to different researchers. This lack of clarity and definition was quite common in AR literature, and these discrepancies often hindered understanding and comprehension of AR processes.
A variety of reasons for the shortcomings in AR discipline were identified: a lack of integration in the literature, de.
Page 291LEARNING OBJECTIVES· Discuss the issues created by.docxkarlhennesey
Page 291
LEARNING OBJECTIVES
· Discuss the issues created by generalizing research results to other populations, including potential problems using college students as research participants.
· Discuss issues to consider regarding generalization of research results to other cultures and ethnic groups.
· Describe the potential problem of generalizing to other experimenters and suggest possible solutions.
· Discuss the importance of replications, distinguishing between exact replications and conceptual replications.
· Distinguish between narrative literature reviews and meta-analyses.
Page 292IN THIS CHAPTER, WE WILL CONSIDER THE ISSUE OF GENERALIZATION OF RESEARCH FINDINGS. When a single study is conducted with a particular sample and procedure, can the results then be generalized to other populations of research participants, or to other ways of manipulating or measuring the variables? Recall from Chapter 4 that internal validity refers to the ability to infer that there is a causal relationship between variables. External validity is the extent to which findings may be generalized.
GENERALIZING TO OTHER POPULATIONS
Even though a researcher may randomly assign participants to experimental conditions, rarely are participants randomly selected from the general population. As we noted in Chapters 7 and 9, the individuals who participate in psychological research are usually selected because they are available, and the most available population consists of college students—or more specifically, first- and second-year students enrolled in the introductory psychology course to satisfy a general education requirement. They may also be from a particular college or university, may be volunteers, or may be mostly males or mostly females. So, are our research findings limited to these types of subjects, or can we generalize our findings to a more general population? After considering these issues, we will examine the larger issue of culture and how research findings can be generalized to different cultural groups.
College Students
Smart (1966) found that college students were studied in over 70% of the articles published between 1962 and 1964 in the Journal of Experimental Psychology and the Journal of Abnormal and Social Psychology. Sears (1986) reported similar percentages in 1980 and 1985 in a variety of social psychology journals; Arnett (2008) found that 67% of the articles in the 2007 volume of the Journal of Personality and Social Psychology used college student samples. The potential problem is that such studies use a highly restricted population. Sears points out that most of the students are first-year students and sophomores taking the introductory psychology class. They therefore tend to be young and to possess the characteristics of emerging adults: a sense of self-identity that is still developing, social and political attitudes that are in a state of flux, a high need for peer approval, and unstable peer relationships. They are intelligent ...
For my final project I am choosing the environmental influences on.docxrhetttrevannion
For my final project I am choosing the environmental influences on personality particularly about childhood experiences and their effect on an individual’s personalities. I am contrasting childhood experiences that are caused by their environment to the effect on their personality, I will use the correlation research method. A questionnaire will be used in order to obtain the information I would need. This method would admit me to have a larger sample base, have a better image of the relationship, and numerous variables providing for better research circumstances down the road. The disadvantage to this technique would be, I would not have a personal relationship from those apart of the study and this could cause a lack of dishonesty. Second, establishing a questionnaire that was both dependable and accurate could be an issue. Lastly, I would only get a view at what those in the group went through.
Ethically, I would run into a problem of confidentiality and making sure all of the questionnaires were kept secret and those taking them were offered secrecy. Anyone who take part in the activity would be able to eliminate themselves from the research if they wanted to and if they left the documents it would be destroyed. I would maintain their best interest and would be real and honest with them regarding what the study is being used for and why it was being done. Still, because there isn’t a personal relationship but just general on this could be difficult to prove and cause doubt and that could be an ethical crisis.
References:
APA Ethical Principles of Psychologists and Code of Conduct (2017) (PDF, 272KB)
APA Manual (Publication manual of the American Psychological Association). (2010). Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Cervone, D. (2019). Personality theory and research (14th ed.). Danvers, MA: John Wiley &sons.
1
PSY 216 LITERATURE REVIEW TEMPLATE 7
PSY 216 Literature Review Template
Student Name
Institution Affiliation
Course Number and Name
Submission Date
Article One
What is the title of the article? Provide a citation for the article in APA format.
Birth Order Effects on Personality and Various Achievement within Families.
Paulhus, D.L., Trapnell, P.D.,& Chen, D. (1999). Birth Order Effects on Personality and various Achievement within Families. Psychology Science, 10(6), 482-488.
What is the purpose of the article, and how does the purpose relate to personality development?
The main objective of this research article is generally to investigate on the effect of character and diverse achievements that occur due to confinement order.
What is the hypothesis of the study? In other words, what claims do the authors make in the article?
Throughout the literature review reading, it is clear that firstborn mostly stayed nominated as attaining and contentious. Concurrent, most children, born later, were profoundly stated to be most insubordinate and courteous.
What variables (factors) are being looked .
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and
epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on
and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
Researcher Positionality - A Consideration of Its Influence and
Place in Qualitative Research - A New Researcher Guide.
Masters and PhD student researchers in the social sciences are often required to explore and
explain their positionality, as, in the social world, it is recognized that their ontological and epistemological beliefs influence their research. Yet novice researchers often struggle with identifying their positionality. This paper explores researcher positionality and its influence on and place in the research process. Its purpose is to help new postgraduate researchers better understand positionality so that they may incorporate a reflexive approach to their research and start to clarify their positionality.
(Discussion 1)Describe a social theory that was discussed in the Socia.docxchristina345678
(Discussion 1)
Describe a social theory that was discussed in the “Social Relationships and Health” journal article and indicate how it was used to support the research.
From my understanding of the journal for this week, the social theory was how some ones health can be effected with or with out social relations. From the research it touches on how a person or people can be happy and also live longer with better health, when practicing social relationships. The article discuss how the theory of social relationships can make people stringer and healthier. It was used to support the research because the researchers conducted studies not only on humans but animals as well to prove this theory.
Choose one of the quantitative research results presented in the article; describe the evidence presented and indicate which variables of the experiment were highlighted.
The quantitative research results that I choose from the article was when the researchers were discovering that social relationships can cause a risk factors of mortality, and probably morbidity, from a wide range of diseases. From the readings the researchers shown that they used criteria include strength and consistencies of statistical association across a wide range of studies an cause and effect with animals and humans. An experiment of behavior pattern as an risk factor for (type A) heart disease. 1964 Surgeon general had evidence that social relationship and health increased that cigarette smoking was a cause or risk factor for mortality a range of disease. These factors are important because the researchers seen that there is less association of social relationships when it comes to smoking, because smoking is also linked to cancer.
Determine the article’s conclusion in regards to social relationships in society. Based on the accompanying media piece “Why Facebook Could Be Good for Your Health Links to an external site.,” how could modern social media sites support the research findings in the journal article?
Although social relationships as independent, overruling, and moderating variables affecting stress, health, or the relationships between them have been widely studied over the past decade, almost no attention has been paid to social relationships as dependent variables ( House, Landis & Umberson, 1988). I believe that modern social media sites support the claims that social variables determine both health and the nature of social relationships, both link social relationship to health. Modern social media is where you can give updates on thoughts and at one point it was some where you can express freedom of speech.
The course text reading discussed how research can also use the transformative paradigm in social theory to impact social change. How does it do this and what types of societal populations can the transformative paradigm specifically impact?
The researcher's role and the selection of particular paradigmatic perspectives are affected by the interse.
1 Question Information refinement means taking the system requi.docxmercysuttle
1
Question: Information refinement means taking the system requirements you find during requirements determination and ordering them into tables, diagrams, and other formats that make them easier to translate into technical system specifications.
A
True
B
False
2
Question: Agile Methodologies focus on the roles that people perform.
A
True
B
False
3
Question: In the ____, like that shown in the accompanying figure, the result of each phase, which is called a deliverable or end product, flows sequentially into the next phase in the SDLC.
A
Interactive model
B
Requirements model
C
Waterfall model
D
Object model
4
Question: The goal of operational feasibility is to understand the degree to which a proposed system will likely solve the business problems or take advantage of opportunities.
A
True
B
False
5
Question: Which of the following focuses on the frequent production of working versions of a system that have a subset of the total number of required features?
A
Use-case modeling
B
Limited production
C
Structured analysis
D
Structured programming
E
Iterative development
6
Question: Component focusing allows the systems analyst to break a system into small, manageable, and understandable subsystems.
A
True
B
False
7
Question: Greater user involvement in the system development process usually results in ____.
A
Poorer communication
B
More satisfied users
C
Slower development times
D
Both b and c
8
Question: Agile approaches work best when the system being developed operates in a stable environment.
A
True
B
False
9
Question: Dependence of one part of the system on one or more other system parts best describes
A
Interrelated components
B
Component
C
Dependency
D
Cohesion
E
Boundary
10
Question: A systems development technique is the series of steps used to mark the phases of development for an information system.
A
True
B
False
11
Question: Analyzing an organization's activities to determine where value is added to products and/or services and the costs incurred best describes
A
Affinity clustering
B
Value chain analysis
C
Resource availability
D
Business process reengineering
E
Technical difficulty
12
Question: A ____ path includes all tasks that are vital to the project schedule.
A
Vital
B
Baseline
C
Critical
D
Foundational
13
Question: Referencing enterprise solutions, the difference between the modules and traditional approaches is that the modules are integrated to focus on the business functional areas, rather than on business processes.
A
True
B
False
14
Question: The document sent to vendors asking them to propose hardware and software that will meet the requirements of your new system is called a
A
Requirements statement
B
Systems service request
C
Baseline Project Plan
D
Business case
E
Request for proposal (RFP)
15
Question: The first step in creating a WBS is to ____.
A
Mark all recognizable events
B
Determine ...
1 pageApaSourcesDiscuss how an organization’s marketing i.docxmercysuttle
1 page
Apa
Sources:
Discuss how an organization’s marketing information skills and resources contribute to its distinctive capabilities
Refereence
Cravens, D., & Piercy, N. (2013). Strategic marketing (10th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill.
1 page
A
pa
S
ources:
Discuss how an organization’s marketing information skills and resources contribute to its distinctive
capabilitie
s
Refereence
Cravens, D., & Piercy, N. (2013). Strategic marketing (10th ed.). New York: McGraw
-
Hill
.
...
1
R1
20
V1
1Vac
0Vdc R2
100
V
C1
3m
ECE2280 Homework #1
1. (a) Find 𝑉!/𝑉!
(b) Find the Thevenin equivalent between terminals a-b.
Assume that Vg is the input signal. Find the Thevenin equivalent between terminals a-b.
2. Use the solution from Problem 1.
(a)If Vg=2V DC, what is the output at Vo?
(b)If Vg=5V DC, what is the output at Vo?
(c)If Vg=sin(10t), what is the output at Vo? Make a rough sketch of Vo and Vg.
(d) Note that this is an amplifier – the output is linearly related to the input by a gain value. Mathematically, this is
expressed as:
𝑉𝑜𝑢𝑡
𝑉𝑖𝑛
= (𝑔𝑎𝑖𝑛)
For this circuit, what variable is Vout and Vin. What is the numerical gain value?
3. Sketch the following waveforms. Identify the dc component of the waveform and the ac component of the
waveform.
a. Vs=10cos(2πt)
b. Vs=3V+3cos(3t)
c. Vs=5V±0.5V
4. Explain in your own words the procedural steps for plotting Bode Plots. (Note: I would prepare this question for use
during an exam)
Use the following figure for Problems 5-10:
5. Derive the transfer function 𝐻 𝑠 =
!!
!!
by hand.
6 and 7. Use Multisim to draw the circuit and print it out.
8. Simulate the circuit in Mulitsim to obtain the Bode Plots for the circuit.
9. Use MATLAB and the result of the hand derivation to obtain the Bode Plots.
10. Sketch the straight-line approximation of the magnitude Bode plot on the same graph as that printed out in Problem 9.
Note that Multisim plots the results over frequency and the derived transfer function uses 𝜔.
+ _
10Ω
8v1
+
_
a
b
2v2
40Ω
+
v1
-
5Ω 40Ω
20Ω
6Ω
10Ω _
v2
+
Sales and Disposal of Assets
After reviewing the scenario, explain the impact that the adjusted basis has on the calculation of tax liability, and propose at least two (2) tax-planning strategies for reducing, eliminating, or deferring the payment of capital gains taxes. Also, discuss other alternatives aimed at optimizing deductions or reducing taxes, such as selling the property to an unrelated third party which, in turn, allows losses to be deductible expenses.
Imagine that you are a tax consultant and a client needs your advice on how to reduce his tax liability on the sale of depreciable assets that have not been fully depreciated. The client has identified three (3) long-term depreciable assets and assumes that he will be able to pay capital gains taxes on the profit from their sale. It would be to your client’s advantage to treat a taxable gain as long-term capital gain to which lower rates apply and a loss is categorized as an ordinary loss, which can offset ordinary loss, which can offset ordinary income. Discuss the treatment of gains and losses for Section 1231 and Section 1245 of the Internal Revenue Code, and recommend at least three (3) tax-planning strategies that would assist the client in reducing his tax liability. Provide support for you
1
PSYC 499: Senior Capstone
The Impact of the Social on the Individual
Class Syllabus
Spring/2020
Class Cycle: Monday - Sunday
Instructor: Tara West
Contact Information: [email protected]
Office Hours: Mondays, 2pm – 3pm (or by appointment)
NOTE: When emailing, please include your name and class in the subject line
Course Materials:
• Lesko, W.A. (2012). Readings in social psychology: General, classic, and contemporary
selections (8th ed.). New York, NY: Pearson. ISBN: 978-0-205-17967. (Required)
• American Psychological Association (2019). Concise Rules of APA Style (7th ed.).
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association. ISBN: 978-1433832178.
(Recommended)
Type of Course: Required
Field of Study: Psychology
Credits: 3 credits, undergraduate
Pre-requisites:
Completion of all required courses (Level 2 and Level 3) and permission.
Course Description:
All students will complete a senior research project under the direction of a faculty mentor, with a
topic within the track in which the student has completed at least three courses. This capstone
project will build upon work done in previous courses, allowing students to apply methods of
scholarly and/or action research to specific psychological issues. Projects may be completed in
small research groups or individually.
Course Summary:
This capstone project will build upon work completed in previous courses, allowing students to
apply methods of scholarly and/or action research to the field of Social Psychology, specifically the
impact of the social world on individuals.
Course Goals:
The objectives for this course include: gaining a theoretical knowledge base about the interplay
between individuals and their environments, gaining first-hand experience with the many steps
involved with research, the interpretation of research, and the presentation of research, using APA
formatting. Likewise, you will increase your familiarity with reading (and finding) primary sources.
Although only a few of you may pursue careers as researchers, all of you are consumers of research.
As such, a major goal for this course is to develop your capacity to critically think about, evaluate,
and critique the scientific evidence that is often presented in journal articles, newspapers,
magazines, and on television.
2
Learning Objectives/ Outcomes:
o Students should be able to:
• Conduct a review of research in a specific area of Psychology.
• Understand the strengths and weaknesses of scientific research.
• Interpret and generalize appropriately from research results.
• Evaluate the appropriateness of conclusions derived from psychological research.
• Use the concepts, language, and major theories of the discipline to account for
psychological phenomena in the context of social psychology.
• Use reasoning to recognize, develop, defend, and criticize arguments.
• Articulate how psycholo ...
1 Politicking is less likely in organizations that have· adecl.docxmercysuttle
1 Politicking is less likely in organizations that have
·
adeclining resources
·
high role ambiguity
·
clear performance appraisal systems
·
democratic decision making
2 In convergent periods, the role of executive management is to
·
develop new strategies for the problems at hand
·
shift middle managers to promote new views
·
reemphasize the mission and core values
·
challenge middle managers to reinvent their departments
3 Periods of convergence are those in which an organization
·
is in turmoil
·
seeks to improve its situation with relatively minor changes
·
must downsize to conserve resources
·
employs new strategies to advance the organization
4 Transformational change in an organization
·
is always necessary to some degree
·
is best delivered by a top-down plan
·
has no defined formula
·
is best delivered by a bottom-up plan
5 A person likely to participate in political behavior
·
believes he or she has little influence
·
has a desire for power
·
is a social nonconformist
·
is insensitive to social cues
6 To keep a strategy in focus, effective managers employ
·
rigid implementation
·
piecemeal implementation
·
simple goals
·
central themes
7 An influence tactic that relies on rank and enforcement of group goals is
·
legitimacy
·
coalitions
·
pressure
·
personal appeals
8 During organizational change, employee–management interfaces such as workshops and retreats
·
initiate
·
distract the participants from the real issues
·
help employees overcome downsizing issues
·
solve communication problems relatively short-term periods of high-energy action
9 Buck passing and scapegoating when politics is seen as a threat are forms of
·
defensive behaviors
·
offensive behaviors
·
suppression
·
aggression
10 A primary goal of politics in the workplace is to
·
exclude undesirable peers
·
form alliances
·
promote organizational goals
·
secure limited resources
11 Political behavior in the workplace
·
works only in an upward or lateral influence direction
·
attempts to influence decision making
·
is unlikely in a well-run organization
·
works only in a lateral influence direction
12 Impression management sends _____ messages that may be _____ under other circumstances.
·
false, true
·
ethical, unethical
·
true, false
·
convincing, unconvincing
13 The formulation and implementation of a strategy
·
are separate and sequential processes
·
must be completely defined before action is taken
·
are ongoing events within an organization
·
follow strict, unalterable guidelines
14 Surveys of seasoned managers reveal they believe politics in the workplace is
·
always unethical
·
part of some job requirements
·
a major part of organizational life
·
ineffective
15 With downward influence, power tactics preferred by U.S. managers include
·
personal appeals
·
inspirational appeals
·
coalitions
·
influence
16 Hard power tactics best influence those with which following characteristic?
·
High se ...
1 page2 sourcesReflect on the important performance management.docxmercysuttle
1 page
2 sources
Reflect on the important performance management theories and practices covered during the past six weeks. Describe one key point that you will apply to the work environment immediately. Highlight the specific course learning outcome(s) that relate(s) to this important takeaway. Also, mention the specific reading materials and/or theories that you found to be most applicable.
Required Text
Pulakos, E.D. (2009). Performance management: A new approach for driving business results. (1st ed.). West Sussex, United Kingdom: Wiley-Blackwell. ISBN: 9781405177610.
Chapter 9: Conclusion
Required References
de Leeuw, S., van den Berg, P (2011). Improving operational performance by influencing shopfloor behavior via performance management practices. Journal of Operations Management, 29, 3, 224-233. (Retrieved from http://www.isihome.ir/freearticle/ISIHome.ir-21006.pdf)
Fulmer, R.M., Stumpf, S.A. & Bleak, J. (2009). The strategic development of high potential leaders. Strategy & Leadership, 37(3), 17-22. (Retrieved from ProQuest).
Recommended References
Turnbull, H., Greenwood, R., Tworoger, L., & Golden, C. (2009). Diversity and inclusion in organizations: Developing an instrument for identification of skill deficiencies. Allied Academies International Conference. Academy of Organizational Culture, Communications and Conflict. Proceedings, 14(1), 28-33(Retrieved from ProQuest).
PLEASE HAVE THESE PARAGRAPH REWORDED IN YOUR OWN WORDS.
PLEASE DO NOT USE THE SAME WORDS AS IN THE PARAGRAPH.
· 1-According to chapter 8, a team is small number of people with similar skills who are committed to one ambition, performance goals, and pursuit for which they hold themselves accountable. In the other hand, a group is two or more people freely interacting who share norms and goals and have a common identity. The size of a group is limited by the potential for mutual interaction and mutual awareness. I was part of team during my military service, which I agree with the chapter that a team is more than just a group, because all my team members worked together towards a common goal and we all share responsibility for the team's success. The team I was part of was a 'fire team' that is a small military subunit of infantry designed to optimize bounding over watch, and fire and movement tactical within a hostile urban environment
·
· 2-At work, I am currently assigned to a group of customer service. This group or department consists of 12 employees, which all members have a shared knowledge of the group's objectives, but specific responsibilities are assigned to each of us. The purpose or objectives of our group is to troubleshoot technical problems, provide excellent customer support service, and address solutions to customers. The main factor of our group success is due to the manager in control of the group who also coordinate our individuals efforts. I would not change anything in my group, but I would add weekly meetings to see the end result ...
1 of 402.5 PointsUse Cramer’s Rule to solve the following syst.docxmercysuttle
1 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following system.
x + 2y = 3
3x - 4y = 4
A. {(3, 1/5)}
B. {(5, 1/3)}
C. {(1, 1/2)}
D. {(2, 1/2)}
2 of 40
2.5 Points
Solve the following system of equations using matrices. Use Gaussian elimination with back substitution or Gauss-Jordan elimination.
x + y - z = -2
2x - y + z = 5
-x + 2y + 2z = 1
A. {(0, -1, -2)}
B. {(2, 0, 2)}
C. {(1, -1, 2)}
D. {(4, -1, 3)}
3 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following system.
2x = 3y + 2
5x = 51 - 4y
A. {(8, 2)}
B. {(3, -4)}
C. {(2, 5)}
D. {(7, 4)}
4 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following system.
4x - 5y = 17
2x + 3y = 3
A. {(3, -1)}
B. {(2, -1)}
C. {(3, -7)}
D. {(2, 0)}
5 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following system.
4x - 5y - 6z = -1
x - 2y - 5z = -12
2x - y = 7
A. {(2, -3, 4)}
B. {(5, -7, 4)}
C. {(3, -3, 3)}
D. {(1, -3, 5)}
6 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following system.
3x - 4y = 4
2x + 2y = 12
A. {(3, 1)}
B. {(4, 2)}
C. {(5, 1)}
D. {(2, 1)}
Reset Selection
7 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following system.
x + y + z = 0
2x - y + z = -1
-x + 3y - z = -8
A. {(-1, -3, 7)}
B. {(-6, -2, 4)}
C. {(-5, -2, 7)}
D. {(-4, -1, 7)}
8 of 40
2.5 Points
Solve the following system of equations using matrices. Use Gaussian elimination with back substitution or Gauss-Jordan elimination.
3x1 + 5x2 - 8x3 + 5x4 = -8
x1 + 2x2 - 3x3 + x4 = -7
2x1 + 3x2 - 7x3 + 3x4 = -11
4x1 + 8x2 - 10x3+ 7x4 = -10
A. {(1, -5, 3, 4)}
B. {(2, -1, 3, 5)}
C. {(1, 2, 3, 3)}
D. {(2, -2, 3, 4)}
9 of 40
2.5 Points
Solve the following system of equations using matrices. Use Gaussian elimination with back substitution or Gauss-Jordan elimination.
x + y + z = 4
x - y - z = 0
x - y + z = 2
A. {(3, 1, 0)}
B. {(2, 1, 1)}
C. {(4, 2, 1)}
D. {(2, 1, 0)}
10 of 40
2.5 Points
Solve the system using the inverse that is given for the coefficient matrix.
2x + 6y + 6z = 8
2x + 7y + 6z =10
2x + 7y + 7z = 9
The inverse of:
2
2
2
6
7
7
6
6
7
is
7/2
-1
0
0
1
-1
-3
0
1
A. {(1, 2, -1)}
B. {(2, 1, -1)}
C. {(1, 2, 0)}
D. {(1, 3, -1)}
Reset Selection
11 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Gaussian elimination to find the complete solution to the following system of equations, or show that none exists.
2w + x - y = 3
w - 3x + 2y = -4
3w + x - 3y + z = 1
w + 2x - 4y - z = -2
A. {(1, 3, 2, 1)}
B. {(1, 4, 3, -1)}
C. {(1, 5, 1, 1)}
D. {(-1, 2, -2, 1)}
12 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Cramer’s Rule to solve the following system.
x + y = 7
x - y = 3
A. {(7, 2)}
B. {(8, -2)}
C. {(5, 2)}
D. {(9, 3)}
13 of 40
2.5 Points
Use Gaussian elimination to find the complete solution to each system.
x1 + 4x2 + 3x3 - 6x4 = 5
x1 + 3x2 + x3 - 4x4 = 3
2x1 + 8x2 + 7x3 - 5x4 = 11
2x1 + 5x2 - 6x4 = 4
A. {(-47t + 4, 12t, 7t + 1, t)}
B. {(-37t + 2, 16t, -7t + 1, t)}
...
1 of 6 LAB 5 IMAGE FILTERING ECE180 Introduction to.docxmercysuttle
1 of 6
LAB 5: IMAGE FILTERING
ECE180: Introduction to Signal Processing
OVERVIEW
You have recently learned about the convolution sum that serves as the basis of the FIR filter difference equation. The filter
coefficient sequence {𝑏𝑘} – equivalent to the filter’s impulse response ℎ[𝑛] – may be viewed as a one-dimensional moving
window that slides over the input signal 𝑥[𝑛] to compute the output signal 𝑦[𝑛] at each time step. Extending the moving
window concept to a 2-D array that slides over an image pixel array provides a useful and popular way to filter an image.
In this lab project you will implement two types of moving-window image filters, one based on convolution and the other
based on the median value of the pixel grayscale values spanned by the window. You will also gain experience with the
built-in image convolution filter imfilter.
OUTLINE
1. Develop and test a 33 median filter
2. Develop and test a 33 convolution filter
3. Evaluate the median and convolution filters to reduce noise while preserving edges
4. Study the behavior of various 33 convolution filter kernels for smoothing, edge detection, and sharpening
5. Learn how to use imfilter to convolution-filter color images, and study the various mechanisms offered by
imfilter to deal with boundary effects
PREPARATION – TO BE COMPLETED BEFORE LAB
Study these tutorial videos:
1. Nested “for” loops -- http://youtu.be/q2xfz8mOuSI?t=1m8s (review this part)
2. Functions -- http://youtu.be/0zTmMIh6I8A (review as needed)
Ensure that you have added the ECE180 DFS folders to your MATLAB path, especially the “images” and “matlab” subfolders.
Follow along with the tutorial video http://youtu.be/MEqUd0dJNBA, if necessary.
LAB ACTIVITIES
1. Develop and test a 33 median filter function:
1.1. Implement the following algorithm as the function med3x3:
TIP: First implement and debug the algorithm as a script and then convert it to a function as a final step. Use any
of the smaller grayscale images from the ECE180 “images” folder as you develop the function, or use the test
image X described in the Step 1.2.
(a) Create the function template and save it to an .m file with the same name as the function,
(b) Accept a grayscale image x as the function input,
http://youtu.be/q2xfz8mOuSI?t=1m8s
http://youtu.be/0zTmMIh6I8A
http://youtu.be/MEqUd0dJNBA
2 of 6
(c) Copy x to the output image y and then initialize y(:) to zero; this technique creates y as the same size and
data type as x,
(d) Determine the number of image rows and columns (see size),
(e) Loop over all pixels in image x (subject to boundary limits):
Extract a 33 neighborhood (subarray) about the current pixel,
Flatten the 2-D array to a 1-D array,
Sort the 1-D array values (see sort),
Assign the middle value of the sorted array to the current output pixel, and
(f) Return the median-filtered image y.
1.2. Enter load lab_5_verify to load the
1 Objectives Genetically transform bacteria with for.docxmercysuttle
1
Objectives
Genetically transform bacteria with
foreign DNA and induce
expression of genes encoded on
DNA to produce novel
Isolate chromosomal DNA from
Introduction
In this portion of the lab, you will perform a
procedure known as genetic
transformation. that a gene is
a piece of DNA that provides the
instructions for making (codes for) a
protein. This gives an organism a
particular trait. Genetic transformation
literally means change caused by genes,
involves the insertion of a gene into an
organism in order to change the organism’s
trait. transformation is used in
many areas of biotechnology. In
agriculture, genes coding for traits such as
pest, or spoilage resistance can be
genetically transformed into plants. In
bioremediation, bacteria can genetically
transformed with genes enabling them to
digest oil spills. In medicine, diseases
caused defective genes are beginning
to be treated by gene therapy; that is, by
genetically transforming a person’s
cells with healthy copies of the defective
gene that causes the
You will use a procedure to transform
bacteria with a gene that codes for Green
Fluorescent (GFP). The real-life
source of this gene is the bioluminescent
jellyfish Aequorea victoria.
Fluorescent Protein causes the jellyfish to
fluoresce and glow in the dark.
LAB TOPIC 10: Nucleic Acids and Genetic Transformation
Following the procedure,
the bacteria express their newly acquired
jellyfish gene and produce the fluorescent
which causes them to glow a
brilliant green color under ultraviolet
In this activity, you will learn about the
process of moving genes from one organism
to another with aid of a plasmid. In
nature, bacteria can transfer plasmids back
and forth allowing them to share
beneficial genes. This natural mechanism
allows bacteria to adapt to new
environments. The occurrence of
bacterial resistance to is due to
the transmission of
Genetic transformation involves
insertion of some new DNA into the E.
cells. In addition to one large
bacteria often contain one or more
circular pieces of DNA called
Plasmid DNA usually contains genes for
than one trait. Scientists can use a
called genetic engineering to insert
coding for new traits into a plasmid.
In case, the pGLO plasmid carries the
GFP that codes for the green
fluorescent protein and a gene (bla) that
codes for a protein that gives the
resistance to an antibiotic. The genetically
engineered plasmid can then be used to
genetically bacteria to give them
this new
Figure 10.1 Bacterial cell undergoing genetic transformation with the pGLO
plasmid
Exercise 10.1
Bacterial Transformation
2
Pre-lab exercises:
Since scientific laboratory investigations
are designed to get information about a
question, our first might be to
formulate some questions for this
Can we genetically transform an organism?
Which organism is
1. To genetically tra ...
1 of 8
Student name: …………….
Student ID: …………….
The Effect of Social Media on the English Language
2 of 8
Table Of Content:
Abstract 3
Introduction 3
Literature review 3
Significance of Research 4
Research Question 4
Methodology 4
Ethical Considerations 4
Limitations of the study 4
Expected results 5
Conclusion 5
References 6
Appendix 7
3 of 8
Abstract:
Giving the popularity of social networking sites lately, it has made an effect on the English
language either in a positive way by adding new words to the dictionary a negative way by misus-
ing the grammar and using incorrect abbreviated words like turning “you’re” to “your’. In this re-
search proposal I would like to investigate what the effect of using social networks has on the Eng-
lish language and see if it was more positive than negative and vice versa. I will be making a survey
page to collect data on the way people use these sites. Furthermore, we will see if people know the
importance of using proper English and try to make social networking sites improve our way of us-
ing the English language.
Introduction:
Technology has changed rapidly in the past five years, we became more reliant on our smart phones
and it completely changed the way we communicate with each other in our everyday life, it made it
easier for us to interact with people across the world with a single touch through social networking
sites, such as Twitter, Facebook and YouTube. Technology is clearly having some impact on the
English language and the words we use. Recently we saw how some Internet words have made it to
the Oxford dictionary this proves the impact it made, for example the word “Tweet” which means
according to the dictionary: “a posting made on the social networking service Twitter”. However,
some people think that it is okay to misuse Grammar or word spelling on social networking sites,
for instance, using “your” instead of “You’re”. So do these sites make a positive or a negative im-
pact on the English language?
Literature review:
A research titled “5 Ways That Social Media Benefits Writing the English language” written by
Mallary Jean Tenore in 2013 mentioned some ways that social media benefits writing and language,
such as how it increases the awareness of mistakes, when people make grammatical or spelling mis-
takes people will point them out via these websites therefore we become more aware of our spelling
and grammar thus improving our language. She also talked about how it creates new words and
meaning, such as “googled”, “tweeted”, “Friended”. She said that it also spotlight short writings
meaning it valued short storytelling with Vine videos where you have just six seconds to give a
message and in twitter you only have 140 characters to use which forces you to make every word
count.
4 of 8
Another research called Social networkin ...
1
MATH 106 QUIZ 4 Due: by 11:59 PM, Sunday, September 22, 2013,
(take-home part) via the Assignment Folder
NAME: _______________________________
I have completed this assignment myself, working independently and not consulting anyone except the
instructor.
INSTRUCTIONS
The take-home part of Quiz 4 is worth 75 points. There are 10 problems (5 pages), some with multiple parts.
This quiz is open book and open notes. This means that you may refer to your textbook, notes, and online
classroom materials, but you must work independently and may not consult anyone (and confirm this with
your submission). You may take as much time as you wish, provided you turn in your quiz no later than
Sunday, September 22, 2013.
Show work/explanation where indicated. Answers without any work may earn little, if any, credit. You
may type or write your work in your copy of the quiz, or if you prefer, create a document containing your work.
Scanned work is acceptable also. In your document, be sure to include your name and the assertion of
independence of work.
General quiz tips and instructions for submitting work are posted in the Quizzes conference.
If you have any questions, please contact me via Private Message in WebTycho.
1. (4 pts) Determine how many six-character codes can be formed if the first, second, third, and
fourth characters are letters, the fifth character is a nonzero digit, the sixth character is an odd
digit, and repetition of letters and digits are allowed. (A digit is 0, 1, 2, .., or 9.) Show your
work . 1. ______
A. 720
B. 175,760
C. 790,920
D. 20,563,920
2. (4 pts) Suppose that a multiple choice exam has seven questions and each question has five
choices. In how many ways can the exam be completed? Show your work. 2. ______
A. 35
B. 4,096
C. 16,807
D. 78,125
2
3. (4 pts) Given the feasible region shown to
the right, find the values of x and y that
minimize the objective function 8x + 7y.
Show your Work. 3. _______
A. There is no minimum.
B. (x, y) = (6, 0)
C. (x, y) = (3, 2)
D. (x, y) = (1, 4)
E. (x, y) = (0, 7)
4. (4 pts) Six customers in a grocery store are lining up at the check-out. In how many different
orders can the customers line up? Show your work. 4. _______
A. 6
B. 36
C. 720
D. 46,656
5. (4 pts) A restaurant’s menu has six appetizers, four entrees, and five beverages. To order dinner, a
customer must choose one entrée and one beverage, and may choose one appetizer. (That is, a dinner
must include one entrée and one beverage, but not necessarily an appetizer. An appetizer is optional.)
How many different dinners can be ordered? Show your work. ...
1 MN6003 Levis Strauss Case Adapted from Does Levi St.docxmercysuttle
1
MN6003 Levis Strauss Case:
Adapted from: “Does Levi Strauss still fit
America?” by Caroline Fairchild October 6, 2014,
Fortune Magazine and “Levi Strauss - The Boss
and the yogi” Jul 12th 2014 from the Economist
It used to be the only name in denim. Today the
161-year-old family owned company is just one
name among hundreds. Can anyone bring the
blue jeans pioneer back to its old glory? Enter
Chip Bergh—a former P&G brand whiz who once
made razorblades cool. Chip Bergh is not an
“apparel guy,” he says, while walking through
Levi’s Stadium in Santa Clara, California, the new
home of the San Francisco 49ers. Levi’s 20-year,
$220 million investment in the naming rights for
the 49ers stadium is part of a larger push to tap
into the nostalgia Bergh believes everyone has
for the brand. Despite the setting, Bergh isn’t
really a “sports guy” either. He is much more of a
company man. “I still bleed Procter & Gamble
blue,” he says about his former employer.
A crowd full of fans wearing your clothing is the
fantasy of anyone heading an apparel company.
But at Levi—the largest jeans company in the
world and the undisputed founder of the
category—the fantasy has been far from reality
for a long time. The creator of the 501 has
struggled to keep its brand relevant for what
Bergh calls Levi’s “Lost Generation.” For 120
years the term “Levi’s” was synonymous with
“blue jeans.” Then came the turn of the 21st
century, when a fashion explosion in denim
suddenly gave shoppers a range of high-end
choices—including brands like 7 For All Mankind
(founded in 2000) and True Religion (2002),
whose labels sounded more like cults than pants.
At the same time, lower-end rivals that had been
kicking around for a while (Lee and Wrangler)
began nibbling away at market share and
consumers defected to cheaper jeans, sold by
“fast-fashion” retailers like Zara and H&M. Levi
got lost in the middle. With $7.1 billion in 1996
sales, the company used to be bigger than Nike.
By 2003, Levi’s revenues had bell-bottomed out
to $4.2 billion. Over the next decade, sales rose
only barely as the company failed to translate
affection for the brand into actual purchases.
Levi’s design team was late to key trends, like
colored denim for women and more tailored jeans
for men. Once in the top quintile of
the Fortune 500, Levi dropped off the list in 2012.
That kind of decline would be a challenge for any
new CEO, yet Bergh, a 57-year-old vegan and
former U.S. Army captain, is bringing a discipline
to the company that had been missing for nearly
20 years. He has taken an axe to the company’s
inflated cost structure and is convinced that he
can make Levi grow again. While still relying
heavily on the classic pieces of clothing that are
the seam of the denim giant’s business (think the
button-fly jean, the white pocket tee, the trucker
jacket), Bergh is now investing i ...
1
NAME__________________
EXAM 1
Directions: Answer the following questions on the attached sheets of paper. Please adhere
to the following guidelines to reduce any suspicions of cheating:
1. KEEP YOUR EYES ON YOUR OWN EXAM AT ALL TIMES.
2. KEEP YOUR ANSWERS COVERED AT ALL TIMES.
3. Do not communicate with any other student during the exam.
4. Do not use any unauthorized prepared material during the exam.
5. Only acceptable calculators may be used on the exams.
6. Do not leave the room at any time before handing in your exam.
7. SHOW ALL OF YOUR WORK (answers may not be accepted without work
shown)
EQUATIONS
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1. A stone is thrown straight up with a speed of 25.0 m/s from the top of a building 55.0 m
tall.
a. How far above the ground will the stone go?
b. How long until the stone hits the ground?
c. What is the speed of the stone just before it hits the ground?
d. If a ball is thrown downward from the top of the same building with a speed of
25.0 m/s, will its speed just before hitting the ground be greater than, less than, or
equal to the speed of the stone just before it hits the ground? Explain. (Hint:
What is the speed of the stone when it returns to the height it was thrown?)
3
2. A ball is thrown from the top of a building of height 40m at an angle of 20˚ above the
horizontal and with an initial speed of 15m/s. Use the assumptions of projectile motion
to answer the following questions.
a. How high above the ground will the ball travel?
b. What speed will the ball have at the maximum height?
c. What is the direction of the velocity of the ball at the maximum height?
d. How far has the ball traveled horizontally when it hits the ground?
e. What will be the speed of the ball when it hits the ground?
4
3. Consider the frictionless system below. The pulley is massless and frictionless, and the
string is massless. The mass of each block is ma = 2.0 kg, mb = 1.0 kg, mc = 2.0 kg, and
md = 1.0 kg.
a. What is the acceleration of the system?
b. What is the tension in the string between block a and block b?
c. What is the tension in the string between block b and block c?
d. What is the tension in the string between block c and block d?
e. If the system is initially at rest, how long will it take block d to fall 3.0 m?
5
4. Two equal mass ...
1
Name: Chem 9, Section:
Lab Partner: Experiment Date:
Synthetic Polymers and Plastics
Part A: Physical Characteristics
Find or choose one type of each of the following plastic polymers, and report the following
characteristics:
Plastic
number
Short Name
(HDPE,
LDPE, etc)
Clear
(yes or no)
Opaque
(yes or no)
Flexibility
(can be
bent?)
Durability
(hard or
soft)
Breakability
(can be
cracked?)
Recyclable
(yes or no)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Part B: Density Tests
Report for plastic samples in each liquid: sinks rapidly, sinks slowly, floats on top, floats below surface
Plastic
number
1:1 ethanol/water
density = 0.94 g/cm
3
Water
density = 1.0 g/cm
3
10% NaCl solution
density = 1.08 g/cm
3
1
2
3
4
5
6
Relative Plastic Densities:
Less than 0.94 g/cm
3
Less than 1.0 g/cm
3
Less than 1.08 g/cm
3
More than 1.08 g/cm
3
Ranking of densities:
(lowest) _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ _______ (highest)
2
Part C: Polymer Bouncy Balls
Polymer Ball composition Approximate height bounced Physical characteristics
Ball #1:
Ball #2
Ball #3
Questions
1. Which of the Big Six plastics was the most flexible?
2. Which of the Big Six plastics would be the best material for each of the following examples?
Use short names to identify each plastic (e.g. HDPE).
a replacement for a glass window ?
a take-out container for food?
a flexible, expandable bag for carrying items?
a lightweight bottle cap?
3. An unknown plastic floats in a 10% NaCl solution but sinks in water. What is the range of
possible density values this plastic may have? Suggest the composition of this plastic.
3
4. Why is it important to dislodge any adhering bubbles in the density tests?
5. PET plastic (number 1) is the most valuable waste plastic at the present time. Suggest a way
to separate it commercially from other waste plastics.
6. Sometimes plastic containers are made from two polymers and not just one. What would
happen to the water density test if HDPE and PVC were mixed?
7. Why are plastic recyclers very concerned about identifying the different polymers and not
mixing them together?
8. The figure below depicts polymerization of polystyrene (PS). Circle the original monomers
and determine how many monomers are present.
4
9. Polyvinylchloride (PVC) is composed of the vinyl chloride monomer. The monomer
structure and general reaction are shown at right.
Draw a polyvinyl chloride polymer composed of five
monomers arrange ...
1 pageapasources2Third Party LogisticsBriefly describe .docxmercysuttle
1 page
apa
sources:2
Third Party Logistics
Briefly describe the basic types of third party logistics (3PL) organizations.
• Identify some of the best practices that leading companies using 3PLs have embraced.
• What value-added considerations would you take into account when considering the use of a 3PL?
• Which 3PL would provide the most suitable service to your organization? (Forwarder and Warehousing are the ones my company use.)
• What 3PLs does your organization currently use? (My company uses a freight forwarder)
What other 3PLs could you recommend to your management? Domestic Transportation.
WAVfiles/behave.wav
WAVfiles/cat_meow_x.wav
WAVfiles/cow3.wav
WAVfiles/goat2.wav
WAVfiles/gold.wav
WAVfiles/imamog.wav
WAVfiles/reach.wav
WAVfiles/README.txt
Title Artist
===== ======
behave Austin Powers
cat_meow_x Kitty
cow3 Miss Cow
goat2 Goaty
gold Snowman
imamog Mog
reach Woody
rudolph Rudolph
theme Archie and Edith
warning_alien Robot
wizoz5 Munchkins
WAVfiles/rudolph.wav
WAVfiles/theme.wav
WAVfiles/warning_alien.wav
WAVfiles/wizoz5.wav
...
1 Pageapasources2Review the Food Environment Atlas maps for.docxmercysuttle
1 Page
apa
sources:2
Review the Food Environment Atlas maps for variables that seem to affect your selected state the most.
Select a state and variables you consider relevant to represent the food environment in you chosen state.
1) Include at least two food categories from the following list:
? ACCESS
? STORES
? RESTAURANTS
? ASSISTANCE
? INSECURITY
? PRICES_TAXES
? LOCAL
2) Include at least two health variables in each of the selected food categories. Find the name and descriptions of variables in the Food Environment Atlas Resources: Excel Data and Documentation Download.
Write a 200- to 300-word plan that includes
? your selected state (Texas);
? selected food categories and health variables; and
? reasons for selection. Are your variables expressed in numbers or percentages?
Optional: Discuss choices in discussion with classmates and instructor. Write a summary of your discussion to include with this assignment.
...
1 Lab 3 Newton’s Second Law of Motion Introducti.docxmercysuttle
1
Lab 3: Newton’s Second Law of Motion
Introduction
Newton’s Second law of motion can be summarized by the following equation:
Σ F = m a (1)
where Σ F represents a net force acting on an object, m is the mass of the object moving
under the influence of Σ F, and a is the acceleration of that object. The bold letters in
the equation represent vector quantities.
In this lab you will try to validate this law by applying Eq. 1 to the almost frictionless
motion of a car moving along a horizontal aluminum track when a constant force T
(tension in the string) acts upon it. This motion (to be exact the velocity of the moving
object) will be recorded automatically by a motion sensor. The experimental set up
for a car moving away from the motion sensor is depicted below.
If we consider the frictionless motion of the cart in the positive x-direction chosen in
the diagram, then Newton’s Second Law can be written for each of the objects as
follows:
T Ma (2)
and
– gT F ma (3)
From this system of equations we can get the acceleration of the system:
2
gF
a
m M
(4)
Because the motion of the car is not frictionless, to get better results it is necessary to
include the force of kinetic friction fk experienced by the moving car in the analysis.
When the cart is moving away from the motion detector (positive x-direction in the
diagram) Newton’s Second Law is written as follows for each of the moving objects
m and M:
1 1– kT f Ma (5)
and
1 1– gT F ma (6)
Since it is quite difficult to assess quantitatively the magnitude of kinetic friction
involved in our experiment we will solve the problem by putting the object in two
different situations in which the friction acts in opposite directions respectively while
the tension in the string remains the same.
When the cart M is forced to move towards the motion detector (negative x-direction
in the diagram), the corresponding Newton’s Second Law equations will change as
follows:
2 2kT f Ma (7)
and
2 2gT F ma (8)
Note that in equations 5, 6, 7, and 8 the direction of acceleration represented by vector
a has been chosen in the same direction as the direction of motion.
We are able to eliminate the force of kinetic friction on the final result, by calculating
the mean acceleration from these two runs:
1 2
2
ave
slope slope
a
(9)
Combing the equations (5) – (8) we derive the equation to calculate the value of
gravitational acceleration:
avea M mg
m
(10)
3
Equipment
Horizontal dynamics track with smart pulley and safety stopper on one end; collision
cart with reflector connected to a variable mass hanging over the pulley; motion
detector connected to the Science Workshop interface recording the velocity of the
moving cart.
Procedure:
a) Weigh the cart (M) and the small mass (m) hanger.
b) Open the experiment file “New ...
1 Marks 2 A person can be prosecuted for both an attempt and .docxmercysuttle
1
Marks: 2
A person can be prosecuted for both an attempt and the completed crime.
Choose one answer.
a. False
b. True
Question 2
Marks: 2
According to Hicks v. U.S.,150 U.S. 442 (1893)one can be held criminally liable by “merely speaking words of encouragement.”
Choose one answer.
a. True
b. False
Question 3
Marks: 2
According to MPC §1.07, conspirators in a completed crime may be punished for the conspiracy, as well as the completed crime.
Choose one answer.
a. True
b. False
Question 4
Marks: 2
According to your reading, in some states it is a more serious offense to break into a car and steal a tape player than it is to steal the entire car.
Choose one answer.
a. false
b. true
Question 5
Marks: 2
According to your reading, the charge of forgery includes each of the following elements except
Choose one answer.
a. the false making or altering
b. of a legally significant instrument
c. with intent to defraud
d. a court of law or financial institution
Question 6
Marks: 2
According to your reading, the legal term of art most often employed to distinguish murder from manslaughter is
Choose one answer.
a. causation
b. vicarious liability
c. burden of proof
d. malice aforethought
Question 7
Marks: 2
According to your reading, the Model Penal Code considers the solicitor to be as dangerous as the perpetrator of the completed crime.
Choose one answer.
a. false
b. true
Question 8
Marks: 2
According to your reading, the problems with corporate criminal liability include
Choose one answer.
a. Determining who to charge
b. determining punishment
c. the wording of criminal statutes
d. all of the above
Question 9
Marks: 2
Although they are similar, embezzlement differs from larceny in which of the following ways?
Choose one answer.
a. embezzlement requires asportation
b. the claim of right defense is generally not applicable to larceny
c. embezzlement does not require intent
d. none of the above
Question 10
Marks: 2
An aider and abettor or accessory before the fact must
Choose one answer.
a. be a principal of the crime
b. discourage the commission of the crime
c. solicit the commission of the crime
d. aid or encourage the commission of a crime
11
Marks: 2
An effective abandonment defense to aiding and abetting, or to accessory before the fact, will
Choose one answer.
a. vary with aid
b. depend on the type of solicitation made
c. all of the above
d. none of the above
Question 12
Marks: 2
Assault and battery are
Choose one answer.
a. civil torts, not crimes
b. handled the same in all jurisdictions
c. handled the same in civil and criminal proceedings
d. handled differently from jurisdiction to jurisdiction
Question 13
Marks: 2
At Common Law, which of the following elements is not accurate regarding the crime of Burglary?
Choose one answer.
a. Trespassory breaking and entering
b. Of the dwelling of anoth ...
1 Marks 1 Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)Choose one .docxmercysuttle
1
Marks: 1
Post Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD):
Choose one answer.
a. is exclusive to Vietnam Veterans
b. is a psychological illness characterized by panic attacks, nightmares, depression, guilt and flashbacks
c. can be caused by any highly emotional event
d. both b and c above
Question 2
Marks: 1
Which of the following is not a role of a crisis interventionist?
Choose one answer.
a. To encourage and allow the client to "make the decisions".
b. To tell the client exactly what he/she should do, when he/she should do it, and how he/she should do it.
c. To enable the client to become aware of possible solutions to the crisis.
d. To allow the client to vent emotions.
Question 3
Marks: 1
A victim's pain:
Choose one answer.
a. may often last weeks, months, or even years after the incident
b. usually goes away after the court process is completed
c. usually goes away after an advocate explains the legal system
d. usually goes away after receipt of financial reimbursement for personal and property losses
Question 4
Marks: 1
Which of the following does NOT create law:
Choose one answer.
a. U.S. Congress
b. National Association for the Advancement of Colored People
c. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency
d. Colorado Supreme Court
Question 5
Marks: 1
Which of the following is not considered to be a responsibility of a victim advocate?
Choose one answer.
a. To consider the job a serious commitment.
b. To litigate the victim's case.
c. To maintain confidentiality in all issues pertaining to clients.
d. To keep informed on relevant issues through ongoing training.
Question 6
Marks: 1
Which of the following is a goal of perpetrator counseling?
Choose one answer.
a. Counseling done in hopes to keep perpetrators from committing further crimes.
b. To encourage the perpetrator to commit more crimes
c. To meet the urgent physical and emotional needs of a victim.
d. To provide support and reassurance at the scene of the crime or shortly thereafter.
Question 7
Marks: 1
What court-related service involves monitoring court activity to make sure victims are being treated fairly by judges and attorneys?
Choose one answer.
a. Witness Alert
b. Court Watch
c. Restitution Assistance
d. Legislative Advocacy
Question 8
Marks: 1
Which of the following puts the statutes in the correct chronological order (earliest to most recent) by their date of enactment?
Choose one answer.
a. Violence Against Women Act; Victims of Crime Act; Victims & Witness Protection Act; Victims Rights & Restitution Act
b. The Victims of Crime Act; Victims Right & Restitution Act; Violence Against Women Act; Victims & Witness Protection Act
c. The Victim & Witness Protection Act; Violence Against Women Act; The Victims of Crime Act; Victims Rights & Restitution Act
d. The Victim & Witness Protection Act; The Victims of Crime Act; Victims Rights & Restitution Act; Violence Against Wome ...
1 List of Acceptable Primary Resources for the Week 3 .docxmercysuttle
1
List of Acceptable Primary Resources for the Week 3 and Week 5
Assignments
These are the primary resources that you can cite when explaining a moral theory in order to fulfill the
relevant portion of the resources requirement. Readings included in the “Required Readings” list are
indicated with a *.
Utilitarianism:
*Mill, J. S. Utilitarianism, in the original version in the textbook, or in the version by Jonathan
Bennett retrieved from www.earlymoderntexts.com.
Haines, W. (n.d.). Consequentialism. Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy. Retrieved from
http://www.iep.utm.edu/conseque/
Singer, P. (2003). Voluntary euthanasia: A utilitarian perspective. Bioethics, 17(5/6), 526-541.
Retrieved from the EBSCOhost database.
Deontology:
* Kant, I. (2008). Groundwork for the metaphysic of morals. In J. Bennett (Ed. & Trans.), Early
Modern Philosophy. Retrieved from http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/pdfs/kant1785.pdf
(Original work published in 1785).
Virtue Ethics:
* Aristotle. (350 B.C.E.). Nicomachean ethics (W. D. Ross, Trans.). Retrieved from
http://classics.mit.edu/Aristotle/nicomachaen.html
Annas, J. (2006). Virtue ethics. In D. Copp (Ed.), The Oxford Handbook of Ethical Theory (pp. 515–
36). Oxford: Oxford University Press. Retrieved from
https://www.sesync.org/sites/default/files/resources/case_studies/10-kenyaecotourism-
handbook.pdf
Hursthouse, R. (2012). Virtue ethics. In E. Zalta (Ed.), The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
Retrieved from http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/
MacIntyre, A. (1984). After virtue. Notre Dame, IN: University of Notre Dame Press. Chapters 14-15
are included in the Chapter 6 readings of the textbook.
Feminist/Care Ethics:
*Held, V. Feminist transformations of moral theory. Included in the Chapter 6 readings of the
textbook.
*Gilligan, C. (1982). In a different voice: Psychological theory and women’s development.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. Retrieved from
https://lms.manhattan.edu/pluginfile.php/26517/mod_resource/content/1/Gilligan%20In%20
a%20Different%20Voice.pdf
http://insite.bridgepoint.local/dept/ops/pni/Navigator Images/Ashford Logo New.jpg
http://www.earlymoderntexts.com/
http://www.iep.utm.edu/conseque/
https://www.sesync.org/sites/default/files/resources/case_studies/10-kenyaecotourism-handbook.pdf
http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/ethics-virtue/
https://lms.manhattan.edu/pluginfile.php/26517/mod_resource/content/1/Gilligan%20In%20a%20Different%20Voice.pdf
2
* Noddings, N. (2010). Maternal factor: Two paths to morality. Berkeley, CA: University of
California Press. Retrieved from the ebrary database.
http://insite.bridgepoint.local/dept/ops/pni/Navigator Images/Ashford Logo New.jpg
...
Honest Reviews of Tim Han LMA Course Program.pptxtimhan337
Personal development courses are widely available today, with each one promising life-changing outcomes. Tim Han’s Life Mastery Achievers (LMA) Course has drawn a lot of interest. In addition to offering my frank assessment of Success Insider’s LMA Course, this piece examines the course’s effects via a variety of Tim Han LMA course reviews and Success Insider comments.
June 3, 2024 Anti-Semitism Letter Sent to MIT President Kornbluth and MIT Cor...Levi Shapiro
Letter from the Congress of the United States regarding Anti-Semitism sent June 3rd to MIT President Sally Kornbluth, MIT Corp Chair, Mark Gorenberg
Dear Dr. Kornbluth and Mr. Gorenberg,
The US House of Representatives is deeply concerned by ongoing and pervasive acts of antisemitic
harassment and intimidation at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT). Failing to act decisively to ensure a safe learning environment for all students would be a grave dereliction of your responsibilities as President of MIT and Chair of the MIT Corporation.
This Congress will not stand idly by and allow an environment hostile to Jewish students to persist. The House believes that your institution is in violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, and the inability or
unwillingness to rectify this violation through action requires accountability.
Postsecondary education is a unique opportunity for students to learn and have their ideas and beliefs challenged. However, universities receiving hundreds of millions of federal funds annually have denied
students that opportunity and have been hijacked to become venues for the promotion of terrorism, antisemitic harassment and intimidation, unlawful encampments, and in some cases, assaults and riots.
The House of Representatives will not countenance the use of federal funds to indoctrinate students into hateful, antisemitic, anti-American supporters of terrorism. Investigations into campus antisemitism by the Committee on Education and the Workforce and the Committee on Ways and Means have been expanded into a Congress-wide probe across all relevant jurisdictions to address this national crisis. The undersigned Committees will conduct oversight into the use of federal funds at MIT and its learning environment under authorities granted to each Committee.
• The Committee on Education and the Workforce has been investigating your institution since December 7, 2023. The Committee has broad jurisdiction over postsecondary education, including its compliance with Title VI of the Civil Rights Act, campus safety concerns over disruptions to the learning environment, and the awarding of federal student aid under the Higher Education Act.
• The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is investigating the sources of funding and other support flowing to groups espousing pro-Hamas propaganda and engaged in antisemitic harassment and intimidation of students. The Committee on Oversight and Accountability is the principal oversight committee of the US House of Representatives and has broad authority to investigate “any matter” at “any time” under House Rule X.
• The Committee on Ways and Means has been investigating several universities since November 15, 2023, when the Committee held a hearing entitled From Ivory Towers to Dark Corners: Investigating the Nexus Between Antisemitism, Tax-Exempt Universities, and Terror Financing. The Committee followed the hearing with letters to those institutions on January 10, 202
Biological screening of herbal drugs: Introduction and Need for
Phyto-Pharmacological Screening, New Strategies for evaluating
Natural Products, In vitro evaluation techniques for Antioxidants, Antimicrobial and Anticancer drugs. In vivo evaluation techniques
for Anti-inflammatory, Antiulcer, Anticancer, Wound healing, Antidiabetic, Hepatoprotective, Cardio protective, Diuretics and
Antifertility, Toxicity studies as per OECD guidelines
Acetabularia Information For Class 9 .docxvaibhavrinwa19
Acetabularia acetabulum is a single-celled green alga that in its vegetative state is morphologically differentiated into a basal rhizoid and an axially elongated stalk, which bears whorls of branching hairs. The single diploid nucleus resides in the rhizoid.
A Strategic Approach: GenAI in EducationPeter Windle
Artificial Intelligence (AI) technologies such as Generative AI, Image Generators and Large Language Models have had a dramatic impact on teaching, learning and assessment over the past 18 months. The most immediate threat AI posed was to Academic Integrity with Higher Education Institutes (HEIs) focusing their efforts on combating the use of GenAI in assessment. Guidelines were developed for staff and students, policies put in place too. Innovative educators have forged paths in the use of Generative AI for teaching, learning and assessments leading to pockets of transformation springing up across HEIs, often with little or no top-down guidance, support or direction.
This Gasta posits a strategic approach to integrating AI into HEIs to prepare staff, students and the curriculum for an evolving world and workplace. We will highlight the advantages of working with these technologies beyond the realm of teaching, learning and assessment by considering prompt engineering skills, industry impact, curriculum changes, and the need for staff upskilling. In contrast, not engaging strategically with Generative AI poses risks, including falling behind peers, missed opportunities and failing to ensure our graduates remain employable. The rapid evolution of AI technologies necessitates a proactive and strategic approach if we are to remain relevant.
Read| The latest issue of The Challenger is here! We are thrilled to announce that our school paper has qualified for the NATIONAL SCHOOLS PRESS CONFERENCE (NSPC) 2024. Thank you for your unwavering support and trust. Dive into the stories that made us stand out!
1. 1
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[Name]
South University Online
[Template instructions: Replace the information in red with
your work-then delete this line]
2. 2
Annotated Bibliography: Topic (Chosen from the list provided)
[APA formatted reference for source (list in alphabetical order)
using a hanging indent]
[Underneath the reference, give a summary of the article then an
analysis:
Summary of article: 1-2 paragraphs that describe the following
information in your own words
in paragraph format (not bullet points).
• Why the article was written?
• What are the major points of the article?
• If the article was a study, describe:
o The methods used in the research: Include the participants,
how the research question(s)
was tested or measured (e.g. survey, interview, formal
testing…)
o The results of the study: What did the researchers find out?
o The conclusions: What did the researchers conclude from the
study? What were the
limitations of the research?
NOTE: Do not include citations for the article you are
3. summarizing in an annotated
bibliography. You have already given credit by listing the
reference first. This is different
from a paper.]
[Analysis of the article: 1-2 paragraphs describing the
following: Whether or not the
points made by the author are logical and supported by evidence
and whether the author
demonstrates any bias in presenting the arguments. Were other
arguments or possibilities
considered? Are the author’s conclusions supported? Do they fit
with your understanding
of the topic and your textbook's description (cite the textbook
and any other sources you
use for analyzing your article – include any additional sources
you cite as part of your
analysis in your reference list)? Why or why not (provide
support for your opinion)?]
3
Example of formatting:
4. Boonstra, A., & Broekhuis, M. (2010). Barriers to the
acceptance of electronic medical records by
physicians from systematic review to taxonomy and
interventions. BMC Health Services
Research, 10(1), 231-248. doi:10.1186/1472-6963-10-231
Authors conducted a systematic review of research papers
between 1998 and 2009 that
examined physician perceptions of barriers to implementation of
electronic medical
records. An examination of 1671 articles….
DeVore, S. D., & Figlioli, K. (2010). Lessons Premier hospitals
learned about implementing electronic
health records. Health Affairs, 29(4), 664-667.
doi:10.1377/hlthaff.2010.0250
Premier healthcare alliance is a network of 2300 non-profit
hospitals and 63,000
outpatient facilities in the United States, This paper summarized
lessons learned from
reviewing implementation practices within their system….
4
5. References
List any references you cited in your analyses of your chosen
sources. DO NOT list the references for
the articles you chose as you already referenced them in your
annotated bibliograpy.
Personality and Individual Differences 49 (2010) 306–316
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Personality and Individual Differences
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c
a t e / p a i d
The nature of the relationship between personality traits and
political attitudes
Brad Verhulst a, Peter K. Hatemi b,c,*, Nicholas G. Martin b
a Department of Political ScienceStony Brook University, Stony
Brook, NY 11794-4392, USA
b Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Genetic
Epidemiology 300 Herston Road, Q 4029, Australia
c Department of Political Science University of Iowa, 344
Schaeffer Hall, Iowa City, Iowa 52242-1498, USA
a r t i c l e i n f o
Article history:
Received 29 October 2009
Received in revised form 3 November 2009
6. Accepted 4 November 2009
Available online 9 December 2009
Keywords:
Personality
Ideology
Attitudes
Politics
Genes
0191-8869/$ - see front matter � 2009 Elsevier Ltd. A
doi:10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.013
* Corresponding author. Address: University of Io
City, Iowa 52242-1498, USA. Tel.: +1 319 335 2347.
E-mail address: [email protected] (P.K. H
a b s t r a c t
Building upon a series of works by Thomas J. Bouchard, Lindon
J. Eaves, Hans J. Eysenck and other con-
temporaries, we present strong evidence that the assumed causal
relationship between personality
and left–right ideology is too simplistic. We suggest the
relationship is not predictive and instead is better
understood by dividing the overarching left–right ideological
spectrum into more meaningful attitude
dimensions. In doing so, we find that Psychoticism is strongly
related to conservative positions on Pun-
ishment, Religious, and Sex attitudes, whereas Social
Desirability is related to liberal positions on the
same attitudes. Furthermore, the nature of the covariance
between Psychoticism and social attitudes is
due to a common genetic influence, while covariance between
Social Desirability and these attitudes
in females is largely a function of common shared
environmental covariance.
7. � 2009 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
1. Introduction
Psychologists, geneticists, and political scientists have long at-
tempted to identify and explain the associations between
person-
ality and political preferences (Adorno, Frenkel-Brunswik,
Levinson, & Sanford, 1950; Eysenck, 1954; McCloskey, 1958).
Most
of these early attempts to link personality traits with political
atti-
tudes portrayed conservatism as a pathology and focused on
con-
necting conservatives with negative personality traits (e.g.
Adorno et al., 1950; Altemeyer, 1981; Altemeyer, 1996). Such a
view is exemplified by McCloskey (1958), who labeled
conserva-
tives as:
‘‘. . .social isolates, . . . people who think poorly of themselves,
who suffer personal disgruntlement and frustration, who are
submissive, timid, and wanting in confidence, who lack a clear
sense of direction and purpose, who are uncertain about their
values, and who are generally bewildered by the alarming task
of having to thread their way through a society which seems to
them too complex to fathom” (37).
Focusing on the causal connection between negative personality
traits and conservatism and positive traits with liberalism
contin-
ues to dominate research in this area, though the language has
be-
come more subtle (see Block & Block, 2006; Jost, Glaser,
Kruglanski,
& Sulloway, 2003; Jost et al., 2008). For example, researchers
8. have
ll rights reserved.
wa, 344 Schaeffer Hall, Iowa
atemi).
worked very hard to demonstrate that the positively valued
Open-
ness to Experience dimension has a strong and consistent
negative
relationship with political conservatism (see Gosling, Rentfrow,
&
Swann, 2003; Jost, Federico, & Napier, 2009; McCrae, 1996;
Mondak
& Halperin, 2008; Van Hiel, Kossowska, & Mervielde, 2000;
Van
Hiel, Pandelaere, & Duriez, 2004). Recent work however, has
also
demonstrated that Neuroticism is positively associated with
economic liberalism (Leeson & Heaven, 1999; Riemann,
Grubich,
Hempel, Mergl, & Richter, 1993), though these findings are
often
dismissed or downplayed in favor or a more positive view of
liber-
alism and negative view of conservatism.
The connection between personality and politics historically
rested on the assumption that causality runs from personality
traits to political attitudes. This seems plausible as personality
is
widely understood as some combination of innate dispositions
and personal experiences that, in general, guides behavior in a
sta-
ble predictive manner (Bouchard, 1994; Cattell, 1957; Eysenck,
1990; Eysenck, 1991; Tellegen et al., 1988; Winter &
9. Barenbaum,
1999). This is not to say behavior is predetermined by
personality;
rather, environmental circumstances provide the impetus for
behaviors, and personality predispositions increase or decrease
the probability of behavior only if the action is appropriate for a
specific situation (Bandura, 2001; Caprara & Cervone, 2000;
Mis-
chel & Shoda, 1998). Political attitudes, on the other hand, have
typically been viewed as much more capricious (Converse,
1964).
Although a plethora of research on attitudes suggest that they
can be quite stable over time, rather than being perceived as
per-
sonal dispositions, political attitudes are typically portrayed as
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.paid.2009.11.013
mailto:[email protected]
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/journal/01918869
http://www.elsevier.com/locate/paid
B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49
(2010) 306–316 307
preferences related to the immediate social environment and are
thus perceived as entirely context dependent.
Such a view of attitudes, combined with the widely held
assumption that, unlike personality, parental-offspring correla-
tions of attitudes were entirely functions of cultural
transmission
(e.g., Niemi & Jennings, 1991; for an exception see Martin et
al.,
1986), reinforced the belief that personality traits were causally
prior to social and political attitudes. However, such an
assumption
10. was unfounded, as the heritability of social and political
attitudes
has been established and replicated across populations
(Bouchard
& McGue, 2003; Eaves, Eysenck, & Martin, 1989; Martin et al.,
1986; Waller, Kojetin, & Bouchard, 1990).
Indeed, the genetic covariation between social attitudes and
personality was explored over 30 years ago. Eaves and Eysenck
(1974) identified a genetic relationship between personality and
conservatism. Typical of a Nature Letter, however, while
profound
and novel, they offered only brief discussion on why this
relation-
ship existed. And, unfortunately, these findings went largely
unad-
dressed for several decades, with the exception of a handful of
scholars. Among these, Bouchard, Lykken, McGue, Segal, and
Telle-
gen (1990) continued to pursue this question (e.g., Bouchard,
1997;
Bouchard, 2009; Bouchard & McGue, 2003; Waller et al.,
1990).
This work has led to a paradigm shift in the connection between
personality and politics.
Combining Religiousness, Authoritarian dispositions, and tradi-
tional Conservatism into a core attitude/world view system,
Bou-
chard (2009, p. 36) drew on other contemporaries (e.g., Saucier,
2000), and synthesized a theory that more accurately integrated
attitude dimensions and personality traits. Such a synthesis im-
plies that whatever relationship exists between personality and
political attitudes cannot be strictly causal; rather, it seems
likely
that the relationships among political attitudes and personality
11. traits are in part expressions of the same underlying genetic
liabil-
ity. Verhulst, Hatemi, and Eaves (2009) provided strong support
of
such a position and offered the first replication of Eaves and
Ey-
senck’s (1974) findings presented some 35 years earlier. Using
a
large US twin sample (over 6000 pairs), they found that the vast
majority of the covariance between Psychoticism and
Militaristic/
Defense attitudes was due to a common underlying genetic
influence.
Building upon a series of works by Bouchard, Eaves, Eysenck
and others, we examine the assumptions made in the existing
lit-
erature regarding the causal connection between personality
traits
and political attitudes. Specifically, we estimated the genetic
and
environmental sources of covariation between personality traits
and political attitudes and extended the findings of Verhulst
et al. (2009) by focusing on specific attitudinal dimensions of
polit-
ical attitudes and personality traits in a very large sample of
Aus-
tralian Twins.
2. Methods and results
Data were collected from 1988 to 1990 by mailed surveys to
two large cohorts of adult Australian twins enrolled in the
volun-
teer Australian Twin Registry. Each participant completed a
Health
and Lifestyle Questionnaire (HLQ), which contained items on
12. socio-
political attitudes, personality traits, and wide variety of health-
re-
lated and sociodemographic measures (Eaves et al., 1989; Eaves
et al., 1999; Martin, 1987; Truett et al., 1994). Using only
respon-
dents who completed the political and personality measures, the
sample consists of 20,559 individuals from 5402 families; this
in-
cludes 7234 individual twins, comprising 3254 complete same
sex pairs and 363 unlike sex pairs. The mean age of the entire
sam-
ple was 38.6 (SD = 15.5), while the mean age of the twin
respon-
dents was 34.1 (SD = 14.0). Regarding sex, 57.7% were female
in
the greater population, while in the twin sample 63.8% were fe-
male. For more details on the sample, including ascertainment
and response rates, see Hatemi, Medland, Morley, Heath, and
Mar-
tin (2007).
2.1. Measures
Personality traits were measured by the short form of the Re-
vised version of the Eysenck Personality Questionnaire (EPQ-R-
S,
Eysenck & Eysenck, 1997; Eysenck, Eysenck, & Barrett, 1985)
with
sub-scales for Extraversion, Psychoticism, Neuroticism and
Social
Desirability.
Extraversion is comprised of two central components: affiliation
or sociability, which includes valuing interpersonal bonds and
being warm and affectionate, highly sociable and expressive,
13. and
agency or impulsiveness, which includes goal-oriented
behavior,
ambition, dogmatism, social dominance, leadership, aggression
and assertiveness (Depue & Collins, 1999). Psychoticism is
posi-
tively related to authoritarianism, risk taking, impulsivity,
tough-
mindedness, practicality, magical ideation, and religiosity and
neg-
atively related to openness to experience. A careful inspection
of
the items that comprise the Psychoticism scale used in this
paper
(as presented in Appendix 1) suggest that the factor is
character-
ized by low levels of introspection and a preoccupation with
rules
and regulations. Neuroticism is associated with feelings of
inferior-
ity, unhappiness, anxiety, dependence, hypochondria, guilt,
emo-
tional instability, and obsessiveness (Eysenck & Eysenck,
1985).
The additional sub-factor of Social Desirability (often dubbed
the
‘‘lie” scale), was also included in the analyses and is
characterized
by social acquiescence or conformity and lack of self-insight
(Fran-
cis, Brown, & Pearson, 1991).
To maximize the empirical validity of the personality dimen-
sions, items were dropped from the personality scales if they
were
explicitly related to one of the attitude dimensions or if they did
14. not contribute to the intended trait. The nature of the
dimensions
remained unchanged, however. The empirical validity problem
is
most evident with the Psychoticism scale. Although the
Psychoti-
cism sub-scale is established in the extant literature, in many
re-
cent cases it has less than ideal levels of inter-item reliability.
This is most likely because the Psychoticism scale was
developed
in the 1950s, and then revised in the mid 1980s. Thus, the tech-
niques available to assess reliability when the scales were
created
were impoverished. Retaining items that do not meaningfully
con-
tribute to the latent factor introduces error into the model.
There-
fore, dropping these specific items increased the precision with
which we can estimate the trait and the confidence we have in
our analyses.
Another common problem that plagues the study of personality
and politics is the clear distinction between attitudinal items
and
personality items. The tautology problem is more common in
other
personality measures, like the NEO-PI-R Openness to
Experience
scale where several items explicitly tap political concepts (see
Costa & McCrae, 1992). Remaining cognizant of this problem,
we
identified three items in the Psychoticism scale that had also the
possibility of overlapping with attitudinal items. Specifically,
the
items ‘‘Would being in debt worry you?” and ‘‘Do you think
15. people
spend too much time safeguarding their future with savings and
insurances?” potentially overlap with economic political
attitudes,
while ‘‘Do you think marriage is old-fashioned and should be
done
away with?” potentially overlaps with both social and religious
political attitudes. Importantly, the factor loadings of these
items
are not overwhelming and measures of fit do not decline with
the removal of these items. Removing potentially tautological
items is not meant to fundamentally alter the concept, but rather
ensure that the items that comprise the construct are not inher-
ently political. In other words, this should ensure that the
observed
308 B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences
49 (2010) 306–316
relationship is between the traits and not a function of similar
items.
Political and social attitudes were assessed utilizing a 50-item
index of political and social issues contemporary at the time of
the survey (see Posner, Baker, Heath, & Martin, 1996). In a
Wilson
and Patterson (1968) format, respondents indicated if they
agreed,
disagreed, or were uncertain about their attitudes towards a
wide
range of issues across several ideological dimensions (e.g.,
Death
Penalty, Bible Truth, Legalized Prostitution, Immigration,
Stiffer Jail
Terms, etc.). Of these 50 items, 26 of the most explicitly
16. political
items were used to construct four political attitude dimensions:
Religious, Sex, Out-groups and Punishment dimensions (see
details
below). To facilitate comparisons between this study and
similar
others, we also created a Liberal–Conservative ideology
measure
using all 50 items as the scale was intended and commonly
found
in the extant literature (see Wilson & Patterson, 1968). A
complete
list of the items can be found in Appendix 2.
Unlike personality, there is no consensual model or theory of
socio-political attitudes. Although there is wide agreement on a
general, abstract left–right spectrum, the attitudes that comprise
this spectrum remain elusive and insofar as specific attitude
facets
go, they remain underdeveloped (see Bouchard, 2009; Eagly &
Chaiken, 1993). As such, to identify the attitude factors, we
relied
heavily on the face validity of the scales and the empirical
results.
2.2. Preliminary analysis
A confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) with missing data was
con-
ducted specifying the four personality factors and the four
political
ideology attitude factors identified above (see Appendices 1 and
2
for the specifics of the CFA). For the personality traits, higher
scores
indicated higher levels of the traits, and for the ideological
17. dimen-
sions higher scores indicated the liberal position. The model fit
sta-
tistics for this class of Confirmatory Factor Models are
impoverished, especially for relatively complex factor models
such
as those estimated in this paper. To compensate for this, we
esti-
mated a comparable non-nested model with list-wise deletion,
where the factor loadings and the factor correlations were
essen-
tially unchanged. In this model the RMSEA was 0.044, the CFI
was 0.870, and the TLI was 0.917. These fit indices suggest that
the model fits the data very well. As such, we are confident in
the factor structure we estimate.
2.3. Phenotypic correlations between personality traits and
ideological
dimensions
We limited our analyses to the relationships between person-
ality traits and ideological dimensions to those relationships
that had correlations greater than 0.20. This decision was based
on the increased reliably of disentangling covariance between
the phenotypic traits (Cohen, 1988). The first stage of our anal-
ysis focused on identifying the phenotypic relationships be-
tween the personality traits and the social attitudes (see
Table 1). The correlations between our attitude dimensions
and personality traits were much larger than those reported
for correlations between overall Conservatism–Liberalism
(ideol-
ogy) and personality traits in other studies (see Carney, Jost,
Gosling, & Potter, 2008; Verhulst et al., 2009). Further, the
gen-
eral ideology scale also was highly correlated with several per-
sonality dimensions.
18. As can be seen in Table 1, several relationships stand out. Most
notably, Psychoticism was strongly related to more conservative
Religious, Sex and Punishment attitudes in both sexes. This spe-
cific pattern of relationships was consistent with the original re-
search on the Authoritarian personality (Adorno et al., 1950)
and the magnitude is consistent with the relationship between
authoritarianism and general conservatism (Altemeyer, 1998;
Stenner, 2005). We expected that Psychoticism, by virtue of its
theoretical relationship with Authoritarianism, would be associ-
ated with Religious, Sex, and Punishment attitudes, as these
atti-
tudes are central to the concept of Authoritarianism (see
Bouchard, 2009).
These same political attitudes were also correlated with Social
Desirability in both sexes, although in the opposite (liberal)
direc-
tion and to a lesser extent. Although the personality and politics
literature has generally ignored the connection between Social
Desirability and ideological or attitudinal dimensions, this is
the
second study to link Social Desirability with liberal social
attitudes
in very large genetically informative samples (see Verhulst et
al.,
2009). Thus, it appears that an empirical relationship exists,
even
though the theoretical justifications for this relationship are not
yet resolved.
As a point of comparison with other personality and politics
studies, we also examined the relationship between the additive
50-item general ideology scale and the four personality traits.
The general ideology dimension was also highly related to
Psychot-
19. icism and Social Desirability. The most interesting feature of
the
pattern of correlations between the general ideology dimension
and the personality traits mirrored the Religious and Sex
attitudes.
Items along these dimensions comprised the majority of the
items
in the scale, and thus appeared to drive the relationships
observed
between the general ideology factor and the separate personality
traits. Importantly, by narrowly focusing in the general ideology
factor the relationships between extraversion and neuroticism
and the political attitudes, which we discuss below, would be
obscured.
The relationship between Neuroticism and liberal Out-group
attitudes also corresponds with recent findings in the emerging
lit-
erature within the personality and politics sub-field.
Specifically,
Neuroticism has been linked with liberal economic ideological
atti-
tudes in several samples and is consistent with Verhulst et al.
(2009) analysis of US twins. Importantly, attitudes on
immigration
were part of the US economic ideology dimension in that study,
but
here in our Australian population they were part of the Out-
group
dimension.
Finally, we found a relationship between Extraversion and con-
servative Sex attitudes in these analyses. Very few
contemporary
studies in the personality and politics literature have found
signif-
20. icant relationships between Extraversion and attitudinal or ideo-
logical predispositions. However, our finding is consistent with
an older literature showing Extraversion to be positively related
to Authoritarianism and Conservatism (Eysenck & Wilson,
1978;
Pearson & Greatorex, 1981; Ray, 1980; for a recent replication
see Carney et al., 2008). Subsequent analyses often failed to
repli-
cate these earlier findings. We believe part of the failure to
repli-
cate these relationships is due to the left–right generalization of
attitude factors. However, greater Extraversion has been long
established as a significant influence on sex drive, earlier age of
first intercourse, promiscuity, orgasm, and other activities
(Cooper,
Agocha, & Sheldon, 2000; Eysenck, 1976; Miller et al., 2004;
Schenk
& Pfrang, 2005). Thus, regarding the relationship between
Extra-
version and the Sex attitudes factor, the direction of the
correlation
is in the opposite direction than expected. At first glance it
appears
for Australians, the relationship between Extraversion and atti-
tudes on sex are quite different from the relationship between
Extraversion and actual sexual behavior. Future studies are
needed
to replicate this finding.
2.4. Genetic analyses
Structural equation models incorporating genetic, shared and
unique environmental sources of covariation allowed us to ex-
21. Table 1
Phenotypic correlations between personality and attitude
dimensions for male (N = 3449) and female (N = 6066) twins.
Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism Social Desirability
Female twins
Religious attitudes �.534 �.124 �.003 .273
Sex attitudes �.601 �.266 �.049 .359
Out-group attitudes �.106 �.080 .204 .211
Punishment attitudes �.451 �.047 .094 .282
General ideology �.566 �.177 .001 .357
Male twins
Religious attitudes �.496 �.035 .008 .237
Sex attitudes �.570 �.196 �.033 .318
Out-group attitudes �.004 �.010 .166 .100
Punishment attitudes �.421 .047 .021 .231
General ideology �.495 �.061 �.008 .261
Note: Higher scores on the Personality factors denoted higher
levels of the traits. Higher scores on the attitude factors denote
more liberal responses for all attitude
dimensions. All relationships except that between Psychoticism
and Out-group attitudes were statistically significant at .01 or
better. However, conventional levels of
statistical significance do not focus our attention on
substantively meaningful relationships. Here we focus only on
significant relationships where the effect size is medium or
larger (correlations greater P.20 in bold; see Cohen, 1988).
Table 2
Between co-twin correlations by zygosity.
MZM MZF DZM DZF DZOS
22. Personality traits
Psychoticism .536 .615 .381 .414 .370
Extraversion .516 .488 .193 .212 .211
Neuroticism .367 .438 .142 .213 .085
Social Desirability .383 .520 .318 .394 .267
Social attitudes
Religious .592 .632 .506 .513 .536
Sex .592 .668 .452 .558 .505
Out-groups .600 .559 .482 .402 .361
Punishment .567 .587 .407 .339 .433
General ideology .631 .675 .517 .552 .524
N (twin pairs) 646 1385 384 839 363
B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49
(2010) 306–316 309
plore the nature of the relationships among personality and
attitudes dimensions. Table 2 provides the twin correlations
separated by zygosity and sex for the personality traits and so-
cio-political attitude dimensions. The correlations between MZ
twins were substantially larger than the correlations between
same-sex DZ twins, providing initial support for the presence of
genetic influences and reason to explore structural models to
quantify those influences. However, the MZ–DZ correlation
differ-
ences were much greater for most personality dimensions than
for the political attitude sub-factors, suggesting significant
shared
environmental influences on the attitude dimensions. For com-
pleteness we also tabulate the correlations for the DZ opposite-
sex pairs. For most variables the correlations for opposite-sex
DZ twins were similar to the correlations for same-sex DZ
twins,
but for Social Desirability and attitudes to Out-groups the
DZOS
23. correlation was a bit lower, suggesting that familial effects on
these scales were somewhat different in males and females for
these constructs. For simplicity we therefore present results of
separate analyses of male and female twins, omitting the oppo-
site-sex pairs.
Results of estimating the genetic and shared and non-shared
environmental variance components for each measure alone,
using
maximum likelihood estimation in Mx (Neale, Boker, Xie, &
Maes,
2003), are presented in Table 3. Components of variance due to
Additive Genetic (A), Common environmental (C), and Unique
Environmental (E) influence are tabulated (for detailed explana-
tions of the methodology and theory, along with limitations and
recent criticisms see Medland & Hatemi, 2009; Neale & Cardon,
1992).
The results were largely consistent with the expectations based
on the twin correlations and the long-standing personality
litera-
ture. Specifically, Psychoticism, Extraversion, and Neuroticism
were characterized by large additive genetic and unique
environ-
mental components, while the common environmental
component
was not significant. For Social Desirability, the common
environ-
ment variance was statistically significant but the additive
genetic
component for males was not. In contrast, in both sexes, the
addi-
tive genetic, shared and unique environmental variance compo-
nents for almost all the attitude scales were significant. The
shared environment variance accounted for large portions of the
variance in social attitudes. Importantly, the variance
components
24. of the general ideology scale are very similar to those of both
the
Sex and the Religious factors. The only attitude that differed
from
this trend was Punishment attitudes, where the common
environ-
ment variance was not significant for females.
2.5. Cholesky decomposition
The preceding steps were necessary to examine the complex
relationships between personality traits and political attitude
dimensions. Several of the personality dimensions were
correlated
with different attitude dimensions at the phenotypic level. Our
main interest, however, lay in exploring the nature of the
pheno-
typic relationships. As such, we undertook a series of bivariate
Cholesky decompositions (see Fig. 1) to evaluate the sources of
covariation. The constraints and model specifications are
explained
in detail in Medland and Hatemi (2009). Since we wished to
know
how much of the variance in attitudes could be explained by
per-
sonality, we put the personality factors first in our analyses.
Tables 4 and 5 display the standardized path coefficients from
the Cholesky analyses for females and males, respectively.
Cells
with dashes indicate that the paths were constrained to zero.
This
was done where the univariate variance decomposition models
de-
scribed in the previous section did not account for a statistically
reliable portion of the variance in the trait. These constraints
pre-
25. vented model instability arising from very small sources of
shared
variance.
As is shown in Table 4 for males and Table 5 for females, the
relationships between Psychoticism and Religious, Sex, and
Pun-
ishment attitudes were largely due to additive genetic
covariation.
Performing a simple algebraic transformation of the path coeffi-
cients, we found that the majorities of the covariation between
Psychoticism and Punishment, Sex, and Religious attitudes was
due to genetic covariance.
Table 3
Estimated variance components for personality and ideology
dimensions, separately by variable.
Males Females
a2 c2 e2 a2 c2 e2
Psychoticism .559 (.51, .60) – .441 (.39, .49) .602 (.57, .63) –
.399 (.37, .43)
Extraversion .503 (.45, .55) – .497 (.45, .55) .474 (.44, .51) –
.526 (.49, .56)
Neuroticism .362 (.30, .42) – .638 (.58, .70) .438 (.40, .48) –
.562 (.52, .60)
Social Desirability .141 (.00, .36) .230 (.03, .29) .629 (.57, .70)
.368 (.23, .51) .141 (.01, .27) .490 (.46, .53)
Religious attitudes .151 (.00, .32) .435 (.28, .57) .415 (.37, .46)
.226 (.12, .34) .393 (.29, .49) .381 (.35, .41)
Sex attitudes .271 (.11, .45) .316(.15, .46) .413 (.37, .46) .212
(.11, .32) .443 (.34, .53) .346 (.32, .37)
26. Out-group attitudes .268 (.11, .44) .336 (.18, .47) .395 (.35, .44)
.311 (.19, .44) .244 (.13, .35) .445 (.41, .48)
Punishment attitudes .285 (.11, .47) .277 (.10, .43) .438 (.39,
.61) .491 (.36, .61) .089 (.00, .21) .420 (.39, .45)
General ideology .212 (.06, .37) .408 (.29, .54) .380 (.35, .42)
.244 (.15, .31) .420 (.34, .51) .335 (.31, .36)
Note: Estimates in italics are not significant.
a c e
A11 to the
Personality
Trait
C11 to the
Personality
Trait
E11 to the
Personality
Trait
Personality Trait
and Social
Attitudes A12 to the
Social
Attitude
A22 to the
Social
27. Attitude
C12 to the
Social
Attitude
C22 to the
Social
Attitude
E12 to the
Social
Attitude
E22 to the
Social
Attitude
Personality
Trait
Social
Attitude
A1 A2 C2C1 E1 E2
Fig. 1. General Cholesky model.
Table 4
Bivariate cholesky results for personality traits and social
attitudes for males.
30. Neuroticism and Out�Group Attitudes .664 – .748
(.63, .69) (.72, .77)
.204 .726 – – .094 .650
(.16, .25) (.70, .75) (.06, .13) (.63, .67)
Social Desirability and Religious Attitudes .498 .520 .694
(.35, .61) (.40, .61) (.67, .72)
.117 .428 .339 .555 .051 .614
(�.05, .28) (.28, .54) (.20, .50) (.41, .65) (.02, .08) (.59, .64)
Social Desirability and Sex Attitudes .502 .518 .693
(.36, .62) (.39, .61) (.67, .72)
.123 .405 .435 .539 .095 .577
(�.03, .28) (.27, .51) (.30, .60) (.35, .63) (.07, .13) (.55, .60)
Social Desirability and Punishment Attitudes .504 .517 .692
(.37, .61) (.40, .61) (.67, .72)
.057 .671 .355 .000 .096 .642
(�.11, .21) (.59, .72) (.22, .47) (�.31, .31) (.06, .13) (.62, .66)
Social Desirability and Out�Group Attitudes .517 .505 .691
(.38, .63) (.37, .60) (.67, .72)
.011 .563 .290 .393 .080 .662
(�.17, .18) (.44, .67) (.13, .47) (.00, .53) (.05, .11) (.64, .69)
Social Desirability and Ideology .515 .506 .692
(.38, .63) (.38, .60) (.67, .72)
.096 .450 .504 .450 .070 .572
(�.06, .25) (.33, .55) (.36, .69) (.00, .58) (.04, .10) (.55, .60)
Note: Estimates in italics were not significant. Again,
parameters with a lower confidence bound of zero should be
interpreted as not statistically significant.
Table 4 (continued)
31. a c e
Social Desirability and Sex Attitudes .384 .497 .778
(.10, .60) (.24, .62) (.74, .82)
.445 .274 .137 .548 .104 .631
(.11, .67) (.00, .49) (�.16, .38) (.39, .65) (.06, .15) (.60, .67)
Social Desirability and Punishment Attitudes .399 .484 .779
(.00, .61) (.21, .63) (.74, .82)
.035 .543 .299 .416 .086 .659
(�.64, .65) (.00, .70) (.04, .60) (.00, .60) (.04, .14) (.62, .70)
Social Desirability and Ideology .397 .486 .779
(.00, .61) (.21, .63) (.74, .82)
.179 .427 .323 .549 .066 �.612
(�.53, .58) (.00, .59) (.09, .68) (.00, .68) (.02, .11) (�.65,
�.58)
Note: Estimates in italics were not significant. To solve
estimation problems in a limited number of models we bounded
the parameters to have a lower confidence bound of
zero. Thus, parameters with a lower confidence bound of zero
should be interpreted as not statistically significant.
B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49
(2010) 306–316 311
Importantly, although the paths from Psychoticism to the
attitude dimensions (A12) were quite strong for each attitude
dimension, these paths were still smaller than the paths
accounting for the unique influence (A22) on the attitude
dimen-
sions. Thus, although there was a strong relationship between
Psychoticism and each attitude dimension, the majority of the
additive genetic variance in the attitude dimensions was not ac-
counted for by the genetic influences on Psychoticism. The
32. vari-
ance shared between the unique environmental component of
Psychoticism and the attitude dimensions were minimal (paths
E12), while the residual unique environmental variance in the
attitude dimensions were uniformly high (paths E22), which is
not surprising since they include measurement error. This pat-
tern of results did not vary substantially by sex. Again, the pat-
312 B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences
49 (2010) 306–316
tern of relationships for the general ideology scale mimicked
the
relationships for the Religious and Sex attitudes with Psychoti-
cism. Specifically, the phenotypic relationship between general
ideology and Psychoticism appeared to be driven by the additive
genetic influence.
Similar relationships existed between Extraversion and Sex
attitudes as well as between Neuroticism and Out-group atti-
tudes. In both cases, the connections between the personality
traits and the attitude dimensions were primarily accounted for
by the additive genetic covariance between the constructs rather
than by any environmental covariance. Again, this pattern of re-
sults was remarkably consistent across sexes. In both cases, the
phenotypic relationships were much smaller than the relation-
ships observed between Psychoticism and the attitude dimen-
sions. As such, there were correspondingly smaller paths A12 in
these models.
The relationship between Social Desirability and each attitude
dimension (Sex, Punishment, and Out-groups) deviated slightly
from the pattern of relationships identified for the other
personal-
ity traits. Specifically, for females both the additive genetic and
33. common environment variance components were significant for
Social Desirability. Thus, this necessitated estimating Cholesky
models with common environmental pathways. To ensure that
the male model was broadly comparable with the female model,
we estimated the same parameters even though the additive ge-
netic variance in Social Desirability was not statistically
significant
when it was measured alone in males.
The Cholesky results for Social Desirability were generally con-
sistent across sexes. Specifically, the relationships between
Social
Desirability and the attitude dimensions rested primarily in the
common environmental covariances. For females, the common
environmental covariations (paths C12) between Social
Desirabil-
ity and the attitude dimensions were substantively large and sta-
tistically significant for all political attitudes. Furthermore, the
additive genetic covariances (paths A12) were substantively
small
and statistically not significant for all political attitudes. The
pat-
tern for males was only slightly different. For the Religious and
Punishment attitude dimensions, the common environmental
covariances (paths C12) were statistically significant and
substan-
tively large. For Sex attitudes, however, the common
environmen-
tal covariance was much smaller and not statistically
significant.
Furthermore, for Religious and Sex attitudes, the additive
genetic
covariances with Social Desirability were statistically
significant.
Remember, however, that the additive genetic component was
not statistically significant for Social Desirability in the
34. univariate
models for males. Furthermore, we had many more female than
male twins, giving us greater power to detect significant results
in the female sample.
While single population based results should be accepted with
caution, the current results are broadly consistent with analyses
on data from an equally large US twin sample (see Verhulst
et al., 2009). Specifically, the current study replicated the
findings
from a completely separate population of twins in a different
country, and therefore increases generalizability of the effects.
Fi-
nally, as with the other personality traits, the result for the gen-
eral ideology factor mirrored the Religious attitude factor.
Specifically, for both males and females, the primary source of
covariance between Social Desirability and any of the attitude
factors was common environmental covariance rather than addi-
tive genetic covariance.
3. Discussion
The results in this paper offer a more fine grained explanation
for the relationship between personality traits and social atti-
tudes than that captured by looking only at the Conservatism–
Liberalism super factor (ideology). Specifically, ideology was
strongly and negatively correlated with Psychoticism and posi-
tively correlated with Social Desirability. These same relation-
ships were also seen with the Religious, Sex, and Punishment
attitude sub-factors but not with the attitudes toward Out-
groups, where the correlation with Psychoticism was negligible.
In addition we also saw a modest (��0.2) negative correlation
between Extraversion and liberal attitudes to sex and a positive
correlation (�0.2) between Neuroticism and liberal attitudes to
Out-groups. All these correlations were remarkably consistent
between sexes.
35. Consistent with the existing literature, we showed that individ-
ual differences in both personality traits and political attitudes
could
be decomposed into genetic and environmental variance compo-
nents. For personality traits environmental influences were
over-
whelmingly unique to the individual, except for Social
Desirability
where there was an important component of shared
environmental
influence. For attitudes, on the other hand, we saw substantial
genet-
ic influences, but large components of shared environmental
vari-
ance as well. However, the common environmental covariance
is
likely to be confounded in some part by assortative mating (see
Eaves et al., 1999; Eaves & Hatemi, 2008). Indeed, the spousal
corre-
lations for Social Desirability was 0.25 and ranged from 0.45 to
0.65
for the attitudinal dimensions (p < .001, N = 3535). Finally,
using a
multivariate genetic model, we demonstrated that the
phenotypic
relationships between personality and attitudes were primarily
functions of a single source of covariance, genetic in the case of
the
correlations of Psychoticism, Neuroticism, and Extraversion
with
attitude dimensions in both males and females, and shared
environ-
ment for correlations between Social Desirability and attitudes.
In line with our expectations, Psychoticism was strongly related
to more conservative positions on Religious, Sex, and
36. Punishment
attitude dimensions. This finding is consistent with previous
theo-
rizing that suggests these attitude dimensions should be central
to
Authoritarian concerns, and that Authoritarianism, Traditional
Conservatism, and Psychoticism are intertwined (Adorno et al.,
1950; Bouchard, 2009).
The correlations between Psychoticism and the attitudinal
dimensions we demonstrate in this paper are larger than those
presented in other similar papers using other omnibus person-
ality theories; however, the reported relationships are consis-
tent with the theoretical relationship between Psychoticism
and various measures of Authoritarianism, like Adorno et al.’s
(1950) F scale, Altemeyer’s (1981, 1996) RWA scale, and Feld-
man’s (2003) Social Conformity–Autonomy Scale. Notably,
both
the F and the RWA scales have been strongly criticized for
including explicit political content in the measurement of
Authoritarianism, while the development of the Social Confor-
mity–Autonomy scale goes to great lengths to remove any
explicitly political content from the measurement of authoritar-
ianism, and thus avoid confounding the personality trait with
attitudinal preferences. Therefore, the magnitude of the rela-
tionships between the attitudinal variables and Psychoticism
are not unexpected.
A similar, but substantially weaker relationship existed be-
tween Extraversion and more conservative attitudes on the Sex
attitude dimension. This finding is opposite to what might be
ex-
pected based on Extraversion’s relationship to mode liberal
sexual
behavior (see Cooper et al., 2000). However, such a finding is
in line
37. with older studies of conservatism and personality (see Eysenck
&
Wilson, 1978; Pearson & Greatorex, 1981; Ray, 1980). We see
two
possible explanations for this relationship. First, there was a
rea-
sonably large correlation between Psychoticism and
Extraversion
(r = 0.37). As such, the relationship between Extraversion and
Sex
attitudes that we observed may have been a function of the very
B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49
(2010) 306–316 313
strong relationship between Psychoticism and Sex attitudes.
Alter-
natively, as noted above, Extraversion has two sub-factors:
affilia-
tion/sociability and agency/impulsiveness. Thus, the phenotypic
relationship may have been driven by the agency/impulsiveness
sub-factor. We leave it to future research to disentangle these
possibilities.
On the other hand, the more Neurotic our twins were, the more
‘‘liberal” their attitudes toward Out-groups (e.g. immigration,
mul-
ticulturalism). This echoed the relationship found between
Neurot-
icism and more liberal attitudes on economic issues in a large
US
sample, as the Australia Out-group dimension and the US Eco-
nomic dimension shared one important item in particular – atti-
tudes to immigration (see Verhulst et al., 2009).
38. One of the most interesting, but least explored, personality
traits in the context of political attitudes is Social Desirability.
The higher respondents scored on this dimension, the more
likely
they were to support liberal positions on Religious, Sex, and
Pun-
ishment attitudes. Overall the relationships between attitudes
and Social Desirability were the opposite of the relationships
be-
tween Psychoticism and attitudes, though substantially weaker.
In this study, as in Verhulst et al. (2009), Social Desirability
corre-
lated with more liberal social attitudes.
In sum, the relationships between Psychoticism, Extraversion,
and Neuroticism and all attitude dimensions (Sex, Punishment,
and Religious) were largely driven by common genetic influ-
ences. For Social Desirability the pattern that emerged was
the vast majority of covariation between Social Desirability
and each attitude dimension was due to the similarity in shared
environment, though this effect was less consistent in males.
Regardless of the source of covariance between personality
and attitude dimensions, the overwhelming portion of individ-
ual differences remained unique to each trait, with one excep-
tion – Psychoticism and Sex attitudes shared some 40% of
their covariance.
Of central importance to our findings, the relationships between
personality traits and political ideologies were not simple or
uni-
form: different attitude dimensions correlated with different
per-
sonality traits to varying degrees. Importantly, if we had
focused
only on the relationship between the general ideology factor and
the personality traits we would have missed several key
39. relation-
ships, including the relationship between Neuroticism and more
liberal attitudes, which seemed to be restricted to economic or
group competition attitude dimensions. Furthermore, the
intrigu-
ing relationship between Extraversion and Sex attitudes would
also have gone unnoticed. Recent research on personality and
pol-
itics has missed these findings because it focused only on the
gen-
eral ideological factor.
Do you prefer to go your own way rather than act by the rules?
Do you stop to think things over before doing anything?
Would you take drugs which may have strange or dangerous eff
Do good manners and cleanliness matter much to you?
Would you like other people to be afraid of you?
Is it better to follow society’s rules than go your own way?
Are you a talkative person?
Are you rather lively?
Do you enjoy meeting new people?
ects?
Our analysis has brought together the foundational contribu-
tions of H.J. Eysenck to personality and attitudes
dimensionality,
and the genetic studies of attitudes initiated by L.J. Eaves and
N.G. Martin and further developed by T.J. Bouchard.
Bouchard’s
(2009) argument that combining Authoritarianism,
Religiousness
and Conservatism implies that whatever relationship exists be-
tween personality and attitudes, is not that one predicts the
other,
but that both traits contain elements that are simply different
rep-
resentations of the same constructs. Such a position is supported
40. by the results we show here.
The finding that the majority of covariation between Psychot-
icism and attitudes is due to genetic variance provides strong
evidence that a simple environmentally driven causal theory
from personality to politics is not suitable for such a complex
relationship. It is important to keep in mind that genes are mul-
tifaceted: there is no specific gene for a personality trait or for
a
political attitude, even if individual genes can be associated
with
specific attitudes or personality traits. However, the
relationship
between Social Desirability and the attitude dimensions exhib-
ited a remarkably different pattern of results. The locus of the
relationship in this case rested on shared environmental influ-
ences on the two traits. Due to the significant spousal correla-
tions for both Social Desirability and socio-political attitudes, it
is likely that some part of the shared environmental covariance
is attributed to assortative mating. The result provides some
support for existing social science expectations about the
impor-
tance of environmental influences for the relationship between
personality traits and social attitudes (see Mondak & Halperin,
2008). The social nature of Social Desirability makes the
connec-
tion between this personality trait and the associated social atti-
tudes reasonable. However, this environmental relationship is
the exception to our understanding of personality and politics
based on our findings here and in other studies (see Verhulst
et al., 2009).
These analyses should be seen as the beginning of a new stage
in the research connecting personality and politics. At this
point,
we know that the patterns of relationships are more complex
41. than
those suggested by previous models. That is, we cannot assume
causality, nor focus only on a single left–right ideological
spectrum.
Future research focusing on both active and passive gene–
environ-
ment covariation using extended kinship designs, and gene–
envi-
ronment interaction models are underway to further explore
these patterns.
Appendix 1. Confirmatory factor structure of the EPQ
Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism Social
Desirability
.57
�.31
.79
�.42
.38
�.46
.66
.71
.60
(continued on next page)
Appendix A (continued)
Psychoticism Extraversion Neuroticism Social
42. Desirability
Can you usually let yourself go and enjoy yourself at a lively
party? .76
Do you usually take the initiative in making new friends? .69
Can you easily put some life into a rather dull party? .81
Do you tend to keep in the background on social occasions?
�.83
Do you like mixing with people? .73
Do you often take on more activities than you have time for?
.26
Do you like plenty of bustle and excitement around you? .60
Do you like doing things in which you have to act quickly? .57
Are you mostly quiet when you are with other people? �.75
Do other people think of you as being very lively? .81
Can you get a party going? .80
Would you call yourself happy-go-lucky? .49
Does your mood often go up and down? .69
Do you ever feel ‘just miserable’ for no reason? .64
Are you an irritable person? .62
Are your feelings easily hurt? .65
Do you often feel ‘fed-up’? .72
Would you call yourself a nervous person? .63
Are you a worrier? .75
Would you call yourself tense or ‘high-strung’? .65
Do you worry too long after an embarrassing experience? .62
Do you suffer from ‘nerves’? .59
Do you often feel lonely? .66
Are you often troubled about feelings of guilt? .66
If you say you will do something, do you always keep your
promise? .49
Were you every greedy by helping yourself to more than your
share? �.63
Have you ever blamed someone for what was really your fault?
43. �.59
Are all your habits good and desirable ones? .59
Have you ever taken anything that belonged to someone else?
�.68
Have you ever broken or lost something belonging to someone
else? �.55
Have you ever said anything bad or nasty about anyone? �.71
As a child, were you ever ‘fresh’ towards your parents? �.51
Have you ever cheated at a game? �.70
Have you ever taken advantage of someone? �.76
Do you always practice what you preach? .57
Do you sometimes put off until tomorrow what you ought to do
today?
�.36
Appendix 2. Confirmatory factor structure of the Australian
socio-political attitude index
Religious Sex Out-groups Punishment
Bible Truth .84
Divine Law .74
Sabbath Observance .74
Church Authority .76
Divorce �.60
Evolution Theory �.55
Condom Machine �.86
Abortion �.78
Legalized Prostitution �.69
Casual Sex �.64
Chastity .63
Birth Control �.51
Surrogate Mothers �.50
Test Tube Babies �.44
44. Gay Rights �.54 �.46
Asian Immigration �.79
Multiculturalism �.73
314 B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences
49 (2010) 306–316
Appendix 2 (continued)
Religious Sex Out-groups Punishment
White Superiority .64
Conservationists �.49
Apartheid .46
Foreign Ownership �.34
Stiffer Jail Terms .82
Strict Rules .68
Death Penalty .59
Caning .48
Teenage Delinquency �.44
Note: In addition to the 26 items above, the following items
comprise the 50-item general conservatism scale: Privatization,
Medicare, Trade Unions, Patriotism, Voluntary
Euthanasia, Nuclear Power, Working Mothers, Inborn
Conscience, Government Welfare, Socialism, Herbal Remedies,
Charity Work, Suicide, Licensing Laws, Fluoridation,
Royalty, Women Judges, Disarmament, Censorship, White Lies,
Teenage Dole, Private Schools, Chiropractors, Defense
Spending, Legalized Modern Art. The items excluded
from the attitudinal factors did not contribute to the latent
attitudes and were thus omitted from the traits.
45. B. Verhulst et al. / Personality and Individual Differences 49
(2010) 306–316 315
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REGULAR ARTICLE
Personality Psychology: Lexical Approaches, Assessment
Methods, and Trait Concepts Reveal Only Half
of the Story—Why it is Time for a Paradigm Shift
Jana Uher
Published online: 8 February 2013
# The Author(s) 2013. This article is published with open access
at Springerlink.com
Abstract This article develops a comprehensive philosophy-of-
science for person-
ality psychology that goes far beyond the scope of the lexical
55. approaches, assessment
methods, and trait concepts that currently prevail. One of the
field’s most important
guiding scientific assumptions, the lexical hypothesis, is
analysed from meta-
theoretical viewpoints to reveal that it explicitly describes two
sets of phenomena
that must be clearly differentiated: 1) lexical repertoires and the
representations that
they encode and 2) the kinds of phenomena that are represented.
Thus far, personality
psychologists largely explored only the former, but have
seriously neglected studying
the latter. Meta-theoretical analyses of these different kinds of
phenomena and their
distinct natures, commonalities, differences, and interrelations
reveal that personality
psychology’s focus on lexical approaches, assessment methods,
and trait concepts
entails a) erroneous meta-theoretical assumptions about what
the phenomena being
studied actually are, and thus how they can be analysed and
interpreted, b) that
contemporary personality psychology is largely based on
everyday psychological
knowledge, and c) a fundamental circularity in the scientific
explanations used in trait
psychology. These findings seriously challenge the widespread
assumptions about the
causal and universal status of the phenomena described by
prominent personality
models. The current state of knowledge about the lexical
hypothesis is reviewed, and
implications for personality psychology are discussed. Ten
desiderata for future
research are outlined to overcome the current paradigmatic
56. fixations that are substan-
tially hampering intellectual innovation and progress in the
field.
Keywords Personality. Meta-theory. Methodology. Lexical
hypothesis . Lexical
approach . Traits . Personality assessment . Philosophy of
science . Big five model . Five
factor model
Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55
DOI 10.1007/s12124-013-9230-6
J. Uher (*)
Comparative Differential and Personality Psychology, Freie
Universität Berlin, Habelschwerdter
Allee 45, 14195 Berlin, Germany
e-mail: [email protected]
Science provides a special way of constructing knowledge about
the world. Unlike
nonscientific knowledge construction, science provides a way of
thinking simulta-
neously about phenomena and the means of producing
knowledge about them—this
presupposes meta-theory and methodology (Althusser and
Balibar 1970; Toomela
2011). Meta-theory refers to the philosophical assumptions
about the theoretical
nature of the phenomena to be studied and to the questions that
are asked about
them. Methodology refers to the ways (i.e., approaches) in
which these questions can
be answered and to the techniques (i.e., methods) that can
57. therefore be used (Sprung
and Sprung 1984).
All sciences have meta-theories. They determine which
elements of real
phenomena can be reduced to precisely those subsets of
elements that are
considered relevant to and defining of concrete scientific
phenomena and the
ways in which they can be reduced (Althusser and Balibar 1970,
p. 84, analysing
the philosophy of science of Marx 1867; Køppe 2012; Weber
1949). Meta-
theories determine what is considered data in a particular field
(in a particular
historical time; Kuhn 1962), and how the thus-defined data can
be analysed and
interpreted (Køppe 2012; Wagoner 2009). Hence, the first step
of reducing real
elements into facts is already a theoretical decision (Weber
1949, p. 173). “Alles
Faktische ist schon Theorie”—all facts are already theory
(Goethe 1907, p. 127).
In other words, “it is the theory which decides what can be
observed” (Einstein
to Heisenberg in 1926, cited in Heisenberg 1989, p. 10). Meta-
theories and
methodologies are the rules that govern the effective practices
of sciences.
Therefore, they should be explicated to enable researchers to
constantly scruti-
nise all levels from epistemology and ontology up to the
specific theories about
the phenomena studied (Toomela 2011). This also includes
rethinking the very
reduction of real phenomena into scientific phenomena (Utz
58. 2005).
Contemporary psychology largely follows meta-theory and
methodology im-
plicitly, sometimes even “blindly” (Toomela 2011, p. 22)—this
occurs in partic-
ular when research methods are decided first and research
questions are adapted
to the methods rather than vice versa (Omi 2012; Westen 1996).
“The under-
standing that research methodology comprises an essential part
of scientific
theories about phenomena that are studied is not always brought
into the center
of theoretical reasoning” (Toomela 2009, p. 45). Ignoring the
meta-theoretical
assumptions underlying particular methods can result in
mismatches between
methods and research questions that hamper the scientific
understanding and
the explanations of the phenomena being studied—and thus
scientific progress
(Loftus 1996; Toomela and Valsiner 2010; Weber 1949). More
profoundly, a
priori decisions on methods preclude posing the primary
question of what the
phenomena to be studied actually are (Toomela 2011).
These meta-theoretical and methodological challenges are
characteristic of con-
temporary personality psychology and of taxonomic personality
research in particular
(Uher 2008a, b, 2011a, b; Uher, Methodological approaches to
personality taxono-
mies: The Behavioural Repertoire x Environmental Situations
Approach—A non-
59. lexical alternative, unpublished). The “discovery” of five major
dimensions of indi-
vidual differences is considered a milestone in modern Western
psychology (De Raad
1998; Digman 1990; Goldberg 1990). This “break through” was
made possible by the
assumption that people encode in their everyday languages all
those individual
2 Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55
differences that they perceive as most salient in everyday
encounters and that they
consider to be socially relevant. This so-called lexical
hypothesis, first articulated by
Galton (1884), has provided a stringent rationale for using the
lexica of human
languages as finite sources of information to unravel a few
major dimensions of
individual differences (Allport and Odbert 1936; Cattell 1943).
In English and some
other languages, the reduction of the pertinent lexical
repertoires to five major
dimensions has received the most support in Western scientific
communities
(Goldberg 1993; John et al. 1988). The lexical hypothesis also
suggests that enquiring
about the everyday psychological ideas that people develop of
themselves and of
other individuals could be a suitable method for the scientific
measurement of
personality (Block 2010; Westen 1996). Assessments by
laypeople have become
the standard methods of investigation (Baumeister et al. 2007;
60. Matthews et al.
2003) and the “primary source of data” in personality
psychology (Schwarz 1999,
p. 93). The assumptions expressed in the lexical hypothesis
might also contribute to
the fact that the prevailing strategies of the scientific
explanation of individual
differences largely follow structures that are deeply rooted in
everyday psychology.
In spite of its enormous importance as one of the most widely
used theoretical
assumptions to have guided personality psychology (Ashton and
Lee 2005), the
lexical hypothesis has remained untested (Toomela 2010a;
Westen 1996), and still
today, its statements have been considered only partially. This
article systematically
explores the meta-theoretical assumptions that underlie this
hypothesis. It starts by
highlighting the explicit reference of the lexical hypothesis to
two sets of phenomena
that must be clearly differentiated; these are, on the one hand,
people’s lexical
repertoires and the representations that these repertoires encode,
and, on the other
hand, the kinds of phenomena that are perceivable in everyday
life and that are being
represented. Thus far, personality psychology has focused
primarily on just one of
these two sets—on lexically encoded representations—but has
failed to systemati-
cally investigate the second set, namely, the kinds of
phenomena that are being
perceived and represented.
61. This article elaborates the distinct natures of the different kinds
of phenomena to
which the lexical hypothesis refers and explores their
commonalities, differences, and
interrelations from a philosophy-of-science perspective. This
allows for scrutiny to be
applied to the phenomena that are being lexically encoded and
sheds new light on the
fundamental questions of which kinds of phenomena can
actually be captured by
assessments—and which ones cannot. These analyses reveal that
erroneous meta-
theoretical assumptions underlie the established beliefs about
what these phenomena
actually are. They show that contemporary personality
psychology is largely based on
everyday psychological knowledge. Furthermore, the present
meta-theoretical anal-
yses allow us to scrutinise the prevailing psychological strategy
of explaining indi-
vidual differences—explicitly or implicitly—by assuming the
existence of “traits”.
The philosophy-of-science perspective identifies explanations
based on trait concepts
as fundamentally circular. These findings seriously challenge
the established assump-
tions about the causal and universal status of the phenomena
described by prominent
personality models.
Various researchers have carefully crafted serious concerns
about the established five
factor models of personality (e.g., Block 1995, 2001, 2010;
Eysenck 1992; McAdams
1992; Westen 1996), about assessment data and their
interpretation (e.g., Brower 1949;
62. Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55 3
Michell 1997, 2003; Omi 2012; Rosenbaum and Valsiner 2011;
Schwarz 2009; Trendler
2009; Valsiner 2012), and about the explanations provided by
trait psychology (e.g.,
Allport 1961; Bock 2000; Cervone et al. 2001; Lamiell 2003;
Mischel and Shoda 1994,
1995). This article moves these critical objections coherently to
meta-theoretical and
methodological levels of consideration. It expands them
substantially from the
philosophy-of-science perspective and elaborates a fundamental
critique of the lexical
approaches, assessments by laypeople, and trait concepts that
currently dominate per-
sonality psychology. It closes by outlining 10 desiderata for
future research to overcome
the limitations revealed in the analyses and to stimulate new
directions in the field.
Lexical Encodings—Constructs and Representations
The lexical hypothesis states that people encode in their
everyday languages all those
differences between individuals that they perceive to be salient
and that they consider
to be socially relevant in their everyday lives. Encodings about
differences within
individuals over time are not explicitly mentioned, however (see
below). Among the
many phenomena that individuals can perceive, recurrent
patterns are particularly
63. meaningful because such patterns may allow predictions of
future events while facing
the uncertainty of the future. Individuals therefore seek to
identify recurrent patterns
in their experiences with their personal world (Kelly 1955). To
describe, explain, and
to predict the likely occurrences of events, people construct and
represent their
experiences in private ideas (Valsiner 2012). These ideas are
called subjective or
individual representations (Jovchelovitch 2007; Moscovici
1984). Representations
referring to experiences with one’s own person and the—
especially social—world are
called personal constructs in personality psychology (Kelly
1955).
To communicate their perceptions and mental constructs of what
they perceive and
to negotiate socially shared meanings in order to cope with the
world collectively,
groups of individuals create and use social constructs. These
constructs are called
intersubjective or social representations (Jovchelovitch 2007) or
folk concepts in
personality psychology (Tellegen 1993). Constructs and
representations referring to
the perceptions of persons are called personality constructs. The
lexical hypothesis
states that, over time, socially shared constructs of self- and
other-perception become
encoded in the natural human languages. Pertinent lexical
encodings reflect the body
of everyday psychological ideas, beliefs, values, and practices
that people have
developed about individuals (Block 2010; Wagner et al. 1999;
64. Westen 1996).
What is Constructed and Represented—Phenomena and Patterns
What is it that is constructed and represented as “personality”?
Psychological defi-
nitions of personality—a few prominent ones picked out of
many—provide the first
insights into what scientific psychologists construct as
personality. Some frequently
cited definitions refer fairly generally and descriptively to
personality as
those characteristics that account for a person’s consistent
patterns of feeling,
thinking, and behaving (Pervin and John 1997, p. 4) or as
4 Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55
an individual’s characteristic patterns of thought, emotion, and
behaviour,
together with the psychological mechanisms–hidden or not–
behind those pat-
terns (Funder 2004, p. 5).
These definitions include psychological and behavioural
phenomena. Allport
(1937) also included psychophysical systems and environmental
adaptivity by defin-
ing personality as
the dynamic organization within the individual of those
psychophysical systems
that determine his unique adjustments to his environment (p.
65. 48).
Eysenck (1947) furthermore specified genetic and
environmental causality, bio-
logical systems, and ontogenetic development when he defined
personality as
the sum-total of the actual or potential behaviour-patterns of the
organism, as
determined by heredity and environment; [that] originates and
develops through
the functional interaction of the four main sectors into which
these behaviour-
patterns are organized: the cognitive sector (intelligence), the
conative sector
(character), the affective sector (temperament), and the somatic
sector
(constitution) (p. 25).
McCrae and Costa (2008) extended the scope of consideration
by conceptualising
particular personality constructs as reflecting “universals” of
human nature that are
“invariant across human cultures” (McCrae and Costa 1997, p.
510), and thus also
potentially phylogenetic in origin (McCrae 2009).
These definitions are sufficient for highlighting fundamental
issues. First, they
refer descriptively to particular patterns (e.g., those described
as “characteristic”
and “consistent”) and to the different kinds of phenomena in
which these patterns
occur (e.g., physiological, psychological, and behavioural
phenomena). Second,
they include assumptions about the causation of the described
66. patterns in the
described phenomena by other kinds of phenomena internal to
the individual
(e.g., psychological phenomena) and/or external (e.g.,
environmental conditions)
considering various explanatory perspectives (e.g., proximate,
adaptive, ontoge-
netic, phylogenetic). Astonishingly, there is no mention of
people’s lexical
encodations and representations of individual differences
although these are
central to the lexical hypothesis.
From philosophy-of-science perspectives, the different kinds of
phenomena
studied with regard to personality must be clearly differentiated.
This is essential
because interrelations among them can be untangled only if they
are explored
each in their own right and if a priori assumptions about
specific interrelations
are avoided. This is rarely done in psychology. Behaviourists
have focused too
much on external conditions and behaviours, but have largely
ignored psycho-
logical phenomena. Subsequent researchers have tried to
overcome the limita-
tions of behaviourism and have therefore focused strongly on
psychological
phenomena and on individuals’ representations of their world,
but behaviour
has faded into the background. The prevailing investigative
strategies are preoc-
cupied with causal processes and the conditions in which
behavioural phenomena
67. Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55 5
occur—especially psychological ones—with the result that clear
differentiations
of psychological and behavioural phenomena are missing.
The meta-theoretical definition of behavioural phenomena as
“external activities
or externalisations of living organisms that are functionally
mediated by the environ-
ment (Millikan 1993) in the present” (Uher, What is behaviour?
And (when) is
language behaviour? A meta-theoretical definition, unpublished)
allows such differ-
entiations. This definition highlights the intrinsic relatedness of
behaviour to proper-
ties of the immediate external environment that are defined as
environmental
situations and emphasises that it is inherently bound to the
present. Externality
differentiates behaviour from thoughts, emotions, and other
psychological phenom-
ena, which are also bound to the present (Gillespie and Zittaun
2010; Toomela 2010a;
Valsiner 1998, 2012) but are internal to the individual (Toomela
2008). This meta-
theoretical definition generally defines all behavioural
phenomena without specifying
particular ones (e.g., goal-directed action or response) because
many of these con-
cepts include a priori assumptions about causally related
internal processes (e.g.,
psychological phenomena) and external conditions in the
environment (e.g., partic-
68. ular stimuli) that are separate kinds of phenomena. To scrutinise
which kinds of
phenomena people can perceive in everyday life and construct
as personality, it is
helpful to first specify the particular patterns referred to in
definitions of personality.
Defining Patterns
For scientific definitions, the notions of “a person’s consistent
patterns”, “individual
characteristics”, and “individual uniqueness” are surprisingly
vague. They do not
specify what is meant to be “consistent” with what, nor do they
indicate which patterns
are considered “different, “unique”, and “characteristic” and
why. Moreover, they fail to
mention within-individual variability and structural
complexity—both within and be-
tween individuals. This is remarkable because these patterns
refer to phenomena (e.g.,
those of the psyche and of behaviour) that are heterogeneous,
complex, dynamic, and
thus highly fluctuating. In such phenomena, differences among
individuals are neces-
sarily apparent at any given time (Uher 2011a) and
determinations of meaningful
consistency—both within and between individuals—are matters
of mere convention.
Meta-theoretical analyses help to carve out basic criteria for
determining which patterns
can be considered specific to particular individuals, and thus
different from others,
which ones cannot, and why. So what does individual-
specificity mean?
69. Probabilistic Patterns In the steadily fluctuating flow of events
in highly dynamic
phenomena, individuals necessarily show considerable within-
individual variability
over time. Consequently, they can be characterised only by
probabilistic patterns.
What types of probability1 are able to describe these patterns?
First, events of
psychological and behavioural phenomena are not random, such
as events in throws
of dice. There are no equipossible elementary events in well-
defined sample spaces
that can be studied in repeated experiments as in Laplacian
theory. Moreover, the
1 For the present meta-theoretical analyses, theories considering
subjectivistic probabilities of the occur-
rences of events (e.g., degrees of belief; Gillies 2000; Rychlak
1968) will not be considered here (for
reasons described in detail below).
6 Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55
events are not independent from one another—this applies to
events of the same
phenomenon (e.g., several smiles) as well as to events of
different phenomena (e.g., a
smile and a laugh). Rather, different events may co-occur and
even depend upon one
another, particularly if the phenomena are functionally similar
or related. Their events
need not be exclusively disjunctive (e.g., smiles and laughs).
Thus, finite (limiting)
frequencies, which are defined as empirical occurrences relative
70. to all possible
occurrences (von Mises 1928), are inadequate for describing
individual probabilities
in psychological and behavioural phenomena.
The concept of propensity probabilities seems to be better
suited for this purpose.
Propensities are considered properties of physical objects or
situations that are assumed
to cause empirical frequencies, even if only single-case
observations are made (Popper
1959). They are therefore conceived also as properties of
repeatable conditions that
determine empirical frequencies in the long run (Gillies 2000).2
But this very assump-
tion precludes the idea that propensity probabilities can be
applied to individuals
because their defining property as living systems is the fact that
they undergo continuous
changes during ontogenetic development. This is true for the
molecules in their bodies
and the phenomena constructed as personality alike. In fact,
personality is assumed to
develop and change gradually over the course of the lifespan
(e.g., Caspi and Roberts
2001; Cattell 1950; Soldz and Vaillant 1999). This implies that
the individual’s empirical
frequencies cannot converge (i.e., stabilise) in the long run as
may be true for physical
systems. By contrast, the probabilities themselves change over
time—an idea typically
not considered by theories of propensity probabilities (cf.
Gillies 2000; Popper 1959).
Further differences are essential. In psychological and
behavioural phenomena,
71. there are no discrete events such as there are in coin tosses.
Well-defined natural
entities on which probability estimations could be based are
lacking. Instead, it is the
scientists who must decide which entities of real phenomena
make up particular
scientific phenomena. The ways in which they define entities as
categories depend
not only on the phenomena themselves, but also on the purposes
of their reduction
(Weber 1949). Moreover, the processual character and
microgenetic development of
many psychological and behavioural phenomena (Rosenthal
2004) entails that their
occurrences can be construed as frequencies only in some cases.
In other cases, they
may be construed more accurately as durations of nonfixed and
often highly variable
length (or as latencies, which are durations with specified start
times).
Consequently, in fluctuating phenomena such as those of the
psyche and of
behaviour, events can be considered only by their empirical
occurrences (i.e., in
terms of frequencies and durations) relative to particular time
periods. This new
probability type will therefore be called a time-relative
probability. For example, in
observations of free play in a kindergarten group, a time-
relative probability of
10 min per hour of observation time during which a child plays
by him/herself may
be determined for a particular 5-year-old child. The time
periods in which time-
relative probabilities are determined must be specified
72. precisely—both in terms of the
occasions and spans of time in which the data were collected to
determine the
probabilities and in terms of historical times in the individual’s
ontogeny. Both are
2 The concept of propensity probabilities reifies observed
properties into causal entities of an unkown and
undefined kind. As such, the explanatory strategy is inherently
circular and faces the same challenges as
those elaborated for trait psychology in this article.
Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55 7
essential to define individual-specificity. For example, the 10
min per hour probabil-
ity could have been determined from 20 h of regular observation
obtained across a
time period of 2 weeks; the ontogenetic stage of the individual
is specified by an age
of 5 years, which can be categorised as early childhood.
This new probability type enables ratio-scaled quantifications
that are essential for
quantitative comparisons across time and situational contexts
and between individuals,
groups, populations, and species (Uher, Meta-theoretical
foundations of objectivity
versus subjectivity in quantifications of behaviour and
personality; An integrative
meta-theoretical framework for research on individual
behaviour in context—situa-
tions, populations, species, both unpublished). It also allows for
the merging of
73. concepts of averages across occasions, as studied in personality
research, with concepts
of ranges, especially maxima, as studied in intelligence and
achievement research3
(Ackerman 1994), and concepts of variability in terms of
differences between consec-
utive occasions (i.e., fluctuations) as studied in physiological
and behavioural research
(De Weerth et al. 1999). For example, the child’s time-relative
probability could be on
average 10 min per hour, ranging from 5 to 20 min per hour on
a daily basis; the
magnitude of day-to-day variability (for comparable occasions
across the days) as
indicated by the coefficient of variation could be CV=0.5. This
coefficient specifies
the standard deviation standardised by the mean (because the
standard deviation is
sensitive to the sample mean) to allow for comparisons between
different samples (for
an overview of methods of analyses of variability, see van Geert
and van Dijk 2002).
Such comprehensive analyses of patterns are important because
within-individual var-
iability in psychological and behavioural phenomena is
pronounced and bears theoret-
ical and empirical importance. For example, within-individual
variability can indicate
ongoing processes and can reflect phenomena that are important
for explaining changes
and development (van Geert and van Dijk 2002, p. 344).
Moreover, within-individual
variability often substantially exceeds between-individual
variability (Shweder and
Sullivan 1990; Uher, An integrative meta-theoretical framework
74. for research on indi-
vidual behaviour in context—situations, populations, species,
unpublished).
Differential Patterns Time-relative probabilities that
characterise all individuals in
the same way cannot be individual-specific. If all children in
the observed group have
the same time-relative probability of self-playing, then these
probabilities cannot
characterise any one of them individually. Time-relative
probabilities can reflect
individual uniqueness only if they deviate from those of other
individuals of a
particular reference group of interest (e.g., a social group,
culture, or species)—that
is, if they are differential. This is the case if the determined
time-relative probabilities
differ between children such that their individual averages vary
interindividually, for
example, between 2 min and 30 min per hour, their individual
ranges vary, for
example, between 15 min and 50 min, and their individual
within-individual varia-
bilities vary, for example, between CV=0.3 and 1.3.
The concept of time-relative probabilities presupposes that the
number of occa-
sions and periods of time considered for the probability
estimations are comparable
3 Personality research is often distinguished from intelligence
research in American psychology. In
European traditions (e.g., Cattell, Eysenck, Stern, Pawlik),
intelligence and achievement are considered
inherent parts of an individual’s personality.
75. 8 Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55
between individuals. This is important when considering the
effects of aggregation on
the reliability of probability estimations (cf. Spearman 1910)
and when taking into
account the fact that the individuals’ probabilities themselves
may gradually change
over time (i.e., develop). In the given example, this means that
the time-relative
probabilities of the other children should also be estimated
based on 20 h of
observation across a time span of 2 weeks. These children
should also be of similar
age in order to disentangle differences between individuals from
differences between
age groups. Furthermore, the situational contexts in which
different individuals are
studied should be comparable between them because the average
time-relative
probabilities of particular groups of individuals may generally
shift across different
situations (Uher, An integrative meta-theoretical framework for
research on individ-
ual behaviour in context—situations, populations, species,
unpublished.) Analyses of
differentiality therefore require statistical standardisation of
time-relative probabilities
within the time periods and within the situational contexts in
which they are deter-
mined (Uher 2011a). Statistical standardisation removes the
information on absolute
time-relative probability scores, however, because the data are
76. converted into relative,
but still ratio-scaled data. Yet, the absolute scores can always
be traced when needed
for interpretation and for later comparisons with other samples
or with future inves-
tigations of the same sample.
Temporal Patterns Differential patterns in time-relative
probabilities that change
rapidly cannot characterise an individual’s uniqueness. To
reflect individual-
specificity, they must be stable across time periods that are
longer than those in
which the probabilities were first ascertained. As with the
analyses of differential
patterns, the analyses of temporal patterns presuppose that
probability estimations are
based on numbers of occasions and periods of time that are
comparable between the
individuals being studied and between the time periods being
contrasted. In the above
example, this means that the differential patterns in the
children’s time-relative
probabilities for self-play should be similar when estimated
again some time later
in a second period of 2 weeks. Temporal stability is an essential
prerequisite for
justifying interpretations of the obtained standardised aggregate
scores as reflecting
individual-specific patterns (Uher 2011a).
Temporal stability can be analysed for differential patterns in
the individuals’
averages, ranges, and variabilities. For example, it is quite
possible that individuals
with similar differential scores in their average probabilities
77. will differ from one
another in stable ways with regard to their ranges and patterns
of within-individual
variability. The magnitude of temporal stability considered
meaningful to construct
individual-specificity is necessarily a matter of convention that
can and must be
explicitly defined. It depends on the ontogenetic stages of the
individuals under study
as well as on their species-specific life expectancy (Uher 2009).
It also depends on the
phenomena being studied and the meta-theory used. For
example, in biology, weak
test-retest correlations of individual differences in behaviour
across just a few days or
weeks of r=.20 are considered ecologically and evolutionarily
meaningful (Sih and
Bell 2008), whereas in human psychology, such weak
correlations are considered
indicators of unreliable measurements of individual-specific
patterns (Uher 2011a).
In conclusion, for fluctuating and dynamic phenomena such as
those of the psyche
and behaviour, individual-specificity refers to differential
patterns in time-relative
Integr Psych Behav (2013) 47:1–55 9
probabilities that are stable in ways that are considered to be
meaningful. This
concept fits well into Brunswik’s (1955) probabilistic theory for
functional psychol-
ogy. Brunswik ascertained that although the environment may
78. be lawful in terms of
physical principles, to the individual, “it presents itself as semi-
erratic … therefore all
functional psychology is inherently probabilistic” (Brunswik
1955, p. 193). An
empirical application of this meta-theoretical concept of
individual-specificity to
behaviour was demonstrated in a study on capuchin monkeys
based on 141 con-
textualised behavioural variables (Uher et al., Contextualised
behavioural measure-
ments of personality differences obtained in behavioural tests
and social observations
in adult capuchin monkeys (Cebus apella), unpublished).
Individual-specific patterns that have been identified in these
ways can be subse-
quently studied across longer periods of time to explore patterns
in their gradual
change and ontogenetic development (Uher 2011a). This
presupposes again that the
occasions and time spans as well as the historical times that are
studied should be
specified and should be comparable between the individuals
under study.
The concept of time-relative probabilities allows for the close
examination of individ-
ual cases in specified situations. By studying many individuals
in this way, it also allows
for the study of lawful patterns at the sample level. The former
type of study is commonly
referred to as ideographic; the latter one as nomothetic. But
ideographic approaches in
terms of single case studies in and of themselves need not be
informative about particular