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Metacognitive Knowledge
In cognition and learning, the term above is the knowledge of the mental
processes that are involved in different kinds of learning. Learners are said to be capable
ofbecoming aware of their own mental processes. This includes recognizing which
kinds of learning tasks cause difficulty, which approaches to remembering are more
effective than others, and how to solve different kinds of problems (Richards, Platt, &
Platt, 1992).
Metacognitive Strategy
Metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the mental processes used in the
learning process, monitoring (earning while it is taking place, and evaluating learning
after it has occurred (Richards, Platt, & Platt).
Metalinguistic Knowledge
In language learning, it is the knowledge of the forms, structure and other aspects
of a language that a learner arrives at through reflecting on and analyzing the language.
Morphology
The smallest units that contribute to meanings in a language are called not words,
but morphemes. Morphemes can be free [boy] or bound [-s] (Owens, 2001).
OralLanguage
Oral language refers to spoken language as opposed to written language. Spoken
language contains elements that written language does not, such as, inflection, gestures,
facial expression, and a listening audience of one or more that may give feedback during
delivery. Oral language provides a foundation for the development of other language
skills (Zhang & Alex, 1995).
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holds that the meaningful parts of language are only arbitrarily divided into separate
components of language. Langacker (1990) states “it is pointless to analyze grammatical
units without reference to semantic [meaning] value” (p. I). The cognitive view of
language acquisition is useful in describing language changes in early adolescents, such
as the ability to think and express ideas abstractly.
Language ofthe Early Adolescent
Early adolescence is a time of expanded social interests and experiences, a time
when new thinking abilities allow consideration of many possibilities, and a time when
peers become more influential (National Middle School Association, 1995). At the same
time, great stress is put on developing language to meet the needs of increasingly
complex situations. Changes in cultural dynamics, along with changes in cognitive
thought processes, social and academic experience, influence the language of the early
adolescent, as to what is said and how it is said (Owens, 2001).
Early adolescents speak a social dialect to peers, adults and younger children, an
academic dialect in the school setting (Chamot & O'Malley 1994), and a dialect with
jargon or slang reserved for their peer group (Donahue & Bryan, 1984; Larson &
McKinley, 1995). A dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or
by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words,
grammar, and or in pronunciation from other forms of the same language (Richards, Platt,
& Platt, 1992). Early adolescents may say when greeting a peer, “Give me five.” Instead
of“HelIo.”
Each early adolescent dialect (social, academic, and peer) has its own primary
social setting, but each dialect is also unique in its form, function, and use. Table 1,
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fundamental frequency shifts to a lower frequency as the early adolescent’s vocal cords
become longer and the larynx becomes bigger. This is particularly noticeable in males.
The acoustic signal from a person speaking is continuous and words are not
signaled by breaks in the acoustic signal. Children, therefore, must be able to segment
and extract information about the units of speech from the variable and continuous
acoustic signals they receive (Barrett, 1999).
Auditory Phonetics
Auditory phonetics is concerned with how speech sounds are perceived by the
listener. Assuming that the listener is able to use acoustic phonetics to segment and
extract words from a speech stream, then auditory phonetics enables the listener to
perceive speech and inflection. Intonation patterns, (pitch, loudness, syllable length, and
speech rhythm), rely on auditory phonetics for accurate perception by the listener, such as
the difference between "Run?" and "Run!" The differentiation in meaning made by a
listener becomes an issue of semantics or meaning.
Children usually first use inflection with yes and no questions. Questions using
inflection are followed by stress (frilling pitch) to note ownership (’daddy car) [stress on
the first word, daddy] and location (daddy ’car) [stress on the second word, car].
Inflection plays a big part in delivering sarcasm or sarcastic remarks and is not
well understood by the early adolescent. Sarcasm expresses complex meanings that can
be interpreted in a variety of ways. Demorest, Silberstein, Gardner, & Winner (1983)
examined the understanding of sarcasm in children six-, eight-years of age, and early
adolescents eleven-years-of-age by having them listen to a story with pictures, the last
sentence of which was a sarcastic remark. Then the children were asked to explain the
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discuss a topic. Others, particularly the educational psychology textbooks, tried to cover
all school ages at the same time. If in these textbooks the characteristics of the children
being discussed met the characteristics of early adolescents, without identifying the ages
of the students, the selections were coded. Ifthe group of children identified in the
textbook included the early adolescent ages as well as other ages, the selection in the
textbook was also coded.
M ixed Selections. Some selections had more than one topic, particularly chapter
summaries. These were usually paragraphs that were for coding purposes divided into
sentences. In these cases the sentences were coded instead of the paragraph.
In some cases a sentence had one topic but mentioned a second topic. In this case
the sentence was coded for the most applicable sub-component and the second topic was
coded as an isolated item. For example, Woolfolk (2001) stated, “Many children are in
their preadolescent years before they are able to distinguish being kidded from being
taunted or before they know that a sarcastic remark [emphasis added] is not meant to be
taken literally” (p. 54). The above passage was coded as a sentence being in the compo
nent area of pragmatics under communicative competence because being able to
understand the intent of a communicative message is competence. The underlined
portion was coded as an isolated item under sarcasm, a topic associated with
conversation. The isolated item occurred when a specific item was used to support a
more general topic.
Summary o fData Collection Procedures
Once a passage or relevant selection was found, the selection was copied onto a
data collection sheet in the left hand column. The textbook title, author, chapter number,
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Meece (2002) stated, “Once children reach middle childhood, the sound, meaning,
and grammatical systems are well developed apart from a few, less commonly used forms
in speech, such as relative clauses and passive sentences” (p. 260). Meece was more
specific in the kinds of clauses when she wrote,
A longitudinal study (K-12) [Loban, 1976] showed that as children grow older
they write longer clauses and embed dependent clauses more often. In particular,
clauses are more complex because of changes in noun phrases found in the
subjects and objects, including objects of prepositions” (p. 294).
Meece addressed the kinds of clauses used and the use of clauses.
Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2)
Meece (2002) did not address conjunctions.
Syntax—Grammar, (S3)
Meece (2002) had five selections about grammar, four were addressed
developmentally and one addressed how grammar was acquired. See Table 38 for depth
of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.
Meece (2002), wrote, “The sentences produced by 12 year-olds are precise,
detailed, and condensed, demonstrating more syntactic and cognitive complexity than
those written by younger children” (p. 294). She also stated,.. .“that written syntax has a
different and more precise set of rules than spoken syntax” (p. 295). Meece mentioned
the rules of syntax as a body of knowledge but did not identify any specific rules or give
further examples. Meece did not address the rules of morphology, or how words and
sentences are constructed.
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He also stated in a table titled, Children’s Development / Behavior for the child 11-14,
“Vocabulary increases with addition of more abstract words” (p. 328). He did not define
or describe abstract words or identify the amount of increase in vocabulary that occurs
during early adolescence. At the bottom ofthe table was a note that read in part, “Also
keep in mind that there is a great deal of variation in the age at which children reach these
[language] milestones and still be considered within the normal range of language
development” (p. 328). Santrock does not elaborate on the table or the note in the text.
Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2)
Santrock (2001) had five selections of the effect of written text on vocabulary or
other aspects of language, all addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 58
for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed.
Santrock (2001) described reading stages as they might relate to early
adolescents: “Stage 3. In fourth through eight grade, children become increasingly able to
obtain new information from print. In other words, they read to learn” (p. 327). Santrock
did not elaborate on this statement.
Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis, (M)
Santrock included one selection about morphological analysis addressed from a
developmental perspective. See Table 59 for depth of selections in regard to how
selections were addressed.
Santrock stated, “The increasing ability of elementary school children to analyze
words helps them understand words that have no direct relation to their personal
experiences” (p. 326). Santrock did not elaborate as to what he meant by “analyze
words.” No other reference was made to morphological analysis.
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Statements that involved some internal personality construct he [Barenboim]
called psychological constructs (such as “Sarah is so land.” ...) while any that
included qualifiers, explanations, exceptions, or mentions of changes in character
he [Barenboim] called organizing relationships (e.g., “He’s only shy around
people he doesn’t know.” Or ...). ... You can see that behavioral comparisons
peaked at around age 8 or 9, psychological constructs peaked at about age 14, and
organizing relationships did not appear at all until age 10 and were still increasing
at age 16. (p. 359)
Bee did not expand upon this research or comment on the importance of these changes.
Intimacy is one aspect of the content of early adolescent conversations. Bee
(2000) reported a study of intimacy by Biglow and LeGiapa (1975) and then
summarized: “References to intimacy potential (e.g., ‘I can tell her things about myself I
can’t tell anyone else’) did not appear until seventh grade and then increased further in
eighth grade” (p. 360).
Bee summarized the research of Biglow and LeGiapa (1975), Carl Barenboim
(1977; 1981) Lawrence Kohlberg (1964; 1976; 1980; 1981), Lawrence Walker (1980),
Susan Martorano, (1977) and Piaget, (1932) when she stated,
Taking together all of what I have told you so far, you can see that the patterns of
developmental change in children’s understanding of themselves, of others, and of
relationships are strikingly similar, shifting in all the ways I mentioned at the
beginning of the chapter from outer to inner characteristics, from observation to
inferences, from definite to qualified, and from egocentric to a general view. (p.
360)
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Syntax—Clauses, (SI)
Ormrod (2000) had two selections about clauses, one from a developmental
perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 78 for depth of coverage.
In reference to secondary students, Ormrod (2000) stated.
When asked to write about a particular topic, they retrieve and generate many
more ideas than students in the elementary grades do. Their sentences are more
likely to vary in structure and frequently contain one or more dependent clauses,
(p. 359)
Ormrod also stated that teachers must “introduce various kinds of simple and complex
sentences” (p. 356). Ormrod did not elaborate further on the kinds of clauses used.
Syntax—Conjunctions. (S2)
Ormrod (2000) had two selections regarding kinds of conjunctions used, one
descriptive and one developmental. See Table 79 for depth of coverage.
Ormrod (2000) stated.
Children in the upper elementary and junior high grades have trouble with many
connectives—words such as but, although, yet, however, and unless, [example]
...Even 12 year-olds have trouble identifying the correct sentence in pairs like
these reflecting only a vague understanding of the connectives but and although.
(p. 60)
The research cited by Ormrod asked the children to identify the correct sentence of two,
both containing conjunctions, one used improperly. She also attributed the ability to use
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Educational Psychology - Eggen
Textbook: Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak (2001). Educationalpsychology windows on
classrooms, (5thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Research Question I: Sub-ComponentsAddressed
Eggen and Kauchak had 46 selections related to early adolescent language. Five
of the six components of language and seven of the 13 sub-components were addressed.
Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul)
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 13 selections regarding conversation, seven of
which addressed reasoning. Four of the selections described language, five addressed
language developmentally and four addressed language from an acquired perspective.
See Table 84 for information on depth of coverage.
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) addressed early adolescent conversation in regard to
gender differences and social problem solving. They stated,
Differences in participation become greater as students move through school
with an especially significant decrease in girls’ participation during the middle
school years. In 7thgrade, they [girls] initiated 41% of the student-teacher
interactions, but by 8thgrade this number decreased to 30%. (p. 150)
Later they returned to the issue of gender separated schools and classes and stated, “One
study found girls more likely to ask and answer questions in a girls-only middle school
math class than in coeducational classes” (p. 152). These authors did not attempt to
explain the presence or absence of language participation in gender separated classes.
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In regard to social problem solving, Eggen and Kauchak (2001) commented:
“Research indicates that social problem solving develops gradually... Older children
realize that persuasion and compromise can result in solutions that are beneficial to all
and they’re better at adapting when initial efforts aren’t successful.” (p. 86)
Social skills classes were described: “Programs to teach social problem solving
skills... have improved [the children’s] ability to talk about and analyze social
problems” (p. 87). Specific language skills, however, were not mentioned.
In addition, Eggen and Kauchak (2001) described self-reflective perspective
taking and also listed Selman’s stages of moral reasoning. Neither topic, however, was
developed in relation to language skills.
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address other aspects of conversation,
including negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm.
Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2)
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had three selections about discourse. Two selections
were addressed from a descriptive perspective and one was addressed from a
developmental perspective. See Table 85 for information regarding depth of coverage.
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) focused on written discourse. For example, they
stated, “a teacher has students write letters to friends and relatives and compose stories
about their own experiences” (p. 58). They also stated,
.. .eight to 12 year-olds can generate ideas but have trouble organizing and
evaluating them. Attempts to consciously eliminate some ofthese hurdles have
proven successful. For example, to bypass the graphic challenge, researchers
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address what the early adolescent needs to know about grammar, vocabulary, or the
rules of speaking or writing.
Semantics—Concepts, (Tl)
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had five selections about concepts, two were
addressed descriptively and three were about the acquisition of concepts. Table 87
contains information on the depth of coverage and how selections were addressed.
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) stated,
Understanding language development is important for several reasons: I. As
shown in the preceding discussions of Vygotsky and Piaget, language is a
catalyst for developmental change. As children interact with peers and adults,
they construct increasingly complex and accurate schemes and ideas about the
world (p. 63).
Eggen and Kauchak added, “Conceptually driven views [ofreading] suggest that the
meaning learners take from text is determined by individual expectations and prior
knowledge” (p. 365). Eggen and Kauchak addressed the formation and use of concepts
but only tied concepts to language through reading.
Semantics—Meanings, (T2)
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address meanings.
Syntax—Clauses, (SI)
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address clauses.
Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2)
Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address conjunctions.
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Figure 10
Summary of Selections for Elliot et al.
Elliott «t al.
Conversation
Discourse
Com petence
Concepts
Meanings
C lauses
Con]
Grammar
Vocab
Written
Morph A.
Voice
Inflection
0 5 10 15
Selections
Q Descriptive ■Developm ental □Acquired i
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Educational Psychology - Snowman
Textbook: Jack Snowman and Robert Biehler (2000). Psychology applied to teaching,
(9thed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed
Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 22 selections and addressed two of the six
components of language and three of the 13 sub-components of language. About
language the textbook stated. “Kindergartners are quite skillful with language” (p. 77).
Language was not directly addressed for older children.
Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul)
Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 13 selections regarding conversation, three of
the selections had to do with reasoning (noted in parenthesis in the Table 117). Of the
13 selections, nine were addressed descriptively, three were addressed developmentally,
and one addressed how language skills are acquired. There were two sections, one on
Social Characteristics: Elementary Grades (p. 84) (which included grades 5 and ages
included in the definition of early adolescence) and one on Cognitive Characteristics:
Middle School (p. 92).
Snowman and Biehler (2000) described the logic that the early adolescent uses
as being constrained and inconsistent.
But general and abstract ideas often escape the [late] elementary age child. For
example, sarcasm, metaphor, and allegory are usually lost on the concrete stage
thinkers. A similar fate usually befalls the idea that knowledge is often the
product of inferential reasoning and may therefore be rejected as untrue if flaws
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Long term semantic memory contains the facts and generalized information that
we know; concepts, principles, or rules and how to use them, and our problem
solving skills and learning strategies, (p. 181)
Slavin addressed both the memory of concepts and the transfer of concepts to everyday
living situations. Slavin further stated that concepts can be teamed by observation and
definition and are best taught by using examples, and by comparing and contrasting
those examples with non-examples. Slavin addressed formation and use of concepts,
and tied concepts to words through meanings.
Semantics—Meanings, (T2)
Slavin (2000) did not address meanings.
Syntax—Clauses, (SI)
Slavin (2000) did not address clauses.
Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2)
Slavin (2000) had one selection regarding conjunctions that was addressed from
a developmental perspective. See Table 124 for information regarding the depth of the
selection.
Slavin (2000), stated,
For young thinkers, this [if...then statements] is often presented in the form of a
promise such as, ‘If you finish all your dinner, then you can have some dessert.’
Piaget proposed that this form of expression is a major characteristic of
adolescent and adult thinking” (p. 198).
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- 1. INFORMATION TO USERS Thismanuscript has been reproduced from the microfilm master. UMI films the text directly from the original or copy submitted. Thus, some thesis and dissertation copies are in typewriter face, while others may be from any type of computer printer. The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality of the copy submitted. Broken or indistinct print, colored or poor quality illustrations and photographs, print bleedthrough, substandard margins, and improper alignment can adversely affect reproduction. In the unlikely event that fine author did not send UMI a complete manuscript and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if unauthorized copyright material had to be removed, a note will indicate the deletion. Oversize materials (e.g., maps, drawings, charts) are reproduced by sectioning the original, beginning at the upper left-hand comer and continuing from left to right in equal sections with small overlaps. ProQuest Information and Learning 300 North Zeeb Road, Ann Arbor, Ml 48106-1346 USA 800-521-0600 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 2. Reproduced with permissionof the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 3. University of Nevada,Reno Early Adolescent Language A Content Analysis of Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks A dissertation submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in Curriculum and Instruction By Bobbin Kyte Cave Dr. Martha Combs/Dissertation Advisor August, 2002 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 4. UMI Number. 3068510 UMI* UMIMicroform3068510 Copyright 2003 by ProQuest Information and Learning Company. All rights reserved. This microform edition is protected against unauthorized copying under Title 17. United States Code. ProQuest Information and Learning Company 300 North Zeeb Road P.O. Box 1346 Ann Arbor. Ml 48106-1346 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 5. L I I RSI I Y OI I A I ). Kl 0 THE GRADUATE SCHOOL We recommend that the dissertation prepared under our supervision by BOBBIN KYTE CAVE entitled Early Adolescent Language: A Content Analysis of Child Development And Educational Psychology Textbooks be accepted in partial fulfillment of the requirements for the degree of DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY Y MarthajCombs, Ed. D.. Advisor tU<iAAi Tammy Abematny, Ph. D Committee / n mber etting, Ph. D., Committee Member SteveQ Harlow, Ph. D., Committee Member Ann Tyler, Ph. Qk, At-Large Member Marsha H. Read, Ph. D., Associate Dean, Graduate School August, 2001 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 6. Abstract Research suggests thatteachers’knowledge of language impacts their expectations of and interactions with early adolescents. Teacher candidates are first introduced to early adolescent development, including language development, through courses in child development and or educational psychology. Leading child development and educational psychology textbooks were examined for all components of language, the quality and quantity of information, and the theoretical perspectives of the authors, as they were relevant to early adolescents (ages 10-14). None of the 13 textbooks examined completely described early adolescent language, neither development nor acquisition. In general, child development textbooks contained more information about language and were more complete than educational psychology textbooks. The strongest textbooks emphasized acquisition of language and were written from a social- environmental perspective. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 7. Acknowledgements Many people havehelped and supported me in the completion of this dissertation. First, my husband Marcellus (Marc) Cave encouraged me when there were disappointments, picked up the slack and created the time for me to work on the dissertation. His love and caring are unmatched. Without his support this paper would not have been started or finished. It was my parents Lydiane and Bob Kyte who gave me a love of learning, showed me how to find to look under rocks to find creatures and in books to find another point of view. For their steadfast interest and support of my activities I am grateful. My thanks go to my chair, Martha Combs who guided me when I was lost, discussed issues when I needed clarification, asked questions when I needed to see that I already knew the answers but was not putting them into writing, and stood by me even when I said the wrong thing. Her faith in me never faltered. Her dedication to her students to become the best teachers that they can be is seldom matched by other faculty. Finally, I thank the students that I have taught for teaching me, for opening my eyes to their needs, their wants, and their hopes. It was their difficulties with language that was the inspiration for this study. To the readers ofthis dissertation, please feel free to use the research on early adolescent language found in Chapter 2. I charge you to spread the word that early adolescents are still learning language and they do not understand everything adults say or write. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 8. lii Table of Contents CHAPTERONE: INTRODUCTION I Early Adolescent Language I The Teacher’s Role in Language Development 2 Language and Thinking 2 Oral Language 3 Literacy 4 Language as a Social and Cultural Activity 5 Teacher’s Responsibility 6 Textbooks and Courses 7 Why Look at Early Adolescent Language 8 Research Questions 9 Definitions 10 Summary 17 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW 18 Introduction 18 What is Language? 18 Language in the Educational Community 19 The Basis of Language 20 Components of Language 20 Language in Grammar 21 Language in Literacy 21 Language in Social Skills 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 9. iv Preliminary Theoretical Considerations24 The Intimate Theory of Language 24 Acquired Theories of Language 25 Social or Communicative Theory of Language 26 The Cognitive Theory of Language 26 Language of the Early Adolescent 27 Social Dialects 30 Academic Dialects 31 Peer Dialect 32 Development in the Component Areas of Language 33 Pragmatics 33 Conversation 36 Slang 36 Similes and Metaphors 37 Idioms 37 Ambiguity and Sarcasm 38 Persuasion and Negotiation 39 Inductive and Deductive Reasoning 39 Discourse 44 Storytelling 46 Proverbs 47 Communicative Competence 47 Semantics 49 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 10. V Concept Formation 49 SemanticFeature Theory 50 Functional Core Theory 52 Associative Complex Theory 52 Prototypic Complex Theory 53 Meanings 54 Multiple Meanings 54 Metaphorical Meanings 55 Lexicology 55 Size and Increase in Vocabulary 55 Written Language 56 Morphology 57 Morphological Analysis 57 Syntax 58 Clauses 61 Conjunctions 63 Lexical Cohesion 63 Grammar 64 Phonology 65 Articulation Phonetics 69 Acoustic Phonetics 69 Auditory Phonetics 70 Summary of Components 71 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 11. VI Theories of Languageas They May Affect a Textbook Author 73 Textbooks as a Source of Teacher Knowledge 75 Trade Book Publishers 76 Professional and Academic Book Publishers 76 University Presses 76 Textbook Publishers 76 Teacher Education Courses 77 Child Development Courses 77 Educational Psychology Courses 77 Summary 78 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHOD 79 Introduction 79 Method 79 Textbooks Used in Analysis 80 Identifying Textbooks 80 A Non-Random Sample 81 Identification of Areas That Were Compared (Coding Categories) 81 Components 81 Research Question I.I What Components of Early Adolescent Language Are Discussed in the Textbook 81 Description of Language 82 Research Question I.2 How Was Language Described? 82 Length of Selections 82 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 12. Research Question 1.3What Were the Depths (Lengths) of the Selections? 82 Quality of the Selections 83 Research Question 2. With What Quality is Adolescent Language Discussed in the Textbook? 83 Theoretical Perspectives 83 Research Question 3. Does the Textbook Present Content Related to Language from a Particular Theoretical Framework? 83 Procedures 83 Procedures for Selecting Sample Textbooks 83 Identifying Publishers 84 Identifying by Sales Volume 85 Limiting Authorship 87 Poll of Professors 88 Coding Procedures 89 Identification of Selections or Passages in Textbooks 89 Coding Criteria for Sub-Components 93 Pragmatics 93 Semantics 94 Syntax 94 Lexicology 95 Morphology 95 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 13. V1U Phonology 95 Criteria forSelecting the Quantity of Language Coverage 95 Criteria for Identifying the Way Textbooks Described Early Adolescent Language 101 Criteria for Selecting the Quality of the Selections 102 Criteria for Selecting the Author’s Theoretical Perspective 104 How Was Coding Applied? 105 Passages Selected 105 Mixed Selections 106 Summary of Data Selection 106 Analysis 107 Reliability 107 Summary 112 CHAPTER FOUR: DATA AND FINDINGS 116 Research Questions 116 Coding the Data 116 Passages Selected 116 Components 117 The Way Language Was Described 117 Quality of Language 118 Theoretical Framework 119 Child Development—Schickedanz 120 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 120 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 14. IX Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 120 Pragmatics—Discourse(U2) 122 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 123 Semantics—Concepts (T1) 124 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 124 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 126 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 126 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 127 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 129 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 130 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 132 Phonology—Voice (01) 132 Phonology—Inflection (02) 132 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 133 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 133 Summary of Selctions by Schickedanz et al. 134 Child Development—Meece 137 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 137 Pragmatics—Conversation (UI) 137 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 140 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 140 Semantics—Concepts (Tl) 141 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 143 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 15. X Syntax—Clauses (Si) 143 Syntax—Conjunctions(S2) 144 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 144 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 146 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 146 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 146 Phonology—Voice (0 1) 146 Phonology—Inflection (02) 147 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 147 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 147 Summary of Selections by Meece 147 Child Development—Berk 151 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 151 Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 151 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 154 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 154 Semantics—Concepts (T1) 155 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 155 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 157 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 157 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 157 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 158 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 160 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 16. x i Morphology—Morphological Analysis(M) 160 Phonology—Voice (Ol) 160 Phonology—Inflection (02) 160 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 161 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 161 Summary of Selections by Berk 161 Child Development—Santrock 164 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 164 Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 164 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 166 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 167 Semantics—Concepts (TI) 167 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 168 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 168 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 168 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 168 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 170 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 172 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 172 Phonology—Voice (OI) 173 Phonology—Inflection (02) 173 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 173 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 173 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 17. x ii Summary ofSelections by Santrock 173 Child Development—Bee 178 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 178 Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 178 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 181 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 181 Semantics—Concepts (T1) 183 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 184 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 184 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 184 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 184 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 184 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 184 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 185 Phonology—Voice (01) 185 Phonology—Inflection (02) 185 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 185 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 185 Summary of Selections by Bee 185 Child Development—Leffancois 189 Research Question 1: Sub-Components Addressed 189 Pragmatics—Conversational) 189 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 191 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 18. x iii Pragmatics—Communicative Competence(U3) 192 Semantics—Concepts (T1) 192 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 193 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 194 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 194 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 194 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 194 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 194 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 194 Phonology—Voice (0 1) 194 Phonology—Inflection (02) 195 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 195 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 195 Summary of Selections by Lefrancois 195 Educational Psychology—Ormrod 198 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 198 Pragmatics—Conversational) 198 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 200 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 201 Semantics—Concepts (T1) 202 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 204 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 205 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 205 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 19. xiv Syntax—Grammar (S3) 207 Lexicology—VocabularySize (LI) 207 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 208 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 210 Phonology—Voice (OI) 210 Phonology—Inflection (02) 210 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 210 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 210 Summary of Selections by Ormrod 210 Educational Psychology—Eggen 213 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 213 Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 213 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 215 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 216 Semantics—Concepts (TI) 217 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 217 Syntax—Clauses (Si) 217 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 217 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 219 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (L1) 219 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 219 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 220 Phonology—Voice ( 0 1) 220 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 20. XV Phonology—Inflection (02) 222 ResearchQuestion 2: Quality of Language Selection 222 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 222 Summary of Selections by Ormrod 222 Educational Psychology—Eggen 213 Research Question 1: Sub-Components Addressed 213 Pragmatics—Conversation (UI) 213 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 215 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 216 Semantics—Concepts (T1) 217 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 217 Syntax—Clauses (Si) 217 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 217 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 219 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 219 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 219 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 220 Phonology—Voice (01) 220 Phonology—Inflection (02) 222 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 222 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 222 Summary of Selections by Eggen 222 Educational Psychology—Elliott 225 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 21. XVI Research Question 1:Sub-Components Addressed 225 Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 225 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 227 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 228 Semantics—Concepts (Tl) 228 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 230 Syntax—Clauses (S1) 230 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 230 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 230 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 231 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 231 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 231 Phonology—Voice (01) 231 Phonology—Inflection (02) 231 Research Question 2: Quality ofLanguage Selection 232 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 232 Summary of Selections by Elliott 232 Educational Psychology—Sternberg 235 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 235 Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 235 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 238 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 238 Semantics—Concepts (Tl) 239 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 22. x v ii Semantics—Meanings(T2) 240 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 240 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 240 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 240 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 242 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 243 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 243 Phonology—Voice (01) 243 Phonology—Inflection (02) 243 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 243 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 246 Summary of Selections by Sternberg 246 Educational Psychology—Woolfolk 248 Research Question 1: Sub-Components Addressed 248 Pragmatics—Conversation (Ul) 248 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 250 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 250 Semantics—Concepts (TI) 251 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 253 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 253 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 253 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 255 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 256 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 23. xviii Lexicology—Effect of WrittenText (L2) 256 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 256 Phonology—Voice (01) 256 Phonology—Inflection (02) 256 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 257 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 257 Summary of Selections by Woolfolk 257 Educational Psychology—Snowman 260 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 260 Pragmatics—Conversation (U1) 260 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 263 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 263 Semantics—Concepts (Tl) 265 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 266 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 266 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 266 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 266 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 266 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 267 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 267 Phonology—Voice (OI) 267 Phonology—Inflection (02) 267 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 267 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 24. xix Research Question 3:Theoretical Framework 267 Summary of Selections by Snowman and Biehler 269 Educational Psychology—Slavin 271 Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed 271 Pragmatics—Conversation (UI) 271 Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) 273 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) 274 Semantics—Concepts (T1) 274 Semantics—Meanings (T2) 275 Syntax—Clauses (SI) 275 Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) 275 Syntax—Grammar (S3) 277 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) 277 Lexicology—Effect of Written Text (L2) 277 Morphology—Morphological Analysis (M) 277 Phonology—Voice ( 0 1) 277 Phonology—Inflection (02) 277 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selection 278 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 278 Summary of Selections by Slavin 280 Comparison of Textbooks within Child Development 282 Comparison of Textbooks within Educational Psychology 284 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 25. Comparison of ChildDevelopment and Educational Psychology Textbooks 286 Chapter Summary 291 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION, CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS 292 Introduction 292 Child Development—Schickedanz 292 Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 292 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 292 Semantics (Tl, T2) 293 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (OI, 02) 294 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 296 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 296 Conclusions 297 Child Development—Meece 298 Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 298 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 298 Semantics (Tl, T2) 299 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 26. XXI and Phonology (Ol,02) 300 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 301 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 301 Conclusions 302 Child Development—Berk 302 Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 302 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 302 Semantics (Tl, T2) 304 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (Ol, 02) 304 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 306 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 306 Conclusions 306 Child Development—Berk 307 Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 307 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 307 Semantics (T1, T2) 309 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (Ol, 02) 309 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 311 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 311 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 27. XXII Conclusions 311 Child Development—Santrock312 Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 312 Pragmatics (U l, U2, U3) 312 Semantics (TI, T2) 314 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (01,0 2 ) 314 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 315 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 315 Conclusions 316 Child Development—Bee 317 Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 317 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 317 Semantics (Tl, T2) 318 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (01, 02) 319 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 320 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 320 Conclusions 320 Child Development—Lefrancois 321 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 28. XXI11 Research Question 1:Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 321 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 321 Semantics (Tl, T2) 322 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (Ol, 02) 322 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 322 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 323 Conclusions 323 Educational Psychology—Ormrod 324 Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 324 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 324 Semantics (TI, T2) 325 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (Ol, 02) 325 Research Question 2: Quality ofLanguage Selections 326 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 326 Conclusions 327 Educational Psychology—Eggen 328 Research Question I: Sub-Components ofEarly Adolescent Language 328 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 328 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 29. xxiv Semantics (Tl, T2)329 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (Ol, 02) 329 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 330 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 330 Conclusions 330 Educational Psychology—Elliott 331 Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 331 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 331 Semantics (Tl, T2) 332 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (Ol, 02) 332 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 333 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 333 Conclusions 334 Educational Psychology—Sternberg 334 Research Question I: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 335 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 335 Semantics (Tl, T2) 335 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 30. XXV and Phonology (Ol,02) 336 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 336 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 337 Conclusions 337 Educational Psychology—Woolfoik 338 Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 338 Pragmatics (Ul. U2, U3) 338 Semantics (Tl, T2) 339 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (Ol, 02) 339 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 339 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 340 Conclusions 340 Educational Psychology—Snowman 341 Research Question 1: Sub-Components of Early Adolescent Language 341 Pragmatics (Ul, U2, U3) 341 Semantics (Tl, T2) 342 Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (01, 02) 342 Research Question 2: Quality of Language Selections 343 Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework 343 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 31. XXVI Conclusions 343 A Comparisonof Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks 344 Conclusions and Implications for Teacher Candidates 344 Most Complete Textbook 345 Child Development—Schickedanz 345 Other Worthwhile Textbooks 347 Child Development—Meece 347 Educational Psychology—Ormrod 347 Child Development—Berk 348 Educational Psychology—Woolfolk 349 Educational Psychology—Stembeg 349 Child Development—Santrock 349 Textbooks That Should Not Be Used 350 Limitations 351 Textbook Selection 351 Criteria for Evaluation 352 Author’s Style 352 Biases of the Researcher 353 Errors 353 Suggestions for Future Research 354 Methods Textbooks 354 Attitudes Toward Language 354 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 32. xxvu Teacher Candidates’ Knowledge355 Classroom Practices 355 In Conclusion 355 Reference List 357 Appendix A 377 Appendix B 378 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 33. I CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION Forearly adolescent students, language is the "subject” that will largely determine the success in all of the other subjects they encounter. Some schools create classroom environments in which students’ language can thrive and grow. Far too many schools, however, have environments that are hostile to language development (Piper, 1993). One major difference between these two types of schools may be the knowledge the teacher brings about language to the classroom. For academic learning, all teachers rely heavily on language because language is uniquely linked to cognitive processing. Learning comes to depend on language (Piper, 1993). This research, a content analysis of information available to teacher candidates about early adolescent language development and usage, will examine textbooks that are widely used in child development and educational psychology courses. These two courses are typically the place where teacher candidates begin to develop knowledge of the characteristics and needs of early adolescents. Early Adolescent Language Early adolescent (ages 10 - 14) language differs from childhood language due to cognitive changes that begin to allow the early adolescent to see situations from more than one perspective, to use abstract concepts, to think about thinking and talking, and to consider several ideas at once (Larson & McKinley, 1995). In contrast to their earlier language development early adolescents use complex sentences instead of simple sentences, consider future consequences instead ofthe here and now, and use words that implying double and contextual meanings in place of words that have single meanings. Early adolescents have a new capacity to reason abstractly, a greater ability to plan ahead Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 34. and consider possibilities,and greater metacognitive ability—the ability to think about thoughts (Loban, 1976; Seifert, & Hoffhung, 1987). The early adolescent has more strategies than young children to identify the meaning of unfamiliar words. They begin to understand and use figurative language, passive voice, and logical arguments. Based on physical changes, early adolescents experience an increase in emotion; these emotions demand new social situations that in turn influence their use of language. In addition to emotional changes, early adolescents experience imaginative growth and this in turn permits the enhanced creativity observed in their oral and written language (Nippoid, 1998). In contrast to their earlier language development early adolescents also begin to participate in language situations such as job interviews, peer group activities (dances, clubs, sports), and oral reports, situations that were not experienced in younger years (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Because of cognitive development and social changes, language development in early adolescence is very different from the language development of childhood—and no less important. The Teacher’s Role in Language Development Language development occurs along a continuum that begins at birth and ends in adulthood (Nippoid, 1998). Knowledge ofthose changes taking place during early adolescence can guide the teacher in both understanding student behavior and students in fostering growth (Van Hoose & Strahan, 1988). Language and Thinking The development of language has a close relationship to the development of thinking abilities (Berry, 1985; Gambell, 1988; Piper, 1993). Changes in thought Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 35. processes interact withlanguage development (Loban, 1976). Language is used to shape experiences, to store experiences, and to reshape them when they are recalled from memory. Teachers rely, for the most part, on the language of their students to inform them of the order their students see in the world and what sense their students make of the experience of living in the world (or the lesson just presented). Critical listening and reading are essential to the early adolescent's comprehension during discourse—connected periods of using language, such as in lectures and texts. A critical listener or reader must be a critical thinker (i.e., one capable of engaging in higher-level thought when it is required by the situation) (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Early adolescents begin to use critical thinking to frame hypotheses and envision their consequences, which involves using complex sentences with subordinate clauses of concession introduced by connectives such as provided that, unless, or in spite o f(Loban, 1976). The development of critical thinking, moral reasoning, problem solving, and the ability to use scientific methods and make aesthetic judgments, must be matched educationally by curricula and instructional practices which demand both thought and thoughtful communication in the classroom (Smith, 1987). Oral Language Before achieving proficiency in reading and writing—and even after proficiency has been achieved—oral language is one of the important means of learning and of acquiring knowledge (Lemke, 1989). The development of oral language skills provides the foundation for literacy, and precedes and supports development of reading and writing skills (Holbrook, 1983; Nippole, 1998; Zhang and Alex, 1995). As reading and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 36. 4 writing skills increasein early adolescence, teachers must help their students continue to develop oral competence (Gleason, 1993). Leading contemporary researchers, such as Filmore and Snow consider knowledge of oral language to be requisite for effective teaching (as Wolf also did in 1979) (Fillmore & Snow, 2000). They stress the importance for teachers of systematic preparation in educational linguistics. However, as has been documented by Zhang and Alex (1995), and Holbrook (1983), oral language development has largely been ignored in the early adolescent classroom. Teachers not only need to know about language, they need to help their students learn about it by encouraging them to use language. Cooperative learning (small groups that work together), classroom discussions, and group projects all encourage communication between students in the classroom. A study that compared the effects of cooperative learning with traditionally taught classrooms found that in well over half of the studies student achievement was significantly greater in the cooperative classrooms compared to the traditional teacher led classes (Slavin, 1987). Literacy To quote from a recent journal for teachers of reading, "Adolescent literacy needs for the future are complex and demanding and adolescents’development of reading, writing, and language skills deserves serious and continuing attention" (Moje, Young, Readence, & Moore, 2000, p. 400). To support the development of those language and literacy skills are needed by every student, teachers themselves must have knowledge of language (Filmore & Snow, 2000). Teachers must know more about language than grammar alone (Murdick, 1996). As Lu (1998) along with Zhang and Alex (1995) point Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 37. out, educators mustconsider what understanding of language their students bring to the classroom. Further, teachers must know how students come to learn language; that is, how language and literacy develop at each stage of development (McRobbie, 2000). Teachers, who have knowledge of spoken-written language relationships including spelling and reading behavior, find that knowledge essential for teaching (Moats, 1994). Block (2001) suggests teachers of early adolescents use knowledge of language to help students recognize different points of view and idioms. Among the best lessons to increase students' language abilities are those lessons that teach students to rephrase when speaking and writing, to paraphrase when speaking and listening, to reread when confused while reading, and to revise when writing (Gleason, 1993). Such activities heighten students’ awareness of language. Language as a Socialand CulturalActivity Educators must also understand that language learning is both a social and cultural activity (Lu, 1998; Zhang & Alex, 1995). There is a close connection between continued growth in language and the academic and social success of early adolescents. Early adolescents are more aware of and more likely to consider, than were their younger selves, the thoughts, feelings, and needs of their co-conversationalists and of the consequences of their own communicative behaviors. They have greater ability to adjust the content and style of their speech and written work accordingly, which affects both academic and social outcomes (Nippoid, 1998). Early adolescents create personal meaning through language, using slang, puns, metaphors, jokes, and sarcastic remarks to interact with and seek acceptance from peers (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 38. 6 Teachers’Responsibilities Any professional workingwith early adolescents needs to be aware of early adolescent language development (Nippoid, 1998; Larson & McKinley, 1995, 1998). Language development that occurs during early adolescence is often subtle, yet it is critical to the student's academic, sociaL and eventual vocational success. Unlike early language development, later language development is more individualized as youth become diverse in their curricular and social experiences. Learning how to distinguish between normal and disordered language behaviors is paramount for educators (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Knowledge of language development assists the teacher in identifying those students who are experiencing academic difficulties and offers the tools (referral, rephrasing, explaining, etc.) to help the struggling student succeed (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Spoken language difficulties are often associated with reading failures, spelling problems, and writing deficits and if not addressed may persist into adulthood (Lewis & Freebaim, 1992; Snyder & Downey, 1991). Research demonstrates the profound affect the education of the teacher has on student achievement (Ferguson, 1991; Greenwald, Hedges, & Laine, 1966). Teachers who understand early adolescent language and its development are better prepared to design instructional activities that will promote such development than teachers who are familiar only with the content of a subject and the methods to teach that subject (McRobbie, 2000; Wolf, 1979). With the accountability ofthe standards movement, teachers are compelled to include attention to language in the academic curriculum. National and state education standards address the continued development of oral language skills at every grade level. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 39. 7 Academic standards specifyboth content (knowledge) and performance (action) expectations ofall students at a particular grade level (National Council of Teachers of English & International Reading Association, 1996). The fact that standards exist for oral language, as well as writing and reading, is significant. From the preceding discussion, it is apparent that teachers’ knowledge of language and the continued development of language competence in early adolescents are necessary and desirable. How then do teachers begin to acquire such knowledge? Is it through their teacher preparation programs? If so, it is necessary to consider the sources of knowledge in college classrooms, particularly courses that expose teacher candidates to theories of language acquisition and development. Textbooks and Courses Textbooks, along with lectures that are frequently based on textbook content, constitute the major sources of knowledge, ideas, and information for teacher candidates in college and university courses. The power of these textbooks to shape the knowledge, ideas, values, and interpretive frameworks ofthe teacher candidates who read them is generally acknowledged (Silverman, 1991, p. 165). Although they are not the only source for teacher candidates, textbooks provide the primary sources for information (Silverman, 1991), the "authoritative statement of knowledge about a particular field" (Spring, 1991, p. 186). Therefore, professors and adjunct instructors, especially those who are new to the college teaching arena, are often urged to consult required textbooks when creating syllabi for their courses (Lyons, Kysilka, & Pawlas, 1999). Unfortunately, according to many university catalogs, the only courses required of most teacher candidates that address language and language development in early Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 40. 8 adolescence are childdevelopment and educational psychology courses. Courses in language arts are typically only required of teachers who will teach language arts and it is not known to what extent these textbooks address early adolescent language development. Courses in linguistics or language development are sometimes offered at the graduate level, but even when these classes are offered, they are typically required in early childhood development programs but not in programs that address teaching early adolescents. Therefore this study examined those child development and educational psychology textbooks most commonly required in teacher preparation courses to discover what information the textbooks make available regarding early adolescent language development. Why Look at Early Adolescent Language? This researcher taught children 12-18-years-of-age in day treatment programs, many of whom had language deficits such as misreading the intent of others, difficulty organizing answers to questions, and comprehending multi-part directions. This research started with the information that 84% of incarcerated juveniles have an undiagnosed language problem. Further impetus was created when the researcher observed a middle school eighth grade student being sent home from school when the student misunderstood the teacher's use of figurative language while making a class assignment and responded negatively. The teacher told the class to do a worksheet on verbs “like” the one previously done on nouns. This student was unable to relate the similarities of one assignment to another and accommodate the differences between the two assignments. In frustration and unable to communicate her needs, the student reverted to raising her voice and demanding immediate help. The student’s pleas were interpreted by the teacher as Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 41. aggressive and threatening,rather than expressing frustration and being assertive in having her needs met. The teacher considered this student a behavior problem and had her sent home. Observing this incident this research wondered, “Where in the course of becoming a teacher does a teacher learn about early adolescent language?” Research Questions The purpose of this content analysis was to examine textbooks used in child development and educational psychology courses that addressed teacher candidates' knowledge of language as they prepared to work with early adolescents. The following three research questions were investigated: 1. Do child development and educational psychology textbooks address the language of early adolescents? If so, in what manner and to what extent? What components (parts) of language do the authors address? In what way (description, developmental, acquisition) does the textbook address early adolescent language? In what depth (length of statement) does the author address early adolescent language? 2. With what quality is adolescent language discussed in the child development and educational psychology textbooks? 3. Do the textbooks present content related to language from a particular theoretical framework? These three questions were used to examine the content ofeach child development and educational psychology textbook selected for analysis. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 42. 10 Definitions Textbooks reflect severaldifferent disciplines, which employ specific terms in specific manners. This researcher has chosen to use the vocabulary of linguists in describing language and language development, because this vocabulary is precise and descriptive, with meanings that are widely accepted. In this research paper, the following definitions are used: Academic Language Academic language is that language which is used in the school. It is usually what is known as Standard English. It follows the rules of grammar (syntax and morphology). It usually includes a lot of information in a brief amount of time. Academic language becomes increasingly more abstract throughout the grades and is frequently not supported by the rich array of non-verbal and contextual cues that characterize social language (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Communicative Competence Within pragmatics, communicative competence is the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of language in order to form grammatically correct sentences but also to know when and where to use these sentences and with whom (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Communicative Functions Communicative functions are the purposes for which language is used, such as to ask for information, to relate a story, etc. Communicative functions are key concerns of pragmatics (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 43. LI Components o fLanguage Componentsof language are: phonology, semantics, morphology, syntax, and pragmatics. They are used to describe all aspects of language. When morphology and syntax are combined and taught together they are called grammar (Owens, 2001). Concept Formation Concept formation assumes that the child organizes word concepts based on certain aspects of the referent (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Concept formation is an important part in the development of thought because it influences not only the first words of the child but also academic language after the child enters school. Concepts Concepts are general ideas or meanings that are associated with words or symbols in a person's mind (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Conversation Conversation is often the primary means of language production, the social language that is used in the home and in the early primary grades (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Conversation is rule based and requires people to take successive turns as speaker and listener, to adapt what is said to what was just said by another person, etc. Dialect A dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, and or pronunciation form from other forms of the same language (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 44. 12 Discourse Discourse occurs whenjust one speaker speaks for a relatively long period of time such as, describing an event, telling a joke, or a lecture, etc. (Barrett, 1999). In writing, discourse would be a paragraph or more, such as a letter, essay, or poem. Early Adolescents Students age 10 to 14 years of age, typically in grades 5, 6, 7, or 8, who attend regular education classes. Grammar When syntax and morphology are studied together, the study is called grammar. Such study emphasizes the correct use of speech parts such as subject-verb agreement. When grammar is specifically applied to written language, punctuation and capitalization are included in the study. Integrated Literacy Integrated literacy is the use of reading, writing, along with speaking, listening, and thinking and acknowledging that development in one area affects development in the other areas—they are all integrated. Knowledge o fLanguage Knowledge of language assumes awareness of components of language and how the components interact to create communicative competence. Language Language is a socially shared code or conventional system for representing concepts through the use of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of those symbols (Owens, 2001). Language is both the object of knowledge and the medium Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 45. 13 through which knowledgeis acquired (Cazden, 1973). Language is a dynamic system, including content, form, and use. It is developmental and culturally dependent (ASLSHA, 1982). Language in this paper will include the broadest definitions of language so that not only the rules of language can be visited but also the situations where language is used and the communicative intent can be established. Language in this research refers to both oral sounds and written symbols used by people to communicate. English is the default language intended unless otherwise specified. Language Acquisition Language acquisition concerns itselfwith the processes and strategies used to learn language. In this research the term "acquisition" is used instead of "learning" to avoid confusion with a behaviorist theory of learning (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Language Development Language development refers to developmental sequences that occur in language prior to and during early adolescence. Knowledge of language development includes knowledge of developmental sequences in all components of language. Because there may be a span of several years in normal development between the rapid learners and late learners, the span of normal abilities may be great in the middle school classroom (Loban, 1976). Lexicology Lexicology is the study ofthe vocabulary items (lexemes) of a language including their meanings and relations, and changes in their form and meaning through time. Lexicon is the set of all the words and idioms of that language (Barrett, 1999). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 46. 14 Metacognitive Knowledge In cognitionand learning, the term above is the knowledge of the mental processes that are involved in different kinds of learning. Learners are said to be capable ofbecoming aware of their own mental processes. This includes recognizing which kinds of learning tasks cause difficulty, which approaches to remembering are more effective than others, and how to solve different kinds of problems (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Metacognitive Strategy Metacognitive strategies involve thinking about the mental processes used in the learning process, monitoring (earning while it is taking place, and evaluating learning after it has occurred (Richards, Platt, & Platt). Metalinguistic Knowledge In language learning, it is the knowledge of the forms, structure and other aspects of a language that a learner arrives at through reflecting on and analyzing the language. Morphology The smallest units that contribute to meanings in a language are called not words, but morphemes. Morphemes can be free [boy] or bound [-s] (Owens, 2001). OralLanguage Oral language refers to spoken language as opposed to written language. Spoken language contains elements that written language does not, such as, inflection, gestures, facial expression, and a listening audience of one or more that may give feedback during delivery. Oral language provides a foundation for the development of other language skills (Zhang & Alex, 1995). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 47. 15 Peer Language Peer language,that language early adolescents begin to use, is language filled with jargon and slang. Sometimes it includes secret codes, nicknames, signs, gestures, etc., that have meaning for a few people for a limited period of time (Nippoid, 1998). Phonology Phonology is the study ofjust those particular sounds that are used in a particular language, such as English. Phonology is another term for phonemics and for some linguists, a cover term for both phonetics (study of speech sounds) and phonemics (study or description of the distinctive sound units and their relation to one another) (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms and the users of those forms (Yule, 1996). Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication. Pragmatics includes the study of how the interpretation and use of utterances depends on knowledge of the real world, how speakers use and understand utterances and how the structure of sentences is influenced by the relationship between the speaker and the hearer (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Semantics Linguists use the term semantics to refer to the study of meaning. For this research project, semantics will refer to a restricted use of the word—the study of meanings that are encoded in language (and not pictures). Meanings are created by the lexicon and syntax (Lyons, 1977). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 48. 16 Social Language Social languageis that language that is used in the home. The language may have its own dialect, means of delivery, or way of speaking. The language is contextual—what is referred to is usually present, has just happened, or is about to take place. Information is given in little pieces sometimes over a long period of time (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Syntax Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences, and the rules which govern the formation of sentences and (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Syntax includes the organizational rules that specify word order, sentence organization, and word relationships. Teacher Candidates College students who have aspirations to teach early adolescent students, have not yet completed their course of study, and do not yet have their credential to teach are known as teacher candidates. Textbooks In this research "textbooks" refer to books used in teacher preparation courses. These courses include child development and/or educational psychology courses wherein the teacher candidates might learn about language and language development. Theory Theory reveals the perspective one takes in describing a topic or a subject. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 49. 17 Summary This introduction hasstated that teacher candidates, especially those who will be teaching early adolescents, need to know the language used by their students, the means by which their students acquire language, and the methods by which they, as teachers, can most effectively assist students in developing language skills. One of the primary sources of information on language for the teacher candidate is the textbook. This research examined selected child development and educational psychology textbooks to ascertain what knowledge about the language of early adolescents might be available to teacher candidates. In the chapters that follow a review of the literature associated with the language of early adolescents is found (Chapter Two), as well as a description of the research methodology (Chapter Three). Chapter Four reveals and describes the data collected from the textbooks, and compares the data within textbook categories. Chapter Five contains the discussion, conclusions, limitations, and suggestions for further study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 50. 18 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATUREREVIEW Introduction Teachers who work with early adolescents need to know about the language development of their students (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Such knowledge can guide the teacher in recognizing both the interplay and interconnectedness of all uses of language: speaking, writing, reading, thinking, and understanding concepts. In addition, such knowledge will assist in preparing and delivering lessons that build concepts and vocabulary, lessons that recognize the students’need to process and clarify information by thinking, talking, writing, and reading about a topic. If not aware of language development the teacher may miss those cultural, developmental, and situational aspects that influence subtle changes in the way early adolescents use language and therefore may identify as behavior problems what are essentially poor oral communication skills (Larson & McKinley, 1994). To explore that knowledge of language needed by teachers of early adolescents, this chapter addresses the following topics: • Theories about language acquisition and development • The language and thought processes of early adolescents • The role of concepts in the formation of language • Textbooks used in teacher preparation as a source of teacher knowledge What is Language? Language is a system of human communication (Richards, Platt and Platt, 1992), a socially shared code or conventional system for representing concepts through the use of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of those symbols (Owens, 2001). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 51. 19 Language is aculturally and developmentally dependent, yet dynamic, system, including content, form, and use (American Speech-Language-Hearing Association (ASLHA) Committee on Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 1982). Language is both the object of knowledge and the medium through which knowledge is acquired (Cazden, 1973). For this research paper, language is defined using the broadest of definitions so that the many ways of discussing language may all be considered. Language acquisition takes place in a cultural context that surrounds and influences the content, use, and form of language (Larson & McKinley, 1995). Culture introduces the values and traditions that are brought to the place where ideas are exchanged and shared (Greenfield, 1994). Cultural histories create differences in language, such as dialects, that are not disorders (Paul, 1995). This researcher believes that it is important that teachers of early adolescents understand basic theories of language acquisition and development. Language in the Educational Community To understand the nature of knowledge of language needed by teachers of early adolescents, it is important to understand the ways in which knowledge of language, language acquisition, and language development are discussed within the educational community. In educational settings, language is discussed in at least five ways: the basis of language, the components of language, language as grammar, language as the foundation of literacy development, and language as part of social skills. Each view of language is somewhat different. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 52. 2 0 The Basiso fLanguage Thinking is the link that ties language activities (speaking, listening, reading, and writing) together (Kavanaugh & Mattingly, 1972). The communicator thinks in concepts, general ideas, or meanings that are associated with words or symbols in a person's mind (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Concept formation is an important part in the development of thought because it influences not only the first words but also academic language encountered when children enter the school setting. Thinking also includes strategies—procedures used in learning, thinking, etc., which serve as a way of reaching a goal, such as communicating. Learning strategies and communication strategies are those conscious or unconscious processes that students draw upon when effectively using language (Richards, Platt & Platt 1992). For example, if a student lacks a particular word, the student may use the strategy of paraphrasing to compensate for not knowing a word. Strategies are important in language because they can be used to improve effectiveness of communication and to compensate for breakdowns in communication (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Teachers need strategies to express concepts to students, and students need strategies to understand concepts, to form and remember concepts. Components o fLanguage A second way in which language is discussed in educational settings is by its components. Linguists, those who study language, break language down into several components—phonology (speech sounds), lexicology (words), semantics (meanings), syntax (word order), morphology (internal organization of words), and pragmatics (functional use of language) (Bloom & Lahey, 1978). The components of language are Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 53. 21 used to describethe oral production of language, but can also be used to describe written communication. The components create a comprehensive picture of language and its use. For example, speech sounds, or phonemes, can be used to form the smallest units of language that have meaning, or morphemes. When a group of words are put together to form a sentence, the word order follows the rules of syntax. Pragmatics is the study of the use of language in communication, particularly the relationships between sentences and the contexts and situations in which they are used (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Language in Grammar A third way that language is discussed in educational settings is through grammar, which is a combination of morphology and syntax, discussed in the previous section. It is important to note that when people talk about grammar, they are talking about a particular part of language. Grammar includes the rules for putting sentences together (syntax) and changing words (using morphemes) to make good sentences that have meaning (semantics). Grammar is taught using parts of speech (noun, verb, adjective, etc.) and parts of sentences (subject, predicate, clauses, prepositional phrases, etc.). To learn about grammar, students may diagram sentences to create a visual representation of the structure (Hudson, 1990). The study of grammar is usually applied to written language and does not take communicative competence (the audience, setting, time, etc.) into consideration. Language in Literacy A fourth way in which language is discussed is through the importance of literacy development for all individuals. In the past, the term literacy was used to refer primarily to reading and writing (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992), but recently the term has taken on Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 54. 2 2 a broadermeaning that adds speaking, listening, understanding, and thinking. Many teachers and researchers view reading, writing, speaking, listening and thinking as integrated language functions (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994; Enright & McCIoskey, 1988; Goodman, 1987; Pearson & Raphael, 1999). For example, acquiring one language function, such as speech, facilitates the ability to master a second function, such as writing (Block, 2001; Ruddell, 1997; Zimmerman, 1999). In addition, current approaches to language instruction stress interactive processes involving authentic texts, the process of writing, and the integration of oral and written language skills (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). For most children, the literacy learning process actually begins with speaking- talking about their experiences. It is through speech that children Ieam to organize their thinking, to focus their ideas, and to communicate (Lyle, 1993; MoIL, 1990; Vygotsky, 1987). According to research literature on critical thinking and cognitive development, the development ofthinking abilities, such as critical thinking, has a close relationship to the development of language (Berry, 1985; Gambeil, 1988). As children's language skills develop, they have more words and concepts to support integrated literacy activities. No longer can we talk about literacy without acknowledging the role of language development as well. Language in SocialSkills Finally, a fifth way that educators discuss language is from the perspective of social skills training. A social skill, according to Schumaker and Hazel (1984) is: any cognitive function or overt behavior in which an individual engages while interacting with another person or persons. Cognitive functions include capacities Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 55. 23 such as empathizingwith or understanding another persons' feelings, and discriminating and evaluating consequences for social behavior. Overt behaviors include nonverbal (e.g., head nods, eye contact, facial expression) and verbal (e.g., what the person says) components of a social performance, (p. 422) Social skills are related to peer acceptance and academic success as well as being predictive of adult adjustment (Elksnin & Elksnin, 1995). Social skills are essential for effective interaction between students and teachers, as well as among students themselves. It is important to note that social skills are language driven, although teachers who teach social skills, and textbook authors who write about social skills frequently do not acknowledge the linguistic components of social skills (Bliss, 1993; Gajewski & Mayo, 1989; Hess, 1993; Johnson, Weinrick & Glasser, 1991; Mayo & Waldo, 1994; Schwartz & McKinley, 1984; Walker, Todis, Holmes, & Horton, 1988; Weinrich, Glasser & Johnson, 1994; Wiig, 1992). For example, discussion of social skills typically does not use linguistic vocabulary to identify pragmatic situations and the contextual influences of those situations. Pragmatics is the study of the relationship between linguistic forms (spoken or written language) and the users of those forms (Yule, 1996). Contextual influences include the physical environment (home, school, park), the conversational partner (peer, adult), and the manipulatives employed (toys, food, clothing, etc.). From a social skills perspective, the socially competent person must: 1) Initially be motivated to perform socially appropriate behaviors; 2) Be able to perceive social situations accurately and identify which skill to use; 3) Be able to decode and correctly interpret information from others Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 56. 24 4) Perform thecorrect verbal and nonverbal responses that make up the skill; 5) Be sensitive to social feedback; and 6) Be able to integrate that feedback appropriately to enhance social interaction. (Hazel, Schumaker, Sherman, Sheldon-Widgen, 1983, p 123) When a teacher observes a conversation, a situation where social skills are displayed, that same teacher simultaneously observes linguistic components. Situations involving social skills are available, therefore, not only to evaluate social competence, but also to evaluate the use of linguistic components such as vocabulary (lexemes), word order (syntax), volume (phonology), gestures, and communicative competence (pragmatics). Preliminary Theoretical Considerations There are two primary theoretical positions that influence how language is viewed. The first considers language innate and the second considers language acquired. If these two theories were placed at opposite ends of a line, that line would represent a continuum of beliefs that would include all of those that believed in the innate theory for some aspects of language and the acquired theory for other aspects of language (Barrett, 1999). The Innate Theory o fLanguage The innate theoretical position has three premises. The first premise states that the structure for language is innate-preexisting in every person: “The expressive variety of language use implies that a language user’s brain contains unconscious grammatical principles” (Jackendorf, 1994 p.8). In other words, the mind contains a mental grammar. The second premise claims the child has innate knowledge because ‘The way children learn to talk implies that the human brain contains a genetically determined specialization Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 57. 25 for language” (Jackendorf,1994 p. 26). The third premise maintains that the child can construct grammar from experience: ‘The experience of spoken language is actively constructed by the hearer’s mental grammar” (Jackendorf 1994 p. 161). The implication of this theory for early adolescents is that teachers who learn that language is innate may choose to believe that they have no influence over language or its development. These same teachers may choose to do nothing to promote language development among early adolescents. Acquired Theories o fLanguage The second primary theory is that language is acquired. As opposed to the innate view, the acquired language position holds that the child's linguistic capacities are acquired during the course of development. With reference to language, the child is bom only with a propensity to learn language and not with a language acquisition device as the innate theory followers declare (Owens, 2001). Within the acquired language theory, more so than within the innate theory of language, there is a continuum of beliefs concerning the acquisition of language (Van Valin & LaPolla, 1997). At one end of the continuum, it is believed that all language can be explained in terms of social interaction or communicative intent. For example, when a child sees a new toy, the child will, within a social context, learn the name of the new toy by listening or asking. At the other end of the continuum, it is believed that all language can be explained in terms ofcognitive development This view believes that as the brain develops, that is as the brain is more able to remember more items at a time, language also changes by becoming more descriptive and exact. It is because of cognitive development that sentences become more complex and arguments are better organized. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 58. 26 Along this languagecontinuum (social interaction—cognitive development), there are many different theories (Van Valin & LaPolla, 1997). Some linguists attribute all language development to social interaction; others attribute it all to cognitive development; but most lie somewhere in the middle, attributing some parts of language development to cognitive development and others to social interaction. Social or Communicative Theory o fLanguage. The communicative end of the language continuum can be expressed by Halliday’s (1985) Systemic Functional Grammar, which states that: Language has evolved to satisfy human needs and the way it is organized is functional with respect to these needs-it is not arbitrary. A functional grammar is essentially a “natural” grammar, in the sense that everything in it can be explained, ultimately, by reference to how language is used. (Halliday, 1985, p. xiii) For the early adolescent, peer language, or more accurately the peer dialect, can in part be explained by the changes necessary to accommodate the “human needs” of the early adolescent. Early adolescents separate themselves from both younger children and adults by using a peer dialect that sometimes only closely associated peers understand. Often the more familiar early adolescents are with each other, the fewer words they need to communicate. Peer dialect forms a social bond between early adolescents, an area of likeness that is socially important. The development of a peer dialect is discussed in an upcoming section. The Cognitive Theory o fLanguage. The cognitive position, expressed by Langacker’s Cognitive Grammar (1987, 1991), assumes that language is neither self- contained nor describable without essential reference to cognitive processing. This view Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 59. 27 holds that themeaningful parts of language are only arbitrarily divided into separate components of language. Langacker (1990) states “it is pointless to analyze grammatical units without reference to semantic [meaning] value” (p. I). The cognitive view of language acquisition is useful in describing language changes in early adolescents, such as the ability to think and express ideas abstractly. Language ofthe Early Adolescent Early adolescence is a time of expanded social interests and experiences, a time when new thinking abilities allow consideration of many possibilities, and a time when peers become more influential (National Middle School Association, 1995). At the same time, great stress is put on developing language to meet the needs of increasingly complex situations. Changes in cultural dynamics, along with changes in cognitive thought processes, social and academic experience, influence the language of the early adolescent, as to what is said and how it is said (Owens, 2001). Early adolescents speak a social dialect to peers, adults and younger children, an academic dialect in the school setting (Chamot & O'Malley 1994), and a dialect with jargon or slang reserved for their peer group (Donahue & Bryan, 1984; Larson & McKinley, 1995). A dialect is a variety of a language, spoken in one part of a country, or by people belonging to a particular social class, which is different in some words, grammar, and or in pronunciation from other forms of the same language (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Early adolescents may say when greeting a peer, “Give me five.” Instead of“HelIo.” Each early adolescent dialect (social, academic, and peer) has its own primary social setting, but each dialect is also unique in its form, function, and use. Table 1, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 60. 28 Table I The ThreeDialects ofEarly Adolescent Language Aspect of Language Social Dialect Academic Dialect Peer Dialect Spontaneity Spontaneous speech. Must be recognized Spontaneous speech. of speech. before talking. Information Information usually Often abstract May be contextual or contextual or abstract. contextual. information. abstract Amount of detail Few details, little to Many details. Few details, sometimes given given. remember. a lot to remember. in code,jargon, slang, gestures. Amount of Little information A lot of information Language may include empty information spread over a long given in a short time. phrases ("you know"), or no compared to time. time. information. Familiarity Familiar world Unfamiliar world The more familiarity between ofworld knowledge knowledge, familiar knowledge, unfamiliar participants, the less is said. and topic. topics. topics. Feed-back from Immediate feed-back Delayed feed-back Immediate feed-back usually. communication. from other party(ies). (grade orcomments), often written even on oral reports. may include language or gestures including high-5's. Thinking skills Requires lowerorder Requires higher and Requires lower order required. thinking skills. lowerorder thinking skills. thinking skills. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 61. 29 Table I (continued). TheThree Dialects of Early Adolescent Language Aspect of Language Social Dialect Academic Dialect Peer Dialect Formal or informal. Informal, may not Formal, Standard Informal, may include Grammatically correct or be grammatically English, speech and slang jargon, and code incorrect correct. writing need to be words that may not be grammatically correct. grammatically correct Where dialect is usually Between peers and In education. Usually between peers. used and purpose of closely associated employment and formal Used to separate early communication. children and adults. speaking or writing adolescent from children Decreases social situations. May increase and adults. May be used distance. social distance. to confound or confuse adults. Purpose of General purposes. Specific purposes. Promotes peer closeness. communication. day to day living impart knowledge. sameness, solidarity. needs. respond reflectively. Response time. Response due Response may wait until Response may depend on immediately. exam time. code ofthe group but usually immediate. Ease oflearning Easier to leant More difficult to learn. May never be learned by learning supported by supported in all usually only supported in some. Supported by peer what group. social situations. academic situations. group. Material taken from Adler & King, 1994; Chamot, & O'Malley, 1994; and Larson & McKinley, 1995. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 62. 30 The Three Dialectso fEarly Adolescent Language provides a detailed overview of how the form of the language changes between dialects. The three dialects of adolescents, social, academic, and peer, are one language with three different forms and uses. Each of these three dialects has its own vocabulary, its own meaning, and a particular context in which it must be used. Social Dialects Before children enter school they learn a social dialect used in conversation that is based on cultural morays and rules ofconversation, such as, turn taking. Social dialects are informal and may not be grammatically correct. They are comprised of elements you would find in conversations, such as, requests, explanations, greetings, salutations, questions, etc. Conversations are usually spontaneous and responses are immediate, such as the exchange of greetings (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Most of these social language experiences occur in the context of one or two individuals or small groups. Topics are familiar and talked about often. Objects or activities that are within sight can be named or pointed to. Information is often delivered in small pieces—single sentences, i.e. “We will go to the park after lunch.” The social dialect requires only lower order thinking skills and is easy for children to team because it is used and supported in most of the situations they encounter (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). In the early grades, some teacher-student interactions and classroom activities are also carried out with conversation in social dialect. Topics are presented in context with materials present. Sentences are short and direct. There is little new information given at a time (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). As children enter early adolescence, the social dialect continues but is increasingly reserved for home and adults Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 63. 31 in the community,partly because of the increased complexity experienced in academic settings. Academic D ialed When children enter school, they encounter a different kind of language from the social dialect previously experienced. The child may be one of 20-30 students with one teacher (Merritt, 1988). Spontaneous speech is replaced with waiting to be called on to talk. Children hear strings of directions and information that increasingly become more abstract and heavily weighted with detail. A lot of information is given in a short period of time. By early adolescence, sentences used in academic interactions become longer and more complex, and more time is spent reading and listening to discourse (Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). The subject matter is more complex and topics are presented out of context. Early adolescents must learn to sort through both the verbal and written information to find the main topics and relevant points, remember facts, and respond reflectively (Dickinson, Wolf & Stotsky, 1993). Teachers increasingly rely on written discourse produced by early adolescents as an accurate assessment of their knowledge and skills in Standard English (Larson & McKinley, 1995). After completing written exams the early adolescent usually must wait for a grade to know whether the written response was acceptable to the teacher. The social distance is increased in academic dialect, over the social dialect, by the delay in communicative feedback, impersonal content topics, and the use of the more formal Standard English (Richards, Platt & Platt). Verbal demands also increase in academic terms (Adler & King, 1994) yet, opportunities for oral language are often limited to responding to direct or discussion Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 64. 32 questions during instruction(Chamot & O'Malley, 1994). Early adolescents are often challenged to justify answers that require higher order thinking skills and offer oral reports to the whole class. New social situations within the school, such as clubs, organizations, and intramural sports may also support the academic dialect and present new communication challenges (Chamot & OMalley, 1994; Heath, 1998). Peer Dialect Early adolescents often use a special language that separates them from both adults and younger children (Larson & McKinley, 1995). It may be used to confound or confuse adults, but it is more often used just with peers. This peer dialect is spontaneous, may be contextual or abstract and usually only requires lower order thinking skills. It promotes peer closeness and solidarity and is filled with jargon (player), slang (ain’t), empty phrases (you know, whatever), special codes (rock time), and secret meanings (Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995). The more familiarity between the participants usually the less that needs to be said. Early adolescents that do not belong to a group may never learn a peer dialect, may not understand peer humor and may be isolated from their peers. These early adolescents often lack social skills and the means to improve their language through peer interaction. Early adolescents may correctly shift from one dialect to another without even realizing that they have adjusted their speech or written language for the social, academic, or peer audience (Adger, 1998). However, when early adolescents do not appropriately shift from one dialect to another they may find themselves misunderstood or in trouble with adults. When an early adolescent uses academic discourse at home, the language may be misinterpreted as a put-down to less-educated parents. By the same Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 65. 33 token, when earlyadolescents bring jargon into the classroom they may be misunderstood by teachers. As stated above, lack of appropriate peer jargon with peers can socially isolate or ostracize early adolescents (Eder, Evans, & Parker, 1995). This section has described dialects spoken by early adolescents, with emphasis on the ways in which language is used. To more fully understand language, it is important to examine the ways that linguists break language into its component parts. The next section provides a discussion of the components of language, as they are relevant to the language of early adolescents. Development in the Component Areas of Language A language system can be thought of as having three main components as shown in Figure 2.1: use (pragmatics), meaning (semantics), and sound (phonology) (Barrett, 1999). These components are interrelated. Each component of language is governed by rules. Each component of language serves a different function, yet all components are important in communication. An effective, efficient oral communication system requires mastery of all of the components of language (ASLHA, 1982). Pragmatics Pragmatics is the study of the relationships between linguistic forms, such as speaking and writing, and the users of those forms (Yule, 1996). People's intended meanings, their assumptions, their purposes or goals, and the kinds of speech acts (requests, invitations, etc.) that they are performing when they speak are studied in pragmatics (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Pragmatics examines how the features in different contexts influence the content ofwhat is said. The people, the place and the topic all influence how language is expressed. For example, a ten-year-old might shout Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 66. 34 Figure I Components ofLanguage Pragmatics (use) Communicative functions /(negotiation, persuasion.) / Conversation / (roles, rules Written or oral / (turn taking, etc.). / Communicative competence / (cohesive, coherence, norms of genres) (form) Discourse (paragraphs, stories, jokes, lectures. proverbs) Lexicology (study of vocabulary items and their meanings.) / Semantics / (meanings) Morphology (study of smallest units of meaning.) Syntax (study of how words combine to form sentences.) }Grammar, the rules used to form clauses, phrases, and, sentences. Articulatory phonetics (how speech sounds produced). / Phonology___________ / Acoustic phonetics (how sounds are transmitted in the air). (sounds) Auditory phonetics (how sounds are perceived). Adapted from: Barrett, M. (1999). An introduction to the nature of language and to the central themes and issues in the study of language development. In Martyn Barrett (Ed.) The development o flanguage, (pp. 1-23). Guilford & King's Lynn, UK: Psychology Press. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 67. 35 to a friendabout new clothes on a playground but whisper the same news in class. Pragmatics is often the primary focus of social interaction or communicative interaction theorists. To these researchers dialect differences and social-communicative interaction are important (Owens, 2001). They are concerned with the rules and use of language as a function of role, socioeconomic level, and linguistic or cultural context. For example, an early adolescent sensitive to his/her role in the school setting and the formality of the situation might address a school administrator using Standard English instead of using slang. Pragmatics is important in early adolescent language because the early adolescent begins to expand social experiences to new settings that require different uses of language than may have been experienced at home or in early school grades. Pragmatics includes communicative functions of conversation, discourse, and communicative competence. Communicative competence addresses how well messages are sent and received. Growth in performance of these functions is characterized by increased speed and accuracy in responding or reaching solutions, enhanced comprehension of semantically and structurally complex problems, and greater use of appropriate strategies to meet the needs of the situation (Nippold, 1998; Achenbach, 1969; Cashen 1989). Growth also occurs metalinguistically (talking and thinking about acts of speaking) and metacognitively (talking and thinking about acts of thinking) in that students become more adept at explaining, defending, and justifying their actions and what they say (Nippold, 1998). Conversation and discourse require a speaker to use cognitive, linguistic, metalinguistic, and pragmatic competencies. Because of slow continuous growth and great variability in language use, it is necessary to examine children and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 68. 36 adolescents several yearsapart to show differences in the characteristics of language usage. Conversation. The major finding of conversation research in school-aged children is that coherence in conversation gradually improves as age increases, particularly during adolescence and young adulthood (Nippold, 1998). Coherence in conversation is established by focused turn taking, factually related utterances, perspective related utterances, and smooth transitions between topics coupled with a decline in unrelated or marginally related utterances and abrupt topic switches (Nippold, 1998). Conversational rules include staying on a topic, taking turns, using an appropriate vocabulary, and certain other courtesies. Conversation includes four maxims: I. Give as much information as is needed. 2. Speak truthfully. 3. Say things that are relevant. 4. Say things clearly and briefly (Grice, 1967; Parker & Riley, 1994). The conversation of the early adolescent may include slang, similes and metaphors, idioms, ambiguity, sarcasm, persuasion and negotiation, inductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning. Slang. Adolescents are particularly adept at generating and promoting the use of slang (Nippold, 1998). The use of slang terms unique to the peer group is an important aspect of later language development (Donahue & Bryan, 1984). Slang terms are used for many reasons, among others: to promote social interaction, to show one belongs to a group, to exclude others from a group, to be playful, and to reduce the seriousness of a situation (Nippold, 1998). Nelson & Rosenbaum (1972) asked adolescents to generate lists of slang words for various topics (clothes, autos, appearance, motorbikes, money, etc.). Boys generated more slang terms than girls for money, autos, and motorbikes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 69. 37 Girls generated moreslang terms for appearance, boys, popular and unpopular people. The results also showed that the mean increased as a function of grade level, with larger increases in some topics than others. For example, on the topic of girls, seventh grade boys produced a mean of 10.4 slang words and twelfth grade boys produced 24.4 slang words. Slang terms often occur in the form of metaphors (Leona, 1978). Similes and Metaphors. Both metaphors and similes can be understood by preschool children when age-appropriate materials and testing procedures are used. A simile is an expression in which something is compared to something else by the use of a function word such as like or as. For example, “Tom eats like a horse.” Metaphors do not use function words. Something is described by stating another thing with which it is compared (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992), for example, “Her words stabbed at his heart.” Malgady (1977) studied the understanding of metaphors in children and early adolescents, from five to twelve years of age, and found the percent of valid interpretations increased with each successive age group. These results suggest that even those early adolescents turning fourteen would not have full understanding of metaphors. In the same study Malgady found that a simile task was significantly correlated with verbal intelligence and reading comprehension. Idioms. An idiom is an expression which functions as a single unit the meaning of which cannot be worked out from its separate parts. Idioms, such as “read between the lines,” or “She washed her hands of the matter.” occur in both written and oral forms of language. In the written word they sometimes hinder reading comprehension (Edwards, 1975; May 1979); thus an understanding of idioms is important for attaining literacy. Lodge and Leach (1975) compared the understanding of a list of idioms in four different Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 70. 38 age groups ofchildren and early adolescents. All age groups understood the literal meanings of the idioms. The six- and nine-year-olds had difficulty with the figurative meanings, while the twelve-year-olds understood only some of the figurative meanings, and only the twenty-one-year-olds understood them all. "Children’s performance on tasks of figurative understanding is definitely related to their performance on measures of cognition, language, and academic achievement" (Nippold, 1988, 1998, p. 92). Ambiguity and Sarcasm. Ambiguity and sarcasm require a conscious reflection and metalinguistic awareness because words are used in unique and unusual ways. Students have to know the double meanings of words to appreciate the linguistic contexts in which they occur. Non-linguistic information such as specific background information may also be necessary. For example, the ambiguous bumper sticker that reads "You can't hug your kids with nuclear arms" requires the reader to understand what nuclear arms are. There are four different types of sentential ambiguity, phonological ambiguity, lexical ambiguity (the above example), surface- and deep-structure ambiguity, each progressively more difficult to understand and master (Shultz & Horibe, 1974). Sarcasm requires the listener to recognize a discrepancy between what is said and what is meant, to have background information, to be aware of context clues, and to understand patterns of vocal intonation. For example, “Now I’ve seen everything!" Sarcasm can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Early adolescents may not have mastered either the double word meanings or the background information essential to understand ambiguities or the sensitivity to recognize sarcasm. Capelli et al. (1990) had children ages 8, 11 and college students listen to tape recorded stories with the last sentence either neutral or sarcastic. For some, the sarcastic remark was exaggerated, and others it was Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 71. 39 neutral. Results showedthat stories presented in a neutral context with neutral intonation (sincere) were well understood by all age groups. Those with sarcasm improved with successive age groups (mean accuracy scores: age 8 - 63%, age 11 - 79%, and college - 93%). Stories that produced sarcasm through context cues only were more difficult than those that produced sarcasm through intonational cues only or with both intonational and context clues. Persuasion and Negotiation. Persuasion makes use of argument to convince another person to accept a point of view or to act in a manner desired by the persuader. Piche, Rubin, and Michlin (1978) investigated fifth- and ninth-graders who were told to pretend to sell newspapers to four people, one younger, one the same age, one older, and one an authority figure. Results indicate that students made adjustments to different listeners in terms of authority and intimacy. The students expressed more imperatives (e.g., “Oh, please buy it”) to low authority listeners. Ninth graders made more personal appeals (“The kids in your class will like it.”) and greater variety in appeals, than fifth graders. Positive appeals to the younger listener were more aggressive, (“You should buy it!”). Negotiation involves communication to resolve conflicts and achieve mutually acceptable goals. As shown in Table 2, as children advance in years, they acquire greater skills in bargaining, cooperation, compromise, and the perception of social perspective (Nippold, 1994). Inductive and Deductive Reasoning. There is not only great variability in reasoning within the age group of early adolescents, but there is also variability within individual students in their ability to apply reason (Piaget, 1977; Van Hoose & Strahan, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 72. 40 Table 2 Areas InWhich Gradual Improvements Occur in Persuasion and Negotiation Persuasion: 1. Adjusts to listener characteristics (age, authority, familiarity) 2. States advantages to the listener as a reason to comply 3. Anticipates and replies to counter arguments 4. Uses positive strategies such as politeness and bargaining 5. Gives up negative strategies such as shining and begging 6. Generates a large number and variety of different arguments 7. Controls the discourse assertively Negotiation: 1. Takes the social perspective of another 2. Shows awareness of the needs, thoughts, and feelings of others 3. Reasons with words (verbal reasoning) 4. Uses cooperative and collaborative strategies 5. Shows concern for group welfare 6. Shows concern for long-tem implications of conflict 7. Shows willingness to compromise Adapted from Nippold, M. A. (1994) Persuasive talk in social contexts: development, assessment, and intervention. Topics in Language Disorders, I4{3), p. 2. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 73. 41 1998). Piaget (1977)suggested that mental development occurs in sequential stages with the logical operations of one stage building on the prior stage. He defined the stages as preoperational (logical operations not used), concrete operational (objects needed to understand logic), and formal operations (abstract ideas could be manipulated logically). Elllsworth and Snidt (1991) expanded the concrete and formal stages into onset and mature periods for each stage. Table 3 lists the percent of children (out of 100%) for each age that would fall into each stage of development. Note the great range found in the early adolescent ages (in bold type) and that some never achieve the concrete or formal operational stages. Van Hoose and Strahan (1998) also have described mental development in terms of the abilities to use reason. They use a span of years that is even larger than Piaget's. Table 4 notes not only the reasoning abilities but also the difficulties encountered when children, early adolescents, and adolescents have not reached a particular stage of development. Note that they call all of the early adolescent years a time of transition. Baft, (1971) and Martorano, (1977) found that adolescents apply formal thought (logical thinking) in some contexts but not in others. For example, formal abstract thought may be applied in literature but not in science. This inconsistency may, in part, be explained by the experiences that the students participate in and the quality of stimulation or instruction they receive in school. Inductive and deductive reasoning abilities depend on both internal and external constraints. Internal constraints include age, cognitive level, academic achievement, and the problem solving style of the student (Dickson, Wolf & Stotsky, 1993). External factors include the structural and semantic complexity of the problems themselves. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 74. 42 Table 3 Cognitive Levelsof Reasoning Cognitive Levels of Reasoning (in Percent of Students) Age (Years) Preoperational Concrete Onset Concrete Mature Formal Onset Formal Mature 5 85 15 6 60 35 5 7 35 55 10 8 25 55 20 9 15 55 30 10 12 52 35 1 11 6 49 40 5 12 5 32 5t 12 13 2 34 44 14 6 14 1 32 43 15 9 15 1 14 53 19 13 16 1 15 54 17 13 17 3 19 47 19 12 18 1 15 50 15 19 Bold type identifies early adolescent ages. From Ellsworth, P., & Snidt, V., (1991) Whatevery teacher should know about how students think: A survivalguidefo r adults. Eau Claire, WI: Thinking Publications (p. 28). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 75. 43 Table 4 Development ofReasoning Abilities in Early Adolescence Development of Reasoning Abilities in Early Adolescence Age Reasoning development Abilities Difficulties 7 - II Development of concrete reasoning Logical thinking about things Classification, conservation, "arithmetic" Abstract ideas, verbal problems, suspending judgments 10 -I4a Time of transition. Creating theories Empathy Mastery of concrete operations experimentation with formal operations Thinking about thinking Patience Synthesis 13 -? Development of formal operations Thinking with abstractions Hypothetical- deductive reasoning Applications and transfer a indicates early adolescents. Taken from: Van Hoose. J., & Strahan, D., (1998). Young adolescent development and schoolpractices: Promoting harmony. Columbus, OH: National Middle School Association, (p. 14). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 76. 44 Analogies use inductivereasoning where similarities and differences between objects and events are used to solve problems or learn about the world. The form usually given in tests is: A is to B as C is to ...? (D), where the student must generate the appropriate D item or select from alternatives (Nippold, 1998). Syllogisms use deductive reasoning and are a form of argument that contains two premises and a conclusion that follows logically from those premises. Research shows that syllogisms are easier to solve when accompanied by concrete objects, such as knives and forks, and presented as conversational tasks, and more difficult when presented without objects and in written form. Categorical syllogisms are easier for students to solve than if—then, conditional syllogisms (Roberge & Flexer, 1979; Roberge & Paulus, 1971). As expected, performance on tasks improved with age but continued to be challenging throughout adolescence (Nippold, 1998). See Table 5 for types of syllogisms used in testing. Discourse. Discourse is more formal and longer in length than conversation. Discourse is a connected flow of language (Reed, 1994). Discourse refers to larger units than a phrase or a sentence—it refers to paragraphs, stories, jokes, proverbs, lectures, interviews (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1993). Discourse requires the speaker to link successive sentences together coherently, to take the listener's perspective into account, and to adapt the language to the function of the communication. Whereas conversation is the primary means of giving information to preschool and primary children, discourse becomes more common for presenting information as Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 77. 45 Table 5 Types ofSyllogisms Types of Syllogisms used in Early Adolescence Concrete - Familiar: Categorical: (Easier than conditional to solve.) All o f the green coats in the closet belong to Sarah. The coat in the closet is green. Therefore, the coat in the closet does not belong to Sarah, (no) If-Then Conditional: Ifthe hat on the table is blue, then it belongs to Sally. The hat on the table is blue. Therefore, the hat on the table does not belong to Sally, (no) Suggestive: Categorical: All ants that can fly are bigger than zebras. This ant can fly. Therefore, this ant is bigger than a zebra, (yes) If-Then Conditional: If mice can fly, then they are bigger than horses. Mice are bigger than horses. Therefore, mice can fly. (maybe) Abstract: Categorical: All pittles are cloots. This is a pittle. Therefore, this is a cloot. (yes) If-Then Conditional: (Most difficult to solve.) If there is a nupittle, then there is a coolt. This is not a coolt. Therefore, there is a nupittle. (no) Used by: Roberge, J. J., & Paulus, D. H. (1971). Developmental patterns for children's class and conditional reasoning abilities (p. 4). DevelopmentalPsychology, •/, 191-200. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 78. 46 students advance inage and grade. The early adolescent not only hears more discourse and less conversation in the classroom, but also begins to use discourse in school to give oral book reports, explain science projects, report on specific topics in social studies, and contribute to the school newspaper. Discourse competence, an aspect of communicative competence, describes the ability to produce unified written or spoken discourse that shows coherence and cohesion and which conforms to the norms of different genres, as a business letter, a scientific essay, or poetry. Appropriate to the situation, successive sentences must be linked through rules of discourse or discourse competence (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Discourse offers the student less support, poses more organizational problems, and demands more complex syntax than conversation (MacLachlan & Chapman, 1988). Discourse includes storytelling and proverbs. Storytelling. Storytelling, a form of discourse, serves as an excellent example to observe differences between age groups. Storytelling requires a set of rules that organizes the discourse and requires the storyteller to include key elements such as the characters, the setting, the problem, and the consequence. Adolescents will include more of the feelings, emotions, and thoughts of characters as they imagine them while story telling, than will younger children. Roth and Spekman (1986) asked groups of children eight and nine, and early adolescents, ten and eleven, and twelve and thirteen-years-of- age to make up a story. A complete episode was deemed to be one that included three key elements: 1. An initiating event or response that prompted a character to do something, 2. An attempt to address a problem, and 3. A direct consequence or resolution. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 79. 47 They found that5% of the eight to nine year old group created complete episodes while 69% of the twelve to thirteen-year-olds created complete episodes. The older group of students also had more imbedded episodes within the story than younger students. The authors speculated that the older students’ ability to plan and organize, which required greater memory capacity, influenced not only the increased length of story but also the imbedded episodes. Proverbs. Proverbs are statements that express values, beliefs, and wisdom of a culture (Mieder, 1993; Kirsch, Kett, & Trefil, 1988). They reflect an ethos and serve a variety of communicative functions such as, encouragement, advice, and comments on events. Context plays an important role in interpreting proverbs, and proverbs told out of context may be misinterpreted. Exposure to proverbs is an important part of cultural literacy (Hirsch, et al., 1988). In a test for understanding proverbs, Richardson & Church (1959) found that younger children usually explained proverbs in literal and situation- specific terms. Twelve-year-olds still had difficulty with some proverbs, and even adolescents and adults had some immature explanations of some of the proverbs used in the test (Richardson & Church, 1959). Communicative Competence Communicative competence includes both what is said and what is heard. When linguistic messages convey the meaning that was intended, competence has been achieved. Communicative competence includes knowledge of the grammar and vocabulary of the language, as well as, knowledge of rules of speaking, e.g., knowing how to begin and end conversations, knowing what topics may be talked about under different circumstances, knowing which address forms should be used with different Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 80. 48 persons one speaksto, and in what social context (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Competence also includes how to use and respond to different types of speech acts such as requests, apologies, thanks, and invitations (Parker & Riley, 1994). A competent speaker will take into account the social setting, their relationship to the other person(s) and the type of language that is appropriate. A competent listener will interpret sentences within the total context in which they are used. For example, “7/ is rather hot in here. ” could be a request to open a door or turn on an air conditioner, particularly if the person making the statement had a higher social role or if the listener is the person most able to do something about the temperature. Communicative competence is the ability not only to apply the grammatical rules of a language so as to form grammatically correct sentences but also the ability to know when and where to use such sentences and to whom (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Loban (1976), in a longitudinal study of students, determined communication competence in terms of fluency. One measure of fluency was the number of words in mazes. Mazes in speech are false starts, hesitations, repeated words, and revisions while speaking (Nippold, 1998). They give the speaker time to organize thoughts and collect appropriate words to use. For the listener, mazes create breaks in the sound stream that interrupt the flow of thoughts and make following the speaker’s points difficult. Loban (1976) found that mazes increase during the early adolescent years and then by grade twelve return to just about the same number of mazes that were present in first grade. The increase in mazes may be due to new thought processes experienced by the early adolescent that allow for his/her awareness ofdifferent points of view and more abstract thinking. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 81. 49 Semantics Linguists use theterm “semantics” to refer to the study of meaning that may be expressed through spoken sounds, written words, pictures, conventional signs, actions, or objects. Semantics is the system o f vocabulary or meaning of words including concepts, attributes, and word relationships (Griffith & Ripich, 1999). Meaning is the primary purpose of language (Lyons 1977). To learn a language, the child must abstract basic linguistic relationships and rules from the environment, and then internalize and categorize the information in a way that creates meaning. Later, this information appears as the child's expressive language (Reber, 1973). “Language development is a product of the strategies and processes of general cognitive development, although not a direct manifestation of it" (Owens, 2001, p.53). Supporting this semantic/cognitive model of language acquisition is the notion that concepts are formed before words and that concepts underlie meaning (Griffith & Ripich, 1999). How the concepts that underlie and support language are formed will be discussed next. Other components of language: lexicon, morphemes and syntax, each which create meaning in their own, will be covered later. Concept Formation A concept is the general idea or meaning that is associated with a word or symbol in a person's mind. Concepts are the abstract meanings that words and other linguistic items represent and they therefore play an important part in the development ofthought (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). How concepts are formed is important for the teacher to know. Ifthe teacher is to present a lesson so that early adolescents derive meaning and understand the concepts involved in the content areas, such as math, science, history and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 82. 50 language arts, theteacher must know how concepts are formed. These concepts may require new vocabulary as well as new ways of manipulating ideas. Included here are four different theories of concept formations: semantic feature hypothesis, fonctional- core hypothesis, associative hypothesis, and the prototypic complex hypothesis. See Table 6 for a detailed comparison of the four theories. Each theoretical position assumes that children and early adolescents organize word concepts based on certain aspects of the object or idea referred to. When concepts are inferred from linguistic and nonlinguistic actions and context, this contextual analysis can be labeled a rich interpretation (Owens, 2001). For example, children and early adolescents who do not understand all of the words on a page can create a rich interpretation, by inferring meaning from the pictures, the content, and the context clues that have already been given on that page and preceding pages. Semantic Feature Theory. In this theory E. V. Clark (1990) proposed that meaning is established by putting together salient features of objects, such as animate/inanimate, that are present and perceivable in the environment. Size, shape, and movement are seen. Other features may be smelled, tasted, or heard. Limitations of this theory are that it fails to explain the holistic nature of meaning, how the most relevant features are determined, and how meaning is derived for non-objects, such as up. The semantic feature theory does support the position that early adolescents may need to have the holistic nature ofa subject explained before the more relevant features can be understood. For example, a combustion engine's general purpose (to convert fuel energy by burning into mechanical energy in the form of a moving piston) may need to be explained before the purpose of a piston ring or valve lifter may be understood. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 83. 51 Table 6 Summary ofTheoriesUsed to Explain Concept Formation Theory: Used bv Concept Focus on Semantic Meaning is established by putting together features ofobjects that are Static Feature: present and perceivable in the environment. Example: "Round container features. E.V. Clark (cylinder), flat bonom with handle sticking out to the side from the top. size. (1990) used on top of stove it is a pan.” shape Functional A functional-core or object-use to which perceptual features are added are Motion Core: used to create concepts. A sequence ofevents isjoined to create scripts. features K. E. Nelson generalized event representations, such as the mealtime script Example: (1990) "Pan with water in it was puts over a flame, then noodles were added. Cooking dinner?” Associative A concept may be considered loosely defined when different features are External Complex: chosen to describe an object Concepts are supported by social experience features. Vygotsky in the context relevant to the domain ofknowledge and are shaded or more functional clearly defined, with successive uses. Example: "Mom cooks dinner this and time of day. Last time noodles meant spaghetti for dinner.” perceptual Prototypic Children expect to make sense of the world, to seek order, and to do this. Internal Complex: build schemas. Concepts underlying schemas include central references or structure Piaget prototypes, usually from adult speech, with a highly specific mental of (1984) representation ofthe concept or schema. The closer a new instance is to the prototype, the more likely the new instance is to be labeled by that symbol. A schema is adjusted through accommodation when the current schema is in conflict with new information. Example: "There are other smells. It is not spaghetti maybe it is chicken noodle soup.” concepts Information taken from: Bowerman, 1978; Cole, 1990; Goodman & Goodman, 1990; Owens, 2001: and Panofsky. John-Sterner & Blackwell, 1990; Schwartz & Leonard, 1984. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 84. 52 Functional Core Theory.In this theory, concept formation begins with the object- use meaning to which perceptual features are added. This hypothesis was issued by K. E. Nelson (Panofsky, John-Steiner, & Blackwell, 1990) to explain the acquisition of script like knowledge that develops spontaneously from everyday experiences. These experiences are generalized as contextualized wholes such as the school script or restaurant script. She felt concepts were defined in terms of logical relationships or logical acts. The significance of Nelson's script-based concepts is the revelation that children construct regularities, connections, and systems of ongoing daily activity. For the early adolescent to create meaning, new concepts in the content areas may need to be witnessed or tied to existing concepts or scripts. Two theories seek to explain concept formation at the early adolescent age: associative complex theory and prototypic complex theory. Associative Complex Theory. In this theory a concept may be considered loosely defined when different features are chosen to describe an object. The features may be based on functional and perceptual features. Vygotsky found that successive use of the word shaded some feature with a central instance or core concept. For him, the development of systematic concepts was not dependent on prior development but, rather, concepts were supported by social experience in the context relevant to the domain of knowledge. He found language to be derived from meanings and developed in an area called "the zone of proximal development" (Goodman & Goodman, 1990, p. 227). For Vygotsky, concepts differed on the basis of their context of acquisition. This theory supports the position that early adolescents can learn new concepts when they share Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 85. 53 experiences supported bysocial communication capable of clarifying salient features of the concept. Prototypic Complex Theory. This theory is an expansion of the associative complex theory. Children expect to make sense of the world, to seek order, and to do this, build schemas (Goodman & Goodman, 1990). Concepts underlying schemas include central references or prototypes, usually from adult speech. Children have a highly specific mental representation of a concept or schema including the attributes and features that characterize the prototype referent. Because the child may choose features that are not critical or exclude essential features of the adult concept, the child may over- or under- generalize the meaning and, consequently, the use of the word. Early adolescents, like adults, seem to analyze a concept relative to its essential features, which are then used to determine a goodness-of-fk between the original model (for example, a car) and the new model (whether it can be called a car also). The closer a new instance is to the prototype the more likely the new instance is to be labeled by that symbol (Bowerman, 1978). A schema is adjusted through accommodation when the current schema is in conflict with new information (Goodman & Goodman, 1990). Some adult concepts are finite, while others, especially categorical terms, have fuzzy boundaries. A feature may be included in one context and omitted in another. Consider an example of clothing. When referring to a camping situation, a jacket might be included and a coat omitted, but, when referring to a dance, the opposite might be true. For Piaget the development of mental structures preceded the learning of logically or systematically organized concepts. Both Piaget and Vygotsky believed 'pseudo" or "spontaneous" concepts were inductive and were based on the child’s history. Piaget Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 86. 54 focused on theinternal (mental) structure of concepts while Vygotsky focused on the external features (social interaction) surrounding the formation of concepts. Each of the above theories looks at concept formation from slightly different points of view, each has its own rich interpretation, and each has its limitations for explaining concept formation under all circumstances for all ages. Each also has implications for early adolescent language development and the teachers who choose to foster that development. Meanings. Meanings included multiple meanings of words and metaphorical meanings. These two are closely related in that multiple meanings are often used in metaphors. Multiple meanings. In English, it is possible for a single word-form, which describes a particular sound pattern, such as ran, to have multiple meanings. Different word-forms (found and find) can be based on the same lexeme (find). Likewise, the same word-form can be based upon different lexemes (Kempson, 1977; Lyons 1977). Consider, for example, the word-forms ran in the following sentences, He ran thefootrace. He ran the office. are based on two different lexemes that have different meanings. Many words in English have more than one meaning-they are polysemous terms (Nippold, 1998). Very often, these words have a primary meaning that is spatial and a secondary meaning that is abstract. Understanding the secondary meaning is often necessary in the understanding of mathematics and musical concepts presented at school. Secondary meanings are learned much later than primary meanings. For example: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 87. 55 They went upthe hill, (primary definition, spatial) She went up an octave, (musical) They counted up by 5’s. (mathematical) (Nippold, 1998, pp.2l-22) Some polysemous words also have secondary psychological meanings (cold, sweet, hard, soft, bright). Schecter and Broughton (1991) found that the ability to detect and explain the overlapping properties between physical and psychological meanings of double function words was a relatively late attainment (age fourteen). Early adolescents have difficulty with and are often confused by words that have more than one meaning. It is during early adolescence that children begin to understand that many words have both concrete meanings as well as a more abstract meaning. Once learned, double (or multiple) meanings are used by early adolescents in metaphors and humor (Nippold, 1998). Metaphorical meanings. Metaphorical meanings are a figure of speech containing an implied comparison in which a word or phrase normally used to describe one thing is applied to another (i.e., “copper sky^). Inferred and metaphorical meanings may be derived from words, phrases and discourse. Lexicology Lexicology is the study of the vocabulary items (lexemes) of a language including their meanings and relationships. A lexicon is the set of all the words and idioms of a particular language (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Size and Increase in Vocabulary. The size of the vocabulary of the early adolescent depends on what words are being measured: root words, reading vocabulary, or oral vocabulary. Because the early Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 88. 56 adolescent knows manythousand words, the total vocabulary is only estimated by various tests. Children enter school knowing about 14,000 words (Carey, 1978; Smith, 1926; Templin, 1957) and learn 3,000 - 5,000 new words every year (Miller & Gildea, 1987; Nagy & Anderson, 1984; Nagy & Herman, 1987), or 10-13 new words each day. By the time early adolescents are in the fifth grade they know 29,000-39,000 words and leave eighth grade knowing about 42,000 -59,000 words. Some words are derivatives of words already in their lexicon and some are less well known than others. Early adolescents learn new words by hearing words in context, reading, and by adding prefixes and suffixes to already known root words (Loban 1976). Written Language. Written language is also known to have an effect on language—on vocabulary specifically and language competence generally. This is included in lexicology because many new words are learned from reading. The spoken word is the primary source for word learning in the early grades. At about the fourth grade written language becomes a significant additional source of learning (Nippold, 1998). Proficient readers develop substantially larger vocabularies than their peers who read less and consequently read with less skill, interest and motivation (Nagy & Herman, 1987). When students reach early adolescence, reading becomes increasingly more abstract, more precise, and more context specific with some of the new words coming from school content areas, such as math, English, history, and science. New vocabulary words for the early adolescent are increasingly found in written contexts compared to spoken contexts (Nagy, Diakidoy, & Anderson, 1993). As children become early adolescents, the length ofthe words increased as well as the number of syllables in words. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 89. 57 Young children learnthe meaning of extremes (hot, cold; tall, short) before they learn the meaning of words in between (warm, cool; average). Early adolescents also are able to identify adverbs at the ends of a continuum (definitely, possibly) before identifying intermediate words (probably) (Hoffner, Cantor, & Badzinski, 1990). It is important for teachers to know if students understand the extremes ofa continuum (North Pole, equator) before introducing words that fall between the extremes (temperate zones). Morphology From a semantic point of view, the smallest units that contribute to meanings are called morphemes rather than words. Morphemes can be free and can stand alone like boy and play, or be bound and attached to free morphemes, such as -s and -ed. Only one morpheme is associated with the past tense of run, ran, while there are two morphemes in played, play and -ed MorphologicalAnalysis. There may be many bound morphemes in a single word. The word unseemliness contains four morphemes: un-, seem, -ly, and -ness. Each of these morphemes is a lexical item and contributes to the overall meaning of the word, and is part of the lexicon. During early adolescence some of the new vocabulary acquired comes from learning to use affixes. An affix is a letter or sound, or group of letters or sounds (a morpheme) which is added to a word and which changes the meaning or function ofthe word. Added to the beginning of a word an affix, (i.e., un-. ab-, or d i- constitute a prefix. Added to the end of a word an affix (i.e., -ness or ~ly) is a suffix, or added within the base of the word (such as, gemology), the bound morpheme is an infix (Neufelldt, 1994). An investigation by Dale and Eichholz (I960) produced a list of Words Understood by Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 90. 58 Grade Level (shownin Table 7) that demonstrated early adolescent's comprehension of selected words. Note that affixes begin to be seen in sixth grade words and are prominent in eighth grade words. When an unfamiliar word is encountered the components of the word can be separated into lexical, inflectional, and derivational morphemes to infer the meaning of the word using morphological analysis (Anglin, 1993). The words serviced, seabound, and talkativeness can be separated into lexical morphemes (service, sea, bound, talk), inflectional morphemes (-ed) and derivational morphemes (-ive, -ness). Wysocki and Jenkins (1987) reported that students in grades fourth, sixth, and eighth were able to derive meanings of unfamiliar words through morphological analysis in combination with context clues in the written passages. Sixth and eighth graders were found to be more proficient in combining two or more strategies for deciphering words than fourth graders. Syntax Syntax comes from a Greek word meaning arrangement. Syntax is the study of how words combine to form sentences, and the rules which govern the formation of sentences (Richards, Platt, & Platt, 1992). Syntax is important to the innate theory of language used by psycholinguists in the late 19S0’s and 1960's because it enables language users to generate sentences. For this theory phonology and semantics are purely interpretive. The leading proponent of this theory was N. Chomsky who was concerned with what the child brought to language learning. He reasoned that a child is presented with a finite set of examples, and must form some hypothesis about the underlying rules for the language and test these rules. According to Chomsky children are bom with a mechanism called a "language Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 91. 59 Table 7 Words Understoodby Grade Level The following list was understood by 75% of the students at various grade levels. Grade 4: bulldog, camper, cigar, crocodile, distance, dizzy, dodge, locket, sheriff, sniff, tangle, thirst, weedy, widow, wives. Grade 6“ adhesive, alto, appetite, bacteria, berth, bridal, campus, davenport, fatherless, fishery, gadget, grit, midst, pardon Grade 8* amend, archeology, byway, dimension, fluorescent, horoscope, inefficient, laughingstock, lingerie, officialdom, salutation Grade 10 circumstantial, deface, diversion, enshrine, gallows, hinder, implication, negligent, orthodox, pollination, proton, refrain 1 Included in definition of early adolescents. Adapted from: Dale, E., & Eichholz, G. (I960), Children’s Knowledge o f Words: An interim report. Columbus OH: Bureau of Educational Research and Service. Ohio State University. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 92. 60 acquisition device” thatassists the child in deriving syntactic rules. It is a theory that contains rules for generating sentences (N. Chomsky as cited in Owens, 2001). This theory neglects to describe innate cognitive abilities, negates children's uses of language, and de-emphasizes the importance of the environment and early social and cognitive growth. Syntax includes the organizational rules that specify word order, sentence organization, and word relationships. The two sentences, “Bob ran to Ann ” and ““Ann ran to Bob. ” each contain the same word-forms, morphemes and lexemes, but still express different meanings because of the organization of the word-forms in the sentences. Sometimes to make sentences syntactically correct different sequences of words and the use of different morphemes are required as in the following four sentences. Bob huggedAnn. Bob hugs Ann. Ann is being hugged by Bob. Bob is huggingAnn. Because of the interdependence between word structures (morphemes) and word sequences (syntax), the two are often studied together as grammar. Loban (1976) published a longitudinal study of 212 students that he followed from kindergarten through high school. From his initial language and IQ testing he created: the high group (top 35 scores, IQ 110), the low group (bottom 35 scores, IQ 90), and the random group (picked using a table of random numbers, IQ 100). The high group always scored higher than the random group, the random group was always between the high and low group, and low group was always below the random group. Regardless of the group, all students followed the same sequences of language development, the low group taking one to six years longer to meet milestones than the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 93. 61 high group. Themost significant ofLoban's results, for this study, are how the dependent clauses affect the mean length of utterance (MLU). The MLU is defined as the main clause and its modifiers. Clauses. While Loban found that there are many new applications of syntax that occur in late childhood and early adolescence, it is primarily the use of dependent clauses that is responsible for the dramatic increase in the MLU during early adolescence. This sharp rise occurred in oral communication between the fifth and sixth grades and in written communication between the seventh and eight grades. The number of dependent clauses increases until students begin to use other more concise methods of expressing themselves both orally and in writing. He noted that superior writers often found "tighter ways to coil their thoughts than dependent clauses permit" (p. 38). He also found that the low group was weaker in comparison to the high and random groups not only because of poor spelling, punctuation, and usage but also because of a general lack of coherence and organization of content. Loban found that overall there was a close correspondence between the written and the oral MLU. Table 8 shows the oral MLU of the three groups in his study over the twelve years of study. The early adolescent years have been put in bold. Note the sharp rise in MLU between the fifth and eighth grades. It is critical to note that language development continues well after adolescence and into adulthood. One method of elaborating and adding detail is by using clauses. When Loban (1976) compared oral and written language elaboration samples, he found that points given for elaboration were higher in the primary grades in oral language than in written Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 94. 62 Table 8 Average Numberof Words per Communication Unit—(Oral Language) Grade 1 2 3 4 5“ 6* 7* 8* 9 10 11 12 MLU 13 h h 12 h h m 11 h h m m m I 10 h m m 1 9 h h m 1 1 I I 8 h m/h m/h m m 1 7 m 1 1 1 1 6 1 5 4 Key: the three groups were: h = high group, m = random group, I = low group MLU = mean length of utterance *Identifies early adolescents. Taken from Loban, W. (1976). Language development: Kindergarten through grade 12.. Urbana, Illinois: National Council of Teachers of English, p. 28 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 95. 63 language. This changedas students entered sixth grade when written language had more elaboration points than oral language, and remained so through high school. Conjunctions Both the meaning within sentences, and also between sentences, is part of the study of syntax. Intra-sentential growth occurs at the individual sentence level when a sentence is made longer and ideas are joined by using conjunctions. Inter-sentential growth occurs when ideas are related between sentences by using cohesive devices. Growth in syntax during the early adolescent years can be traced to the use and understanding of linguistic devices to join sentences to produce cohesive discourse. Two types of inter-sentential cohesive devices have been researched—the adverbial conjuncts and lexical cohesion. The first conjunction children use is and. And is followed by but and because. As children enter early adolescence they begin to use more abstract and more precise conjunctions. Nippold (1998) and Scott (1984) suggest that adverbial conjuncts such as moreover, consequently, andfurthermore, are used to link clauses and sentences on the basis of some logical relationship (Quirk & Greenbaum, 1973). More common adverbial conjuncts may occur in conversations where they can be used to signal transitions into new or related topics (anyway, by the way) or a difference of opinion (e.g., even so, on the other hand) (Mentis, 1994). Dexterity in using these devices is important for both academic success and conversational dexterity. Lexical cohesion. Research has shown that certain lexical cohesion devices such as synonyms and collocation are used across sentences in written language with increasing frequency during the adolescent years (Crowhurst, 1987). A synonym or near- Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 96. 64 synonym can beused to prevent redundancy while still maintaining cohesion across sentences, such as those found in the following example. The group was putting on a tennis tournament over the weekend. Organizers were working hard to prepare for the contest. In contrast, collocation occurs when words commonly associated with one another co-occur in text. Examples of collocation from Halliday and Hasan (1976, pp. 285-286) include contrasts (hot, cold) and antonyms (wet, dry), words that are categorical (table, chair), super-ordinate (dollar, penny), part-whole (lid, box), or sequential (Saturday, Sunday), relationship to one another. When words related by physical (door, window) or topical (sunshine, cloud, rain) proximity co-occur, this also constitutes collocation. Words used in collocation generate a cohesive force if they occur in adjacent sentences. Crowhurst (1987) demonstrated developmental increases in the use of these two types of lexical cohesion devices when students were tested in sixth, tenth, and twelfth grades. The writing and reading of different genre give students opportunities to practice different cohesive devices. Writing, as opposed to speaking, is an ideal mode for acquiring complex syntactic structures because writing allows the student to deliberate, review, and correct without interference or pressure from a conversational partner (Perera, 1985). Grammar Grammar is the description ofthe structure of our language. It is comprised of principles and rules that govern word choice, word order, usage, sentence structure, sentence type, dialect, paragraph form, paragraph function and story structure (Block, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 97. 65 2001). In otherwords, grammar is a study that includes the rules of both morphology and syntax. The study ofgrammar generally takes place without considering the context of the communication—any world reference, or the person who is talking or writing. It is in the early adolescent years when students generally participate in a formal study of grammar. Syntactic attainments are closely related to academic success (Nippold, 1998). Research has shown that elaboration and complexity ofsyntax are clearly measures of development in both written and oral language (Loban, 1976). Table 9, Sequences o f Oral Language Development, lists some of the milestones of language development appearing in early adolescence that are related to syntactic achievements. This table also indicates the MLU for each group of ages. Table 10 Sequences o f Written Language Development shows similar increases in length of communication unit for written work of students. In Table 10, the numbers represent the average number of words per communication unit in writing. Phonology Spoken language can be described as a code where sound is used to create meaning. Phonology is the study ofjust those sounds that are used in a particular language, such as English. For purposes ofthis research, phonology will be used as a cover term for both phonetics (study of speech sounds) and phonemics (study or description of the distinctive sound units and their relation to one another) (Richards, Platt & Platt, 1992). Speech sounds are called phonemes. A phoneme is the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 98. 6 6 Table 9 Sequencesof Oral Language Development Ages Areas Demonstrating Growth in Oral Language 5 and 6 Tenses: Use pronouns and verbs correctly in • present tense. • past tense. MLU: average 6.8; range 6 to 8 (weakand strong proficiency). MLU 7; range of 4 to 9.5 [more affluent children) (O’Donnell, et al., 1967). 7 and 8 Clauses: Addition of more complex sentences using • adjectival clauses • conditional dependent clauses such as those beginning with if MLU 7.5: range of 6.6 to 8.3 8-10 Conjunctions: • Begin to relate particular concepts to general ideas, using meanwhile, unless, even if. • Begin to use the subordinating connectoralthough correctly. Tenses: • Begin to use present participle active: Sitting up in bed, I lookedaround. • Begin using perfect participle: Having read the book. I returned it to the library. Begin using gerund as the object ofa preposition: I didn't have to read the book. MLU 9; range of 7.5 to 9.3. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 99. 67 Table 9 (continued). SequencesofOral Language Development Ages Areas Demonstrating Growth in Oral Language 10- 12* Structure: Frame hypothesis and envision consequences. Conjunctions: • Use subordinate clauses ofconcession introduced by connectives like provided, that, nevertheless, inspite of, unless. • Begin to use in speech Ifthis, then that (probability) usually applied to temporal things ratherthan to non-temporal ideas and relations. Verbs: Use auxiliary verbs such as might, could, andshould. Tenses: Have difficulties distinguishing and using the past, past perfect, and present perfect tenses ofthe verb and almost none ofthe students used the expanded forms ofthe past perfect or the future perfect. Clauses in both speech and writing: • Immature coordination of main clauses showed a marked decrease. • More subordinated adjectival clauses. Adverbial clauses occurred twice as frequently (age 12) than in kindergarten.* Phrases that appear more frequently: • Nouns modified by a participle or participial phrase. • Gerund phrase, the adverbial infinitive and the compound or coordinate predicate: Weexaminedandate the candyin thepackage. MLU 9.5; range of 8 to 10.5. 13-14* MLU 10.96; range of9.2 to 11.79 1Indicates early adolescents. Derived from: Loban, W. (1976). *Study by O’Donnell, R. C., Griffin, W. J„ & Norris, R C. (1975). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 100. 68 Table 10 Sequences ofWritten Language Development Ages Areas Demonstrating Growth in Written Language Numbers represent the average number of words per communication unit in writing. 7 and 8 • Grade 2. ranged from 6.9 to 8.3 (High Scope study) 8-10 • In Loban’s study: 8.0 with a range from 6 to 9. • In Hunt’s (1966) study: 8.1 for boys and 9.0 for girls • When twelfth grade is used as a base for the total growth, the fourth graders have achieved 46% of their total growth in writing. 10-12* • In Loban’s study: 9 with a range from 6.2 to 10.2 13-14* • In Loban’s study: 10.5 units in length with a range of 8.78 to 11.09 a Indicates early adolescents. Derived from: Loban, W. (1976). Language development: Kindergarten through grade twelve. Urbana, IL: National Council of Teachers of English. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 101. 69 smallest linguistic unitof sound that functions to differentiate words from one another using distinctive features. The words "ran" and "run” are alike in every respect except the middle sounds, each being distinctly different. Because the word "ran" has a different middle sound than "run", it is a different word with a different meaning. Phonology is broken down into: articulation phonetics, acoustic phonetics, and auditory phonetics. Articulation Phonetics Articulatory phonetics describes the way speech sounds are produced. Sounds are classified according to the place of articulation—the position of the lips, the tongue, how far the mouth is open, the flow of air, and whether the vocal cords are vibrating. Most children master all of the speech sounds by the age of eight. The last eight sounds to be acquired are the ///, the sh sound in she; /0/, the th sound in thigh; /si, as in see; /z/, as in zoo; /o/, as in thy; /l/, in lie; /r/ as in row; /3/, the ge in rouge (Crystal, 1995). By the age of ten only those early adolescents with pronounced speech problems are still learning to articulate speech sounds (Paul, 1995). Sounds may also be described by the manner of articulation, such as in slurred speech where the sounds are pronounced indistinctly by combining or dropping sounds, or in stuttering where a sound in a word is repeated several times (Newfield, 1994). Acoustic Phonetics Acoustic phonetics describes the transmission of sounds through the air in terms of physical properties, such as, frequency, amplitude, intensity, and duration (Garman, 1990). When the voice changes, which it does during the adolescent years, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 102. 70 fundamental frequency shiftsto a lower frequency as the early adolescent’s vocal cords become longer and the larynx becomes bigger. This is particularly noticeable in males. The acoustic signal from a person speaking is continuous and words are not signaled by breaks in the acoustic signal. Children, therefore, must be able to segment and extract information about the units of speech from the variable and continuous acoustic signals they receive (Barrett, 1999). Auditory Phonetics Auditory phonetics is concerned with how speech sounds are perceived by the listener. Assuming that the listener is able to use acoustic phonetics to segment and extract words from a speech stream, then auditory phonetics enables the listener to perceive speech and inflection. Intonation patterns, (pitch, loudness, syllable length, and speech rhythm), rely on auditory phonetics for accurate perception by the listener, such as the difference between "Run?" and "Run!" The differentiation in meaning made by a listener becomes an issue of semantics or meaning. Children usually first use inflection with yes and no questions. Questions using inflection are followed by stress (frilling pitch) to note ownership (’daddy car) [stress on the first word, daddy] and location (daddy ’car) [stress on the second word, car]. Inflection plays a big part in delivering sarcasm or sarcastic remarks and is not well understood by the early adolescent. Sarcasm expresses complex meanings that can be interpreted in a variety of ways. Demorest, Silberstein, Gardner, & Winner (1983) examined the understanding of sarcasm in children six-, eight-years of age, and early adolescents eleven-years-of-age by having them listen to a story with pictures, the last sentence of which was a sarcastic remark. Then the children were asked to explain the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 103. 71 last sentence. Sixyear olds generally failed to recognize both the discrepancy and the speaker’s purpose, while eleven year-olds recognized both elements. Stories with only intonational clues were the most difficult for early adolescents to understand (Capelli, Nakagowa, & Madden, (1990). Conclusions that can be drawn from these studies (Capelli, et al. 1990; Cruttenden, 1974. Demorest, et al., 1983) are that early adolescents do not understand all of the inflections and intonational patterns that are perceived by adult listeners, and that early adolescents may misinterpret the meaning of some communications where inflection or intonation is important for understanding. Summary o fComponents It has been emphasized that language continues to develop throughout the early adolescent years with skills developing in a sequential manner. Table 11 is a summary of language skills acquired by age. The x’s on the table give an indication of the ages wherein the skill is still developing (bold type X’s indicate early adolescences) and one might see a great range of proficiency, from beginning to acquire a skill to great competency with a skill. Some children will use a skill in one setting before generalizing that skill to other settings or social situations. For example, reasoning may be seen in social studies, but not English. As can be seen in the table, story telling with complete episodes is not accomplished during the early adolescent period. Pragmatic strategies also continue to develop beyond early adolescence. Pragmatic strategies refer to organization of thought contributing to coherence in both oral and written forms of communication as can be seen in reasoning, persuasion, and negotiation. Pragmatic strategies also include taking into Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 104. 72 Table II Summary ofLanguage Skills Acquired in Eariy Adolescence Skills Age Acquired 5 6 7 8 9 10* 11* 12* 13* 14* 15 16 17 18 Pragmatics, Perspective X X X X X X X X X taking Pragmatics, Storytelling 5 5 X X 69 69 % with complete episodes Pragmatics, Strategy use X X X transitions to mature forms Pragmatics, Communication X X X X X X X X strategies become automatic Semantics, understands X X definitely, probably, possibly Semantics, Understands X X X unless Syntax, Pattern recognition X X X X X X X X X Lexicology, +3.000words /vr. X X X X X X X X X X X X X X Morphology, adding affixes. X X X X X X X -y. -er, un- bi- Morphology, -ly. -hood X X X X X X Phonology, masters fricatives X X X X 1 and X Identifies early adolescents. An x or X means skill is in the process ofbeing acquired. Information taken from: Loban, (1976) and Owens (1999). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 105. 73 consideration the audience,what needs to be said, and how it can best be said. The syntax patterns refer to the types of sentences and the ways that sentences are formed. For instance, the passive voice has a different syntactic pattern than the active voice. The dog bit him. (active voce) He was bitten by the dog. (passive voice) Under semantics both conjunctions and words that begin adverbial clauses are listed as being mastered in early adolescence, some earlier than others. An awareness of affixes is necessary for morphological analysis, a skill used to identify the meaning of unfamiliar words. This skill also continues to develop beyond early adolescence. Loban addressed many components of language in his study but he did not address inflection. Theories of Language as They May Affect a Textbook Author An author of a textbook for teacher candidates has many decisions to make regarding what content to include. To provide information on early adolescent language the author need not present all of the theory regarding linguistics. Only some of the explanations that are covered in linguistic theory are important for understanding early adolescent language. Van Valin & La Polla (1997) list eight things that a linguistic theory should explain. Those of concern to early adolescents are in bold type. a. Why human languages have the structure that they do, b. What is common to all human languages. c. Why human languages vary structurally the way they do, d. How human languages change over time, e. How speakers use language in different social situations, f. How speakers produce and understand language in real time, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 106. 74 g. What isthe nature of native speakers’knowledge oftheir language, and h. How children learn language, (adapted from p. 4). Only e-h above are of concern when early adolescent language is examined: how speakers use language in different social situations, how speakers produce and understand language in real time, the nature of native speakers' knowledge of their language, and, how children and early adolescents learn language. Other theoretical constraints on a textbook author might include theoretical adequacy. Chomsky (1968) first proposed levels of theoretical adequacy. They are: a. Observational adequacy: Grammar correctly predicts which sentences in a language are well formed and which are not. b. Descriptive adequacy: The grammar is observationally adequate, and it assigns structural descriptions to the sentences in the language that captures native speaker intuitions about the structure and meanings of the sentences. c. Explanatory adequacy: The grammar is descriptively adequate and is part of a theory that provides an account of how these facts arise in the mind of the speaker-hearer (p. 386). Additional levels of theoretical adequacy have been added by Dik, (1991), which are more applicable to acquired language in early adolescence than those Chomsky proposed and include the following: d. Psychological adequacy: a theory should be compatible with the results of psycholinguistic research on the acquisition, processing, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 107. production, interpretation, andmemorization of linguistic expression (P-248). e. Pragmatic adequacy: "the theory and the language descriptions based on the theory must be interpretable within a wider pragmatic theory of verbal communication" (p. 247) f Typological adequacy: "the theory should ’formulate such rules and principles as can be applied to any type of language without ‘forcing,’ without adapting the language to be described to the theory already developed’" (p.248). The author who writes a textbook for teacher candidates may limit what is said about language not only by the components the author is willing to discuss, but the linguistic theoretical stances that the author is willing to present. The theoretical stance may limit what is said about language and its development. An author, who only talks about the social uses of language, will probably not tell readers how early adolescents gain meaning from understanding the use of morphemes. Because a theoretical perspective views all of the components of language from a particular stance, the theoretical perspective may limit what can be discussed and how it is discussed. Textbooks as a Source of Teacher Knowledge Earlier in this chapter, the importance of teacher knowledge of early adolescent language development was discussed. Now, it becomes important to understand how teacher candidates acquire that knowledge. Teacher candidates are required to take classes where the primary sources of information are the lecture/discussion and readings. Most college classes have required textbooks. Books found on college and university Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 108. 76 campuses are usuallytextbooks, but may also, on occasion, be trade books. Textbooks are published primarily by three sources: recognized textbook publishers, professional and academic book publishers, and university presses. Trade Book Publishers Trade books are the popular books aimed at the general population, which are found in bookstores. Usually, trade books are short in length, easily read, and not well referenced. They may sometimes be used as supplementary readings but are seldom used as required textbooks (Silverman, F., 1998). They were not be considered as textbooks in this research. Professionaland Academic Book Publishers Professional and academic book publishers publish specialized books and monographs intended for academics and working professionals. Often used as reference books, these specialized books are not typically used as required textbooks for undergraduate courses (Silverman, F., 1998), and, consequently, were not considered in this research. University Presses University presses are major publishers of professional reference books, are highly selective about the books they publish, and keep the publication in press for several years. These books also are not usually written for undergraduates (Silverman, F., 1998), and were not considered in this research. Textbook Publishers Textbooks from textbook publishers are sold to college bookstores owned or leased by an institution or by independent bookstores that specialize in textbook sales on Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 109. 77 or near acampus. Textbook publishers prefer to deal directly with authors who are usually college professors but may also be professional writers. Publishers will update a book every few years, using a new edition when new research and new information marks the old textbook as out of date. When sales drop publishers will declare a book ’out of print.' Textbook publishers compete for a limited and predictable market of subject matter classes, particularly in undergraduate level classes (Silverman, F., 1998). Only textbooks published by textbook publishers and authored by people associated with a college or university will be considered for this research. Teacher Education Courses Teacher candidates need to take specialized courses to learn about the characteristics and development of their future students. Colleges and universities offer classes in child development and educational psychology to meet this need. Child Development Courses Child development courses include information on physical, social, and emotional development of children, early adolescents and adolescents. These courses contain general developmental information for education, psychology, and social work students. EducationalPsychology Courses Educational psychology courses also include information on student characteristics, but emphasize how students learn, and how teachers can change student behaviors. These classes are primarily for education majors, but as well meet requirements for college students interested in counseling and psychology. In both courses issues related to language and language development may be presented. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 110. 78 Summary This chapter describedsome theoretical views of language that a textbook author might consider when addressing the language of early adolescents. The theoretical positions that the author takes will influence what the author says about language. This discussion included the innate, the social or communicative and the cognitive theories of language development. During the early adolescent years language continues to develop with developmental changes occurring in all of the component areas of language including pragmatics, semantics, syntax, lexicology, morphology and phonology. Some of the developmental changes where described for each component of language along with some of the developmental changes that occur in language. Teacher candidates may learn about the language of their future early adolescent students from textbooks in child development and or educational psychology courses. This research examined textbooks in these two categories to find what information on early adolescent language was included in some of the textbooks used today. Chapter Three describes the methodology and procedures used in identifying and analyzing the data. Chapter Four contains the data. Chapter Five includes the discussion, conclusions, limitations and suggestions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 111. 79 CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCHMETHOD Introduction This chapter identifies the method, discusses the procedures used, and describes how inter-rater reliability was established. The purpose of this research was to assess whether information about early adolescent language was incorporated into the textbooks that teacher candidates are likely to encounter in child development and educational psychology courses. To accomplish this purpose a content analysis with description was used. Textbooks were selected, appropriate passages were found and coded, coded data was entered into tables where it was discussed and compared. Other things this research examined included how the authors described language, the quantity of the information on early adolescence language, the quality of the information, and the theoretical perspectives that the author used to describe language. This research also briefly discussed what the impact of the information found in the textbooks might be on the reader. Method The research method used was a content analysis with description. A content analysis is a method used to answer research questions about content (Riffe, Lacy & Fico, 1998). Schwandt (1997) describes content analysis as a means of textual analysis that involves comparing, contrasting, and categorizing a large amount of data. In the design of a content analysis, the researcher identifies the categories for analysis, the content in each category, and then evaluates the content of each category. Contrasts and comparisons are then made among and between categories. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 112. 80 The two categoriesfor analysis were the child development textbooks and the educational psychology textbooks. The content in each area included the sub components of language, how the selections were addressed language, the length of the selections, the quality of the selections and the theoretical perspectives. The content of each category was sub-divided and given codes. Selected passages in the textbooks each contained a topic that could be identified under a sub-component of language and applied to early adolescents. These were called selections. Selections were entered onto data sheets, coded, and counted. The data was entered into tables. Sample selections were included with the data in a summary of each textbook in chapter four. This data was then discussed in chapter five and conclusions were made from this data. Textbooks Used in Analysis All colleges and universities that prepare teachers have a required curriculum, required courses with required textbooks. Most programs typically require a child development and/or an educational psychology course. An effort was made to identify the most influential and widely used textbooks, so that the results might indicate what teacher candidates would be aware of concerning early adolescent language if they had used any of the selected child development and educational psychology textbooks. Identifying Textbooks Four methods were used and to select textbooks. The first method was to identify established publishing houses that were often used to supply textbooks for beginning teacher preparation courses. The second method was to identify possible textbooks by sales volume. The third method was to limit authorship and identify topics within possible textbooks so that there would be some material on which to gather data. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 113. SI fourth method wasby asking professors who teach these two courses to identify appropriate textbooks and verify or change the selected textbooks. A Non-Random Sample. The above selection process created a purposive sample, and not a random sample. A sample is a subset of the units from the entire population being studied. “If researchers assemble samples in any way other than random sampling the representativeness of the sample is biased and sampling error cannot be calculated accurately” (Riffe, Lacy & Fico, 1998, p. 81). Purposive samples are used because of the nature of the research project and require researchjustifications, such as time or content. The availability of the content was one consideration (after publisher and sales volume) in this research. If a textbook did not mention language in the table of contents, it was considered less likely to have information on early adolescent language than a textbook that did mention language in the table of contents. A purposive sample defines the population based on practical considerations. A purposive sample was used. Identification o fAreas That Were Compared (Coding Categories) Components Research Question 1.1 What Components o fEarly Adolescent Language are Discussed in the Textbook? The major components of language are identified as pragmatics, semantics, syntax, lexicology, morphology, and phonology. These components and the associated sub components were identified and discussed in the literature review. Those sub components that were identified in the textbooks included under pragmatics: conversation, discourse, and comprehension; under semantics: concepts and meanings; Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 114. 82 under syntax: clauses,conjunctions and grammar, under lexicology: size of vocabulary, and written language influence on vocabulary; under morphology: morphological analysis; and under phonology: voice change, and inflection. Description o fLanguage Research Question 1.2 How Was Language Described? The way authors described language was divided into three perspectives that could be used with early adolescent language. They are somewhat weighted from brief coverage to detailed coverage, but the author’s way of writing took precedence. First, the “snap-shot” was a description without great elaboration that noted just what could be observed. For example, “early adolescents use complex sentences with clauses.” Second, the developmental approach compared early adolescent language to another age or placed language skills in a sequence of development. The third way that authors described language was in terms of how early adolescents acquire language skills. Selections associated with acquisition often listed strategies for learning skills. All selections were coded for the way in which the author wrote about early adolescent language. Length o fSelections Research Question 1.3: What were the Depths (Lengths) o fthe Selections? The depth of the author’s coverage was measured by the quantity of writing: isolated hem, vignette, sentence, paragraph, or section. Isolated items were individual words or phrases that were mentioned but not elaborated upon, such as an item in a series of items used to give a specific example of a broader topic. The vignette included any table, figure, margin note, graph, chart, or vignette that was not in the running text. A sentence was one sentence. A paragraph was a paragraph or three or more sentences of a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 115. 83 paragraph. This wasdone because some authors had many topics in a single paragraph that covered several pages. Sometimes a paragraph would contain information on a topic but would compare several ages. If more than one sentence addressed early adolescent ages, the paragraph was coded. The section was a paragraph or more with a section or sub-section heading of its own where all of the material was pertinent to the topic being addressed. Quality o fthe Selections Research Question 2: With What Quality is Adolescent Language Discussed in the Textbook? The quality of the information on early adolescent language is classified as being misinformation, unclear information (information needing more clarification for application or understanding), adequate information, and best quality of information available (information given in great detail, or backed by current research). TheoreticalPerspectives Research Question 3: Does the Textbook Present Content Related to Language from a Particular Theoretical Framework? If so, in what manner is the content presented? The theoretical stances identified in the literature review included the innate, behavioral, cognitive and social/environmental. Procedures Procedurefo r Selecting Sample Textbooks The procedures for selecting sample textbooks included identifying publishers, identifying sales volume, limiting authorship and poling professors. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 116. 84 Identifying Publishers. Thisresearcher found through inquiries of libraries, bookstores, web searches and fellow students that child development and educational psychology textbooks are published by at least twelve different publishers, identified in Figure 3.1. Each of these publishers was contacted on line and asked, “What textbooks in the areas of child development and educational psychology are published by your company and are widely used in the preparation of teachers of early adolescents?” Three publishers’ representatives contacted the researcher, two by e-mail and one with a phone call. The representatives from Heineman and Steinman suggested titles of textbooks they publish. ABLongman, formerly Allyn and Bacon, and Longman, referred the researcher to their web site. The publishers and their representatives seemed either unable or unwilling to say which books sold more than others. The recent consolidation of publishing houses created some confusion regarding what books came from a particular publisher. Merrill Publishers listed books published by ten other publishing companies that are now owned by one publishing group. With so many publishers consolidated under one name, it was evident that some other method of identifying textbooks would be necessary than taking the best selling textbook of each publisher. A web search discovered that, although some textbooks had the same title and author, they were issued by different publishers and were assigned different ISBN numbers. For example, Teaching Strategies: A guide to better instruction, 5thedition by Donald C. Orlich (Ed.) (1990) was listed with two publishers DC Heath with ISBN 0395872456 and Houghton Mifflin with ISBN 0618025413. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 117. 85 This initial searchalso uncovered the fact that many authors had written both child development and educational psychology textbooks. A decision was made to use an author only once, for their most widely sold textbook. The list of publishers was then narrowed to five publishers that publish widely for undergraduate college classes. All admitted or proclaimed to being a large supplier of textbooks for these particular undergraduate classes—educational psychology and child development. The final selection of publishers included the following: 1. Allyn and Bacon 2. Houghton Mifflin 3. McGrawHill 4. Prentice Hall 5. Wadsworth These were the only publishers considered in the final selection of textbooks. A list of the publishers that were considered appears in Table 12, along with the number of textbooks each published in child development (CD) and educational psychology (EP). Publishers that were selected and the books selected appear in bold type. Identifying by Sales Volume. The second method of selection was to determine the volume of books sold. The web sites for large book distributors, Amazon (amazon.com) and Barnes and Nobel (bn.com), list books by category, but do not distinguish between trade books and textbooks. They both also list books by publisher and rank books by sales volume. Only Amazon identified rank-by-rank numbers. Barnes and Nobel listed books by rank but without ranking numbers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 118. 86 Table 12 Distribution andSources ofSelectedTextbooks Issues Initial Returned Merrill Internet Considered Chosen Publishers Contact e-mails List CD EP CD'EP* Ailyn & Bacon* X X X 7 23 30 3 3 Longman X X X I I 2 Addison Wesley I 23 24 Guilford 2 4 6 Heinemann X X I - I Houghton Mifflin* X X 4 6 10 1 DC Heath - - John Wiley - Jossev-Bass McGraw Hill* X 20 6 26 2 1 Merrill X 176 titles, none published by Merrill. Prentice Hall* X X 24 - 2 Stenhouse X X I I 2 Teachers College 5 - 5 Wadsworth* 34 6 40 I Totals 75 74 149 6 7 1 Identifies textbooks selected for study. Each group ofun-separated publishers represents a consolidated publishing house. Within each group, the same book (title and author) may be published by more than one publisher. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 119. 87 At Amazon themost popular selling book was ranked “ 1”; the less popular were ranked with increasingly larger numbers up to nearly two million. The researcher defined a “widely-used-textbook,” as one with a sales rank o f600,000 or better, placing it in the top quarter of all books sold by Amazon. The rank by Amazon was one indication of sales popularity that was accessible to this researcher. Because many textbooks are sold by college textbook stores, instead ofbook distributors like Amazon, trustworthiness of this selection process was suspect. Those textbooks that sold very few copies and ranked below the rank o f600,000 at Amazon were not considered, at this time. Limiting Authorship. The third method of selection examined author qualifications and book content An examination was made of the title page and table of contents of textbooks that met the above criteria for publisher and sales volume. The title page identified the authors, their university, and the edition of the book. Authors of first editions, who had never published before, were not considered. All of the authors finally selected were either in a second or later edition of their textbook or had published other articles or textbooks in the fields of child development and educational psychology. Textbooks in the final selection were all written by professors or people associated with a college or university. Professional writers were not included primarily because of sales volume, but also because of no university to affiliation, and the possibility of the book being a trade book and not a textbook. To narrow the number oftextbooks to a manageable number to examine for analysis, one last selection criteria was used. The table of contents was examined to see Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 120. 88 whether or notlanguage was a topic. As a result of the selection process, five child development textbooks and six educational psychology textbooks were selected. A Poll o fProfessors. The last step in the selection process was to confirm or change the sample by speaking to teaching professors at the University of Nevada, Reno (UNR). Four faculty members, two teaching educational psychology and two teaching child development, were given the list of the textbooks selected in their area. They were asked, “What textbooks would you expect to see on a list that is representative of widely used child development (or educational psychology) textbooks?” “Is the list above representative of widely used textbooks in the course you teach?” “Are there other textbooks you would include in a representative sample oftextbooks in this area?” The two faculty members teaching child development independently suggested that Santrock’s textbook on child development, published by McGraw Hill, be included. This book had not been on the original list because Amazon.com ranked it below 600,000 sales rank. On the recommendation ofthese two professors, Santrock’s (2001) book was added to the list, making six child development textbooks. During the summer o f2001, professors at UNR had completed a comprehensive review of educational psychology textbooks in the process of evaluating and updating their courses. These professors suggested textbooks already on the list by Ormrod (2000); Woolfolk (2001); and Snowman & Biehler (2000), but also asked that another textbook be considered—one by Elliott, KratochwilL, & Travers (2000) and published by Brown and Benchmark. These professors felt that this textbook was the most complete and comprehensive educational psychology textbook available. This was not a publisher previously considered. After further inquiry, it was found that the third edition of this Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 121. 89 textbook, was publishedby McGraw Hill. It, too, was added to the list of selected textbooks, making seven. Since the professors did not want to remove any previously selected titles from the existing lists and only had one title to add to each ofthe child development and educational psychology categories, this researcher felt that the selection process appeared to arrive at a representative sample of widely used and influential textbooks. Of the 149 textbooks identified (Table 12), 13 were selected and are listed in Table 13 (child development) and Table 14 (educational psychology). Between the time the textbooks were selected and acquired, some of the copyright dates on the books changed, for example Meece’s textbook has a 2002 date. In the next chapter, the date of the textbook that was actually used is listed. The ISBN numbers did not change. Coding Procedures Identification o fSelections or Passages in Textbooks The examination of the contents of the 13 textbooks began by searching for topics related to early adolescent language in the textbooks. To this end, the of contents, index, and chapter summaries of each textbook were consulted to locate passages having to do with early adolescent language. The textbook presented information on early adolescent language when the author met any ofthe criteria for the definition of language. The definition of language used in this research and presented in Chapter 1, is repeated here: Language is a socially shared code or conventional system for representing concepts through the use of arbitrary symbols and rule-governed combinations of those symbols (Owens). Language is both the object of knowledge and the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 122. 90 Table 13 Selected ChildDevelopment Textbooks Title. ISBN Authors) Publisher Pages Pub. Date Rank on 8/1/01* Rankll/l/0lo Ama- Bames zon /Nobel The Developing Child, 9/e ISBN: 0321047095 Helen Bee Allyn & Bacon 575 pp 6/3/99 246,259 439 104 Child Development, 5/e ISBN: 0205286348 Laura Berk Allyn & Bacon 776 pp 8/10/99 93.225 178 136 Ofchildren: An Introduction to Child and Adolescent Development. 9/e ISBN: 0534526063 Guy Lefrancois Wadsworth 654 pp 6/01 634,770 720c 252c Child and Adolescent Development for Educators. 2/e ISBN: 0072507683 Judith Meece McGraw Hill 400 pp 9/01/01 427.847 355 428 Child Development 9/e ISBN: 0072420049 J.WW Santrock McGraw Hill 653 pp 8/00 1.026.174 449C I46c Understanding Children and Adolescents. 4/e ISBN: 020531418X 1. Schickedanz D. Schickedanz P. D Forsyth G. A. Forsyth Allvn & Bacon 716 pp 7/21/00 582,730 736 197 a Ranking numbers of 8/1/01 are based on Amazon total sales, approximately 2 million. b Ranking numbers on 11/1/01 are based on Child Development books listed by keyword. Amazon listed 765 titles and Bames and Nobel listed 2102 titles c Ranking numbers listedon 12/1/01. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 123. 91 Table 14 Selected EducationalPsychology Textbooks Title ISBN Author Publisher Pages Pub.Date Rank 8/1/01* Rank ll/l/O l6 Ama- Barnes / zon Nobel Educational Psychology: Windows on Classrooms. 5/e: ISBN: 013017176X P. Eggan D. Kauchak Prentice Hall 728 pp 7/11/00 264.436 116 284 Educational Psychology: Developing Learners. 3/e ISBN: 0130322989 J. E. Omrod Prentice Hall 773 pp 7/01/00 306.622 210 383 Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice. 6/e ISBN: 0205292704 R. E Slavin Allyn & Bacon 5% pp 7/22/99 259.957 33 99 Psychology Applied to Teaching, 9/e ISBN: 06118096043 J. Snowman. R. Beihler. C. J. Bonk Houghton-MifOin 672 pp 7/01/00 416.359 442 Not ranked Educational Psychology ISBN: 0321011848 R. J. Sternberg W. M. Williams Allyn & Bacon 640 pp 10/19/01 208.089 Not listed 154 Educational Psychology: Effective teaching, effective learning, 3/e ISBN: 0697375404 S. N. N. Elliott T. R. Kratochwill J. L. Cook: J. Travers McGraw-Hill 656 pp 6/99 Not checked Not checked Not checked Educational Psychology. 8/e: ISBN: 0205289959 A. Woolfolk Allyn & Bacon 661 pp 7/26/00 49.093 56 91 *Ranks o f 8/1/01 are based on Amazon total sales, approximately 2 million. b Ranks on 11/1/01based on keyword, published after 1997. Amazon had 542 titles, bn had 1578 titles. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 124. 92 medium through whichknowledge is acquired (Cazden, 1973). Language is a dynamic system, including content, form and use. It is developmental and culturally dependent, (ASLHA, 1982). Language in this paper will include the broadest definitions of language so that not only the rules of language can be visited but also the situations where language is used and the communicative intent can be established. Language in this research refers to both oral sounds and written symbols used by people to communicate. English is the default language intended unless otherwise specified. Topics that were successful in locating passages about early adolescent language included: adolescence, peers, social skills, communication, critical thinking and reasoning, concept formation, grammar, etc. An alphabetical detailed list is included in the Appendix B. The pages were noted in the index and table of contents for items that might pertain to early adolescent language. These pages were then read for any sentence, paragraph or section that might have to do with the language of early adolescents. When the table of contents and index sources of early adolescent language had been read and coded, the summaries of every chapter were read looking for any passages or selections that might have been missed. Passages were then read for details, and evaluated. Sometimes preceding and following passages were read to establish either language or early adolescence. The passage was coded if it met any of the descriptions in the broad definition for language above. Early adolescence was established if any of the ages included in the description included the ages of 10-14 years-of-age. Sometimes headings, examples, research findings as well as skills and abilities listed in the running text were used to establish age Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 125. 93 of children and/orlanguage. Passages were not used if they only implied language, discussed just thinking or described any activity, such as problem solving, without the use of language. Coding Criteriafo r Sub-Components In the sections that follow the coding for components and sub-components is explained. Each sub-component is followed by an example from Educational Psychology, 3rded by Robert E. Slavin, (1991). (This textbook was not one of the 10 textbooks selected for analysis). Pragmatics. Pragmatics was coded ifthe use of language was discussed. The use of language referred to the purpose of the communication (argument, story telling), or the type of language used (slang, idioms, etc.). Pragmatics was divided into conversation, discourse, and competence. I. Conversation: This entry included slang, persuasion and negotiation, inductive and deductive reasoning, idioms, ambiguity, and sarcasm. An example of inductive and deductive reasoning in Slavin (1991): Another ability Piaget and others recognized in the young adolescent is the ability to reason about situations and conditions that have not been experienced. The adolescent can accept, of the sake of argument or discussion, conditions that are arbitrary, that are not known to exist, or even that are known to be contrary to fact. Adolescents are not bound to their own experiences of reality, so they can apply logic to any given set of conditions, (p. 83) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 126. 94 2. Discourse: Thisitem included proverbs, jokes, storytelling, and reports. Slavin (1991) had no examples of discourse. 3. Communicative Competence: This item was coded if the author discussed or described how well thoughts and ideas are either expressed in words or received in words by the early adolescent. An example from Slavin (1991): Studies of reciprocal teaching methods have found that they significantly increased the reading comprehension of low-achieving junior high school students.” (p. 177) Semantics. Semantics had two sub-components concepts and meanings. 1. Concepts. When the author discussed the formation of concepts or schemas concepts were coded. An example ofconcepts: Various aspects of schemata may be related by series of propositions, or relationships. For example. Figure 5.6 illustrates a simplified schema for the word “bison” showing how this concept is related to other concepts in memory, (p. 139) 2. Meanings included the meanings of words, multiple meanings of words, or metaphorical meanings of words or phrases. Slavin (1991) had no examples. Syntax. Syntax had three sub-components: clauses, conjunctions, and grammar. 1. Clauses was coded if the author mentioned the increase in the use of clauses in early adolescence. Slavin (1991) had no examples. 2. Conjunctions were coded when the author discussed the change in the use of conjunctions in early adolescence. Slavin (1991) had no examples. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 127. 95 3. Grammar orrules of grammar included cohesive devices within and between paragraphs and sentences. Slavin (1991) had no examples Lexicology. Lexicology was divided into two sub-components. First, the number of words the early adolescents had in their vocabulary, and second, the effect of written language on vocabulary or other aspect of language. Slavin, 1991 had no examples. 1. Vocabulary size, how the vocabulary increased, or the change in the size of the vocabulary over the years, were all coded under vocabulary size. 2. The effect of written language on vocabulary was the second sub-component. This was coded when the vocabulary specifically or language in general of the early adolescent was changed in some way by the written text. Morphology. Morphology had only one sub-component, morphological analysis. This was coded when the author discussed word affixes including suffixes and prefixes and their use, such as changing nouns to adverbs, accident to accidentally. There were no examples in Slavin (1991). Phonology. Phonology had two sub-components the voice change that occurs in puberty, or other voice characteristics, and inflection. 1. Voice change was mentioned by Slavin (1991). “Boys: The voice deepens noticeably” p. 80. 2. Using or hearing inflections or intonational patterns or word stress was coded as inflection. Slavin (1991) had no examples. Criteriafo r Selecting the Quantity o fLanguage Coverage The quantity was coded for all selections according to the amount oftext that was used to describe a component. The quantity was identified as being an isolated item, a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 128. 96 vignette, a sentence,a paragraph, or a section comprised of several paragraphs or one half page paragraph or more with a heading. The vignette code described any source not in the running text. This code included a margin note, a table, graph, picture caption, chart, summary of skills, or figure. The following criteria were used to quantify the depth (length) of language information. The criteria and codes are listed below followed by an example from Educational Psychology, 3rded by Robert E. Slavin, (1991). (This textbook was not one of the 13 textbooks selected for analysis). 1. Content mentioned in a single word or phrase, without elaboration Code. T ’ for isolated item. Example: “ . . some preteens talk back to teachers in ways they would never have considered several years earlier, and some openly challenge teachers” (Slavin, 1991, p. 77). Rationale: A single sentence gives isolated information that is usually not tied to other language behaviors and does not give reasons for the behavior. This code originally also stood for implied, but teacher candidates would not grasp implications of language without prior knowledge needed to infer meaning. Implied use of language was avoided and only explicitly stated language was coded. 2. Language presented in vignettes, tables, graphs, figures, margins—places other than the running text. Code: “V” for vignette. Example: Beverly Harrison, a seventh-grade teacher in Omaha, Neb., says Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 129. 97 teachers must rememberthe limitations of students’ experience and knowledge. 'I tended to over estimate the readiness and background of my students, so I taught ‘over their heads’ for many years. I expected them to have heard about the things I knew about as an adult. It wasn’t until my own child reached the level that I was teaching that I realized children are limited in their scope of experiences, vocabulary, and conceptual development. Teachers must remember themselves as students at the level at which they are teaching. I became a better teacher when I realized the limitations of my students.’ (Slavin, 1991, p. 75). Rationale: A vignette will give more extensive information and contextual details, such as the teacher’s experience described in the example text above. A vignette is isolated, often appearing in a box, and there is no supporting evidence in the text. The fact that vocabulary and concepts are limited in seventh graders was not supported or expanded upon in the text. 3. More than one sentence with an explanation, elaboration, or reason. Code: “R”. for reason, and rationale. Example: Children in the upper elementary grades move from egocentric thought to more decentered thought. Nine- to twelve-year-olds can perform logical, reversible thinking; can reason without having to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 130. physically manipulate objects;and are aware of different variables and their relationships, (p. 93). Rationale: The first sentence offers general information, and the second sentence supports the first with specific examples that give expanded meaning to what is stated, however there is no further discussion in the text. This unit, coded R, is being used to denote information that does not comprise a paragraph. 4. A paragraph with elaboration or explanation. Code: “P” for paragraph. Example: Children normally develop basic language skills before entering school. Language development involves both verbal and written communication. Verbal abilities develop very early, and by age three, children are already skillful talkers. By the end of the preschool years, children can use and understand an almost infinite number of sentences, can hold conversations, and know about written language (Gleason, 1981; Menyuk, 1982; Schickedanz et. al.. 1982). p. 59-60. Rationale: A paragraph is long enough to contain information that not only describes a concept, but gives related details, reasons, and examples. 5. A section, generally several paragraphs, halfa page or longer. Code: “W” for a whole section. Example: Criticisms and Revisions of Piaget’s Theory Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 131. 99 Piaget’s theory revolutionizedand still dominates the study of human development. However, some of his central principles have been questioned in more recent research, and modern descriptions of development have revised many of his views. One important Piagetian principle is that development precedes learning. That is, Piaget held that developmental stages were largely fixed, and that such concepts as conservation could not be taught. However, research has established some cases in which conservation could not be taught. However, research has established some cases in which Piagetian tasks can be taught to children at earlier developmental stages (Gardner, 1982; Price, 1982). Piaget (1964) responded to such demonstrations by arguing that the children must have been on the verge of the next developmental stage already—but the fact remains that some (though not all) of the Piagetian tasks can be taught to children well below the age at which they usually appear without instruction. Other critics have argues that Piaget underestimated children’s abilities by using confusing, abstract language and overly difficult tasks. Several researchers have found that young children can succeed on simpler forms of Piaget’s tasks that require the same skills (Donaldson, 1978; Black, 1981). For example, Gelman (1979) found young children could solve the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 132. 100 conservation problem involvingthe number ofblocks in a row when the task was presented in a simpler way with simpler language. Boden (1980) found that the same formal operational task produced passing rates from 19 to 98 percent, depending on the complexities of the instructions (see also Nagy and Griffiths, 1982). Similar kinds of research have also led to a reassessment of children’s egocentricity. In simple, practical contexts children demonstrated their ability to consider the point of view of others (Donaldson, 1978, Black, 1981; Damon, 1983). The result of this research has been a recognition that children are more competent that Piaget originally thought, especially when their practical knowledge is being assessed. Obviously, older children do succeed at tasks that overwhelm younger children, so differences in their thinking must exist. Gelman (1979) suggests that the cognitive abilities of preschoolers are more fragile than those of older children and therefore are only evident under certain conditions. The skills that preschoolers do display, however, are the roots of later, more complex understandings. For more on revisions of Piaget’s theories, see Miller (1983) and Nagy and Griffiths (1982). (pp. 37-38) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 133. 101 Rationale: A sectionis long enough to cover a concept in detail with examples, a progression, or describe several related concepts and indicate how they are related to each other. 6. A chapter. This was an original heading but was not used because no textbook had a full chapter on early adolescent language. Criteriafo r Identifying the Way Textbooks Described Early Adolescent Language The way that the authors described language was coded next. All passages were coded. Three choices were possible: language development, language acquisition, or language description. When the author described language in relation to earlier or later development, such as, “vocabulary continues to increase.’’ the selection was coded as a statement that discussed the development of language. When the author mentioned a strategy used to increase language skills the statement was coded as language acquisition. For example, “An outline can be used with oral reports to organize thoughts and remember the important ideas.” was coded language acquisition because the passage listed a strategy for speaking that was intended to improve the content of what was said. When the author’s statements could not be classified as either development or acquisition then the passage just described language as a “snap-shot”—what the language looked like. For example, “Early adolescents may not understand the inflection of sarcasm.” describes early adolescent language abilities and would be coded as a description only. This passage did not address acquiring a language skill nor did it address developmental stages or sequences, although this might be implied. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 134. 102 Criteriafo r Selectingthe Quality o fthe Selections The quality of the passage was intended to establish whether what the author had to say about early adolescent language was understandable or usable. Confusing passages with ambiguous meanings were coded as unclear. Passages coded as best possible, explained one aspect of language in detail and depth, and out of proportion to other topics in the textbook. These passages usually provided more information than a beginning teacher could easily use. These passages were also often associated with the author’s own research or pet topic. Miss-information was a code for something that was totally wrong in relation to information uncovered in the literature review. All selections not coded for one of the above were coded as adequate. A Likert type scale was used to measure the quality of the information. The scale of I- 4, as described below, was applied to each language component. 1. Misinformation. Code: “X” for wrong, out dated, or misinformation Example: Language development is complete by the end of the elementary school years. (Example not found in text used for examples.) Rationale: When any information is given that cannot be verified in the literature review or the sources ofthe literature review, it will be deemed misinformation. 2. Unclear. Code: “Y” for why didn’t the text elaborate more? Example: “... some preteens talk back to teachers in ways they would Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 135. never have consideredseveral years earlier, and some openly challenge teachers” (p. 77). Rationale: The quality of content will be coded as unclear when a statement is made and is not tied to other information in the text, where no explanation is made that would clarify why the author made the statement, or where no explanation for the behavior is given. 3. Adequate information, but the information lacks depth. Code: “A” for adequate Example: Children in the upper elementary grades move from egocentric thought to more decentered thought. Nine- to twelve-year-olds can perform logical, reversible thinking; can reason without having to physically manipulate objects; and are aware of different variables and their relationships, (p. 93). Rationale: This information is adequate, but the quality of the information is less than that described in the literature review. 4. Meets or exceeds information found in the literature review. Code: “B” for better information—meets or exceeds that information found in the literature review of this research project, or cites extensive detail and current research. Example: One important implication of transformational grammar theory is that different languages or dialects that can express the same information are linguistically equivalent. For example, although a dialect used within black communities in the United States has its Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 136. own grammatical ruesand conventions, it is equivalent in conceptual quality to standard English. Standard English should still be taught to all students because proficiency in it is important in its own right, but this does not imply that the cognitive level of different languages or dialects differ (Edwards, 1979). p. 60-61. Rationale: When a concept is covered in the textbook to the extent that it is covered in the literature review, it will be considered to have met the expectations of this researcher. This code is used for all information that meets or exceeds information found in the literature review. These four criteria (misinformation, unclear, good, meets/exceeds) were used to evaluate the quality of language related material found in textbooks. Each quantity of selected text (sentence, paragraph, etc.) was evaluated. Representative examples were taken from the textbooks for comparison of data. Criteriafo r Selecting the Author’s Theoretical Perspective The last item coded was the theoretical perspective of the author. Only passages where a theoretical perspective could be identified were coded. Theoretical perspectives were limited to innate, behavioral, cognitive, and social/environmental. Innate, cognitive, and social/environmental reflect theories of language discussed in the literature review under language theories. The behavioral perspective is discussed under social skills and is a learning theory and not a theory of language. Because it is concerned with language acquisition in regard to social skills training, it was included. Textbook passages often identified a personality associated with a theoretical perspective Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 137. 105 (cognitive—Piaget, social/environmental—Vygotsky). Wherethe theoretical perspective was not explicit, the environment, the behavior of a teacher, or the changes in thinking patterns of a child were clues as to the theoretical perspective of the author. Once again descriptions in the literature review were referenced for consistent application. Example of behavioral theoretical perspective: Two girls in a regular seventh-grade language arts class were having trouble completing their assignments. At first, the teacher asked the girls to write ten sentences using correct grammar and punctuation each day. The sentences were scored and returned the following day. Under these conditions, the girls averaged about 58% correct sentences. Then the teacher decided to grade and return the papers immediately. When the immediate correction procedure was introduced, the girls’ correct sentence writing increased dramatically, to 90% for “Betty” and 93% for “Jane.” (Slavin, 1991, p. 109.) Example of cognitive theoretical perspective: “Another ability Piaget and others recognized in the young adolescent is the ability to reason about situations and conditions that have not been experienced. The adolescent can accept, of the sake ofargument or discussion, conditions that are arbitrary, that are not known to exist, or even that are known to be contrary to fact. Adolescents are not bound to their own experiences of reality, so they can apply logic to any given set of conditions.” Slavin, 1991, p. 83.) How was CodingApplied? Passages Selected. The age of the early adolescent child (10-14) was easier to discern in some textbooks than others. Some textbooks grouped children by age to Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 138. 106 discuss a topic.Others, particularly the educational psychology textbooks, tried to cover all school ages at the same time. If in these textbooks the characteristics of the children being discussed met the characteristics of early adolescents, without identifying the ages of the students, the selections were coded. Ifthe group of children identified in the textbook included the early adolescent ages as well as other ages, the selection in the textbook was also coded. M ixed Selections. Some selections had more than one topic, particularly chapter summaries. These were usually paragraphs that were for coding purposes divided into sentences. In these cases the sentences were coded instead of the paragraph. In some cases a sentence had one topic but mentioned a second topic. In this case the sentence was coded for the most applicable sub-component and the second topic was coded as an isolated item. For example, Woolfolk (2001) stated, “Many children are in their preadolescent years before they are able to distinguish being kidded from being taunted or before they know that a sarcastic remark [emphasis added] is not meant to be taken literally” (p. 54). The above passage was coded as a sentence being in the compo nent area of pragmatics under communicative competence because being able to understand the intent of a communicative message is competence. The underlined portion was coded as an isolated item under sarcasm, a topic associated with conversation. The isolated item occurred when a specific item was used to support a more general topic. Summary o fData Collection Procedures Once a passage or relevant selection was found, the selection was copied onto a data collection sheet in the left hand column. The textbook title, author, chapter number, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 139. 107 chapter heading, andsection heading were identified at the top of the data collection sheet. Columns to the right of the selection were used for coding the theoretical perspective (if present), the way the author described early adolescent language, the quantity (length of selection), the sub-component, the quality of information, and comments. A data collection sheet is in Appendix A. The above procedures are summarized in Table 15. Note that the codes used are listed at the beginning of each row. Analysis Analysis involved the comparison and contrast of the data found in the textbooks within and between categories. The data compared included the sub-components, the way selections were described, the length of selections, the quality of the selections and the theoretical frameworks found and the quantity of the selections found in each textbook. In the discussion some conclusions were drawn from the analysis along with what it might mean to the reader to read a particular textbook. Reliability Reliability of an instrument refers to the consistency of its measurement. Estimation ofthe reliability of raters involves agreement among different raters (Long, Convey & Chwalek, 1991). Consistency in this research is based on this researcher finding the same references to language, the same manner in which the selection addressed language, the same length of a selection, the same quality of selection, the same theoretical framework, the as would other readers, and coding them the same as would other readers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 140. 108 Table 15 Data CollectionQuestions i What component(s) of language is the author discussing? U = pragmatics: 1. Conversation: slang, persuasion and negotiation reasoning, problem solving, critical thinking, idioms, ambiguity, and sarcasm 2. Discourse: proverbs, story telling, reports, jokes. 3. Communicative competence T = semantics: 1. Concept formations, 2. Metaphorical meanings S = syntax: I. Clauses, 2. Conjunctions, 3. Grammar, cohesive devices, L = lexicology: I. Vocabulary increase, 2. Written language M = morphology: I. Morphological analysis 0 = oral sounds of language: I. Voice quality, 2. Inflections 2. In what quantity of space of text is early adolescent language considered? 1= isolated information V = vignette, caption, figure or table R = reason, mentioned in a sentence P = paragraph W = a whole section 3 What aspect of early adolescent language is the author describing? 1. Description of early adolescents language? 2. Language development sequences? 3. Language acquisition, concept formation or strategies? 4. What is the quality of the discussion of language? X = misinformation Y = unclear, ambiguous, y for “why?" A = adequate B = best, better than literature review. 5. What theoretical framework does the author use? E = Social environment F = Behavioral G - Cognitive involving gray matter N = Innate Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 141. 109 Two outside readerswere used to find inter-rater reliability. The first reader, CP, was a graduate student in curriculum and instruction working on a doctorate in literacy. The second reader, JT, was a graduate student in speech therapy and audiology and working on a masters degree in speech therapy. Both were familiar with the components of language. Each was trained to above 90% agreement on sections in textbooks used in this study. After training, the readers each read a total of twenty-five passages from selected textbooks used in the study, coding the information pertaining to early adolescent language. The ratings of each reader were then calculated as a percentage of agreement with the researcher to provide a measure of“inter-rater reliability” Errors that may influence reliability include non-standardized administration of criteria, observer error, and idiosyncrasies. If a reader is not consistent in the application of the criteria, for example with reference to the quality of the information in the textbook, then there may be great discrepancy both between textbooks and coders, where none should exist. Observer error may occur when a passage is misread or misinterpreted. The idiosyncrasies of observers refer to possible temporary mood states of the observer and to the careless administration of criteria to textbook text (Smith & Glass, 1987). Coding training sessions were done in a campus office. Each participant was provided with a list of the definitions, a list of the criteria for each of the research questions, and sample examples. Coding was done immediately after training for JT (the one with 92.9%) and the other one, CP, took the materials home to code later in the day (89.3%). The average of these two percentages is 91.2%. These two can be averaged because the sample size was the same for each reader. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 142. 110 The two outsidereaders used the same data sheets as the researcher. A data summary sheet is shown in Appendix A on which information and codes were recorded for each relevant textbook passage. A summary of the reliability data is shown in Table 16 for CP and Table 17 for JT. A summary of the calculation of reliability is found in Table 18, Inter-Reader Reliability Calculations. Tables 16 and 17 show that the percentages of agreement in coding selections for theoretical frameworks were 92% for CP and 84% for JT, with an average of 88%. The readers could code the theory as absent, behavioral, cognitive, or social/environmental. Both readers found two theoretical frameworks in selections where the researcher did not. They were from different selections. The theory was not usually explicitly stated but had to be inferred from the selection or the perspective was described in the selection. Theory was particularly a problem for JT because she was not as familiar with theories as she was the linguistic vocabulary. For two selections she reversed cognitive and social/environmental perspectives from what the researcher and CP found. The percent agreement for “how selections were addressed” was 92% for CP and 96% for JT, with an average of 94%. These were coded descriptive, developmental or acquired. The lack of agreement occurred in every case where the researcher identified a selection as developmental while reader CP identified two selections as descriptive and JT identified one selection as acquired. Once again these had to be derived from the selection and were not explicit in the text. The percent agreement for identifying the subcomponent of language in a selection was 79.4% for CP and 85.3% for JT, with an average of 82.3 percent. Selections were coded for any of 13 sub-components: conversation, discussion, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 143. Ill Table 16 Reliability Datafor CP Selections Theory How addressed Sub components Length Depth Quality Not Matched I -t- 4- 4- 4- 4- 2 -t- 4- - 4- 4-/4- 4- S3/T2 3 + 4- 4- 4- 4- 4 - + - 4- 4- G/X.02/U3 5 -t- 4- + + . + . + 4- 6 -t- 4- 4". + 4- 7 + 4- 4- 4- 4- 8 + 4- - 4- „ - 4- X/Ul 9 + 4- 4- 4- 4- 10 + 4- 4- 4- -r 11 + 4- 4- 4- 4- 12 4- 4- 4- 4- 13 ■4- - -r %- 4- . 4- 4- 2/I.X/U4 14 4- 4- 4- 4- 4- 15 4- 4- 4- 4- 16 + 4- - 4- P/I 17 + 4- 4-, - 4- 4- Tl/X 18 4~ -r - 4- - U3/T1. Y/A 19 4- * -r- 4- 4- 20 - 4* •r - - E/X.P/R. A/Y 21 + 4- 4- 4- 22 4- - 4 * + 2/1 23 + +■ 4- 4- + 24 4" 4- 4- 4- +■ 25 4- - 4- +■ S1/T2 Total -2 -2 -7 -2 -2 125/ 140 % 92% 92% 79.4% 94.1 92% 89.3% Key: + = a point ofagreement - 3 a point ofdisagreement X = no code was given / = separates reader from researcher's responses; Theory: G = cognitive, E = environmental. N = innate How Addressed: D =Descriptive. De = Developmentallv. A + Acquired Sub-components: U = Pragmatics (1 = conversation. 2 = discourse. 3 = competence) T = Semantics (1 =concepts, 2 = meanings) S = Syntax (1 = clauses. 2 = conjunctions. 3 = grammar) L = Lexicology (1 vocabulary, 2 = written text) M = Morphology O = Phonology (1 = voice, 2 = inflection) Length: I = isolated item. R = Sentence. P = Paragraph. S = Section (not used here) Quality: Y = not clear. A = adequate. B = Best Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 144. 112 Table 17 Reliability Datafor JT Theory How addressed Sub components Length Depth Quality Mot Matched 1 + + 4- + + 2 + -r + . 4- + •> J + + 4- + 4- 4 + + + 4- 01/X.S3/U3 3 + 4- -K +• +•+ 4-. 4-. -K. 4* 4- 6 4* 4- . 4- 4- + 7 -r -U 4- 4- -r 8 - + 4-. - 4-. 4- 4- E/G, U3/U1 9 + 4- +• •r -u 10 - + +■ 4- 4- G/E 11 + 4- 4-, 4- 4- T2/X 12 4- 4- - 4- + UI/S3 13 -f- - + 4- + De/A. 14 -t- 4- 4- 4- 4* 15 4- 4- + 4* 16 + 4- 4- Jm. 4* 17 + + 4- + 4- IS +■ 4- 4- + 4* 19 4- 4- 4* 4- 20 - -r- 4- 4~ 4. E/X 21 > 4- 4- + 4. 22 4- +. 4- 4" 4- 23 - -r 4- -T- + N/X 24 4- + 25 -r 4- 4* 4- Total -4 -I -5 -0 -0 130/ 140 % 84% 88.8% 85.3% 100% 100% 92.9% Key: + = a point ofagreement • = a point ofdisagreement X = no code was given / = separates reader from researcher's responses. Theory: G = cognitive, E = environmental. N = innate How Addressed: D =Descriptive, De = Developmentally. A + Acquired Sub-components: U = Pragmatics (1 = conversation. 2 = discourse. 3 = competence) T = Semantics (1 = concepts, 2 = meanings) S = Syntax (1 = clauses. 2 = conjunctions. 3 = grammar) L = Lexicology (I vocabulary. 2 = written text) M = Morphology O = Phonology (I = voice. 2 = inflection) Length: I = isolated item. R = Sentence. P = Paragraph. S = Section (not used here) Quality: Y = not clear. A = adequate. B = Best Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 145. 113 Table 18 Inter-Reader ReliabilityCalculations Reader CP Reader JT Number of selections: 25 Number of selections: 25 Number of data points: 140 Number of data points: 140 Number of matches for CP = 125 Number of matches for JT = 130 Percent agreement for CP =89.285 = 89.3 Percent agreement for JT = 92.857 = 92.9 Average Percentage Agreement = 91.2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 146. 114 communication competence, concepts,meanings, clauses, conjunctions, grammar, vocabulary, effect of written text, morphological analysis, voice, and inflection. Five of the coding points of disagreement occurred because either the researcher or the reader coded something that the other did not code. Another five points of disagreement occurred when either the reader or researcher identified a selection in the area of communicative competence, while the other identified the same selection as being in a different sub-component. Because communicative competence might be addressed in a selection along with another topic, for instance conversations, it was very difficult to decide the main emphasis for that particular selection since only one code could be used for a selection. Three points of disagreed occurred with the coding of grammar, an area that was broad and was interpreted by either the reader or researcher as meanings of words, competence, or conversation. Because there are different interpretations of language and because so many codes were used, the lack of agreement in this area might be problematic for this study. Because there was provision for a paragraph to be divided into sentences and an isolated item to be separated from a sentence (a sentence that made sense without the item), there were some points of disagreement in the length of selections. Reader CP agreed with the researcher 94.1% of the time and reader JT 100% of the time, with an average of 97.1 percent. Quality was coded as adequate, unclear, best information or misinformation. In the selections that were used for reliability only adequate and unclear selections were coded. Reader CP agreed with the researcher 92% of the time and reader JT agreed with Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 147. 115 the researcher 100%of the time, with an average of 96 percent. CP and the researcher reversed adequate and unclear codes on two selections. Summary This chapter has presented the content analysis and discussion method used in this research, the procedures that were used to carry out the method, a description of the analysis and discussion, and how inter-rater reliability was established. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 148. 116 CHAPTER FOUR: DATAAND FINDINGS This chapter will report the data for each research question. Information coded for each of the 13 textbooks in this study is reported. Research Questions There are three research questions: 1. Do child development and educational psychology textbooks address the language of early adolescents? If so, in what manner and to what extent? What components (parts) of language do the authors address? In what way (description, developmental, acquisition) does the textbook address early adolescent language? In what depth (length of statement) does the author address early adolescent language? 2. With what quality is adolescent language discussed in the child development and educational psychology textbook? 3. Do the textbooks present content related to language from a particular theoretical framework? Coding the Data As selections having to do with early adolescent language were found in the textbooks being examined, they were copied onto data collection sheets and coded. Tallies for the codes were then recorded on tables. The following items pertain to all of the selections that were taken from the textbooks. Passages Selected. The age ofthe early adolescent (10-14) was easier to discern in some textbooks than others. Some textbooks grouped children by age to discuss a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 149. 117 topic. Other textbooks,particularly educational psychology, addressed all school ages at the same time. If the characteristics of the children being discussed met the characteristics of early adolescents, even without identifying specific ages, the selections were coded. If the group of children identified in the textbook included the early adolescent ages as well as other ages, the selection in the textbook was also coded. Components. In the review of literature related to early adolescent language six components were identified: pragmatics, semantics, syntax, lexicology, morphology and phonology. For identification and discussion, these six components were divided into 20 sub-components that are more specific. Each sub-component addresses one aspect of early adolescent language. While there are many areas that over-lap and that could have been coded in more than one component area, sentences were coded for the most applicable sub-component. Paragraphs were also coded for the most applicable sub component, but items mentioned in the paragraph that were not related to that sub component, were coded as isolated items. The Way Language Was Described. The way authors described language was divided into three perspectives that could be used with early adolescent language. First, a “snap-shot” of language was coded as a description and was usually without elaboration. Second, statements about the development of language typically compared early adolescent language to another age or placed language skills in a sequence of development. The third way that authors described language was in terms of how early adolescents acquire language skills. Selections associated with acquisition often listed strategies for learning skills. All selections were coded for the way in which the author wrote about early adolescent language. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 150. 118 Depth o fCoverage.The depth of the author’s coverage was coded by the quantity of text and was coded as an isolated item, a vignette, a sentence, a paragraph, or a section. Isolated items were individual words or phrases that were mentioned but not elaborated upon, such as an item in a series of items used to give a specific example of a broader topic. The vignette included any table, figure, margin note, graph, chart, or vignette that was not in the running text. A sentence was one sentence. A paragraph was a paragraph or most of a paragraph. Sometimes a paragraph would contain information on a topic but would compare several ages. If more than one sentence addressed early adolescent ages, the paragraph was coded. The section was a half page paragraph or many paragraphs with a section or sub-section heading of its own where all of the material was pertinent. Quality o fLanguage. The quality of language was identified in each selection as being misinformation, unclear, adequate, best information available (research based with extensive detail). Early in the coding process, and later in worldng with the other readers establishing reliability, it was necessary to limit selections to only those that explicitly discussed early adolescent language. It was found that there were simply too many places where language was inferred by the authorfs) that teacher candidates might not grasp the inference or make a connection between thinking and talking, or cognitive processes and expressing ideas. For this reason, if more information was needed than what was explicitly stated for the reader to make a connection between the text and early adolescent language, then the selection was not used. Consequently there were very few passages that were coded as poor. It was found that most information was backed by research and well documented. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 151. 119 When an authorstated “only refinements occurred in language beyond the age of 4, or 5,” this was not coded as misinformation, although it might have been. Comments such as these were open to interpretation. By not stating what refinements occurred, the author left the door open for major changes in language to be called, ‘refinements. ’ This researcher used the author’s statements to determine what develops in language and when. Theoretical Framework. The theoretical stances identified in the literature review included the innate, behavioral, cognitive and social/environmental. Most of the textbooks briefly discussed language development from the theories covered in the literature review. Some also included cognitive behavioral or information processing perspectives that were also included in the general umbrella of a cognitive theoretical framework. Theories were seldom explicitly stated beyond an initial discussion of language development theories. The theoretical framework was not coded on all selections where language was found, since in most selections the theoretical framework could not be identified. Innate is omitted because it was not mentioned in the textbooks in regard to early adolescent language. In the sections that follow the data from each textbook is presented. Child development textbooks are presented first, then educational psychology textbooks. Data for each research question is presented for each textbook. Textbooks are presented in descending order, according to the number of selections related to early adolescent language that were included in each. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 152. 120 Child Development -Schickedanz Textbook: Judith A. Schickedanz, David I. Schickedanz, Peggy D. Forsyth and G. Alfred Forsyth (2001). Understanding children and adolescents, (4thed.). New York Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Schickedanz et ai. addressed all six ofthe components of language and 12 of the 13 sub-components. Schickedanz et al. had a 22-page chapter on Language Development in Adolescents. Although this chapter did not include all components of language identified in the literature review, it did address most of the areas where changes take place in the language of early adolescents. Pragmatics—Conversation (U l) Conversation was coded Ul. uses of language. Conversation included persuasion, negotiation, and problem solving, concrete and abstract reasoning, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, and sarcasm. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had 11 selections related to conversation, two had to do with reasoning (see Table 19). Ofthe 11 selections, six were addressed descriptively, two were addressed developmentally and three were addressed from a language acquisition perspective. The section was titled Conversational Slang (p. 614-617). While looking at peer relationships Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated. Adolescent-adolescent interactions often lead to joint discovery as peers work together to generate ideas and solutions to questions. Literature circles ... active learning activities ...cooperative learning activities that stress sharing and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 153. 121 Table 19 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Schickedanz Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - - (I) 4 1 6 Developmental - - - 2 - 2 Acquired - - (1) 2 - 3 Table 20 Depth ofCoverage (Length ofSelections) for Discourse for Schickedanz Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - - - 4 - 4 Developmental - - - - - - Acquired - I - 1 - 2 Table 21 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Schickedanz Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive I 3 4 Developmental 1 4 Acquired I "S 3 4 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 154. 122 evaluating information resultin an opportunity for children to speak, listen, read, and write ...building confidence. (P. 611) Schickedanz et al. continued, “Language also plays an important role as early adolescents share each other’s perspectives and establish close friendships and intimacy through self disclosure and discussion of important issues” (614). Perspective taking was included under conversation because it appeared necessary for problem solving. Schickedanz, et al. stated, “Improved cognitive abilities ...help adolescents move from polarized thinking ... to dialectical thinking, understanding that several perspectives may have some truth” (p. 613). Schickedanz et al. (2001) included a section on conversational slang and mentioned it elsewhere that “ .. slang is a conscious choice, and an adolescent may prove his affiliation with a group by talking as the group talks” (614). “Slang is novel... Slang is very evocative .. .suitable for expressing feelings and attitudes, is a tool for defense. Slang is informal.” (p. 165). In addition, Schickedanz et al. (2001) discussed ambiguity at several levels (syntactical, lexical, and phonological), addressed in detail metaphorical reasoning, and mentioned without elaboration that, “Adolescents also use irony and sarcasm” (p. 613). As a part of conversation, Schickedanz et al. (2001) did not address idioms or similes. Pragmatics—Discourse (U2). Discourse was coded U2, uses of language and included proverbs, story telling, oral reports, essays, and letters. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had six selections regarding discourse, four were addressed from a descriptive perspective and two from an Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 155. 123 acquisition perspective. SeeTable 20 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) reviewed the findings of a team of researchers, (Gibbs and BieteL, 1995) when they discussed proverbs, “Gibbs and BieteL, (1995) suggest that it is the use of proverbs in daily discourse—making them up as the situation demands—that illustrates people’s ability to think in figurative metaphorical rather than literal ways” (p. 608). These authors also discussed storytelling under oral language, and essays under written language. Schickedanz et al. did not address discourse in the form of either oral reports or letters. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence (U3) Communicative competence was coded U3 and included rules of speaking and writing, how to use and respond to speech acts, responding to the needs of the situation (changing registrars), and knowledge of grammar and vocabulary as a part of communicative competence. Schickedanz et al. had 12 selections having to do with communicative competence. Four of the selections were addressed descriptively, four developmentaliy and four addressed acquisition of language skills. See Table 21 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Regarding the use of speech acts Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated, “Adolescents communicate more effectively if they learn to use several strategies. Adolescents may also learn to ignore unpleasant remarks, decide not to argue a position, or simply end the conversation” (p. 613). Schickedanz et al. also stated, “Adolescent’s improved ability to apply the rules of grammar and to reason logically and analytically also helps to improve Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 156. 124 language” (606). Theseauthors did not address the rules of speaking or writing (beyond grammar), changing registrars or vocabulary in regard to communicative competence. Semantics—Concepts (TI) Concepts were coded Tl and included meanings of language as well as the formation and use of concepts. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had two selections about concepts, both addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 22 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. These authors did not directly address concepts beyond the preschool age. They did, however, allude to concepts in the following comments, “Adolescents continue to refine their understandings of word meanings as they encounter words in many different contexts. Most words have more than one meaning, and a word’s precise meaning in a specific context depends on how it is used” (p. 609). In addition the authors stated that, “Text reading comprehension...research supports a situational text comprehension model... where language is a set of processing instructions on how to construct mental representation ofthe described situation” (p. 610). Schickedanz et al. (2001) did not discuss the use ofconcepts, only the formation ofconcepts. Semantics—Meanings (T2) Meanings were coded T2 and included multiple meanings of words and phrases, along with metaphorical meanings. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had eight selections regarding meanings, six addressed development oflanguage and two addressed the acquisition of language skills. See Table 23 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 157. 125 Table 22 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Schickedanz Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - - I 2 - 2 Developmental - - - - - Acquired - - - - - Table 23 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Schickedanz Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - - - 6 Acquired - - 2 - 2 Table 24 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Schickedanz Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - - 1 - 1 Acquired - - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 158. 126 Schickedanz et al.(2001) addressed multiple meanings and implied the use of metaphors when they wrote about implied figurative meanings, “.. .the adolescent understands the relationship between the ordinary meaning of the words and the implied figurative meaning” (p. 607). They continued, ‘‘Adolescents and younger children may use figures of speech without actually being able to think metaphorically” (p. 608). They also identified six ways to increase metaphorical reasoning. Schickedanz et al. did not address the meanings of phrases. Syntax—Clauses (SI) Clauses were coded SI and included the use of clauses and the kinds of clauses used during early adolescence. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had one selection that was addressed developmentaily. See Table 24 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Schickedanz et al (2001) stated, Adolescents' greater sophistication in speaking and writing... their ability to create complex sentences containing many clauses. ..is made possible by their improved mental functioning. To use clauses, a person must decide which elements are primary, or super-ordinate, and which are secondary, or subordinate. Classes or categories must be created and their relationships considered” (p. 606). Schickedanz et al. did not mention the kinds of clauses that were used in early adolescence. Syntax—Conjunctions (S2) Conjunctions were coded S2 and included the sequence of conjunctions learned, those used in early adolescence, or for what purposes conjunctions were used. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 159. M l Schickedanz etal. (2001) had one selection about conjunctions that was addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 25 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) related a story told by two children, one seven and one seventeen: Like Eric, most younger children use many sentences to say what adolescents can say in just one or two. When younger children do make longer utterances, they usually accomplish this by combining several simple sentences with the conjunction and while adolescents use grammatical devices to subordinate some information in the sentence to other information, (p. 606) Schickedanz et al. only discussed the use of the conjunction and’ ignoring other conjunctions used, but they did mention that other grammatical devices are used for communication. Syntax—Grammar (S3) Grammar was coded S3 and included the rules of syntax and morphology, as well as how words and sentences are constructed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had eight selections regarding grammar, three were descriptive, two developmental, and three addressed the acquisition of language skills. See Table 26 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated that early adolescents’ “grasp of more complex sentences and paragraphs makes their writing more sophisticated. Students who planned their writing, wrote multiple drafts, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 160. 128 Table 25 Depth ofCoverage(Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Schickedanz Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - - - Developmental I - 1 Acquired - - - Table 26 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Schickedanz Textbook How Addressed Item Vigntte Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive I I 1 - 3 Developmental 1 I - 2 Acquired 3 - 3 Table 27 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary Size for Schickedanz Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive 2 - 2 Developmental I I - 2 Acquired 2 - 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 161. 129 saved their workin portfolios had higher scores than students who did not use these techniques” (p. 617). They also stated, “The adolescent's improved ability to apply the rules of grammar and to reason logically and analytically also helps improve language” (p. 606). Schickedanz et al. (2001) did not address the construction of words (morphological rules) or identify any specific grammatical rules. Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) Vocabulary size was coded L1and included the size of the vocabulary, how words were learned, or the kinds of words that were learned by the early adolescent. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had six selections about the size of vocabulary, two were descriptive, two were developmental, and two focused on the acquisition of vocabulary. See Table 27 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated “Numerous studies have been conducted to estimate increases in vocabulary during adolescence. The estimates vary a great deal depending on whether they were based on writing, speaking, listening or reading vocabulary” (p. 609). Schickedanz et al. continued with, “Reading vocabulary is 20,000- 40,000 entering middle school. Much of this vocabulary increase results from hearing new words in context” (p.609). These authors did not related oral vocabulary with reading vocabulary other than to mention them side-by-side. Although children learn some words through direct instruction, much of their word learning during these years occurs in context (Miller & Gildea, 1987). About half of the words children learn during the school-age-years are learned by inferring meanings of new words from reading (Nagy, et al., 1987). (p. 483) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 162. 130 In another placein the textbook these authors make a similar statement regarding growth of vocabulary: In a second study (Aglin, 1993), the total vocabulary was estimated to be 10,398 words in first grade, 19,412 words at third grade, and 39,994 words at fifth grade. Using these estimates, we can see that children learn about 20 words a day between first and fifth grade, (p. 482) These authors continued by saying that it is because some children read a lot and others read very little that vocabulary size varies considerably. These authors did not address the kinds of words (compound words, words with affixes) early adolescents leam that increases their vocabulary. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text (L2) The effect of the written text was coded L2 and included the effect of the written text on vocabulary or other aspect of language. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had seven selections regarding the influence of the written text on vocabulary or other aspect of language. Two of the selections were developmental and five addressed the acquisition of language skills. See Table 28 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) considered the influence of the written word on vocabulary in this statement: Older children and adolescents are more able to leam word meaning from formal definitions . . . but adolescents need to read elaborate teas—texts in which new words are encountered many times in different contexts—ifthey are to leam accurate and complete meanings of the words they read... "Adolescents leam Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 163. 131 Table 28 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Written for Schickedanz Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - - - - Developmental - 1 - I - 2 Acquired - 5 - 5 Table 29 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Morphological Analysis for Schickedanz Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive I I - 2 Developmental - - - - Acquired - - - - Table 30 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Inflection for Schickedanz Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz Descriptive - I - I Developmental - - - - Acquired I I - 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 164. 132 most new wordsby inferring g their meaning from reading as well as listening (Tonjes, 1991), from direct instruction,...” (p. 609). Abstract words were mentioned more than other kinds of new words. Schickedanz et al. stated that the written word is a source of new vocabulary, but they did not attribute other language knowledge to the written word. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis (M) Morphological analysis was coded M and included the process of dividing a word into a root word with affixes, as well as using morphological analysis to discover the meaning of the word. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had two selections regarding morphological analysis, both addressed descriptively. See Table 29 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Schickedanz et al. (2001) wrote, “Adolescents leam most new words ... by using morphological knowledge” (p. 609). This isolated item was given no further explanation. Schickedanz et al. did mention but did not discuss the process of morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice (Ol) Voice was coded Ol and included voice change and voicing problems. Schickedanz et al. (2001) did not address voice. Phonology—Inflection (02) Inflection was coded 02 and included the placement of stress in words and inflected meanings. Schickedanz et al. (2001) had three selections about inflection, one was addressed descriptively and two addressed acquisition of skills. See Table 4.30 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 165. 133 Schickedanz et al.also discussed another aspect of inflection, phonological ambiguity. The authors stated, “Ambiguity can be located at any level of language. At the phonological level the ambiguity arises from how a word is pronounced” (p. 486). This textbook used the example of“a green house” (color of house) and “a greenhouse” (a place to grow plants) as an illustration of an inflection that is often not distinguished until early adolescence Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selection Schickedanz et al. had one selection coded as misinformation, two coded as unclear, and 64 coded as adequate. The misinformation was a selection that discussed “the phonological loop” (p. 609), a theory by Baddeley (1998), as if it was fact, backed by research. Although this researcher is unaware of any research that has proven this theory, these statements by Schickedanz et al. would have been accepted as fact had the textbook identified the theory as theory and qualified its presentation as another way of visualizing what might happen in a child’s mind in the effort to remember the spoken word. Instead, the phonological loop was presented as proven fact, and was coded mis information. Two selections were coded as unclear, making 97% of the selections coded as adequate. Research Question 3: TheoreticalFramework For Schickedanz et al. (2001) the theoretical framework was seen most often in communicative competence (eight times), followed by conversation (five times) and vocabulary (three times). In each of these three sub-components it appeared more often in the social/environmental framework than the cognitive. Concepts, meanings, and clauses were each addressed once cognitively, while effect of written text and inflection Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 166. 134 were each addressedonce social/environmentally. Most ofthe places where selections were addressed from a theoretical framework occurred in selections that addressed the acquisition of language (14 of 21). Most of these selections were written from the social/environmental perspective (10 of 14). See Table 31 for sub-components for each theoretical framework. Summary o fSelections by Schickedanz et a i Schickedanz et al. (2001) had 67 selections: 24 were addressed descriptively, 20 were addressed developmentally and 23 addressed the acquisition of skills. They addressed 12 of the 13 sub-components, not addressing voice. The depth (length) of the selections included two selections that were isolated items, four vignettes, 19 sentences, 41 paragraphs and one section. Most of the selections had adequate quality (97%). Ofthe 67 selections a theoretical perspective was found in 21 of the selections and were divided between a social/environmental perspective (12) and a cognitive perspective (9). Table 4.14 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 167. 135 Table 31 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Schickedanz Component Sub- Component How Addressed Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive - I - 1 Conversation,U1 Developed - I - 1 Acquired - - 3 Pragmatics Descriptive - 1 I 2 Competence. U3 Developed - I 1 2 Acquired - 1 3 4 Semantics Concepts. T1 Acquired I 1 Semantics Meanings. T2 Descriptive I I Syntax Clauses, SI Acquired I 1 Lexicology Vocabulary, LI Acquired I 2 3 Lexicology Written. L2 Acquired 1 1 Phonology Inflection. 02 Acquired 1 I Totals 0 9 14 21 Descriptive = 0; Developmental = 9; Acquired = 14; Total = 21 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 168. 136 Figure 2 Summary of Selections by Schickedanz et al. S c h ic k e d a n z e t al 1:17:7 Conversation Discourse Competence Concepts Meanings Clauses a. Conjunction Grammar Vocab Written Morph. A. Voice Inflections Selections M Description ■ Developmental □ Acquired | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 169. 137 Child Development -Meece Textbook: Judith L. Meece (2002). Childand adolescent developmentfo r educators, (2nd ed). Boston: McGraw Hill. Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Meece’s textbook had 67 selections that addressed five of the six components of language and nine of the 13 sub-components. Meece devoted a section concerning Language into Adolescence in her chapter entitled Language and Literacy Development. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Of the 27 selections found in Meece’s (2002) textbook that related to conversation, 11had to do with concrete and abstract reasoning. Of the 27 selections, 14 were addressed descriptively, seven were addressed developmentally and six were addressed acquisition of language skills. See Table 32 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Meece included a section titled, Focus on Research: Teenagers and Slang (p. 262). Regarding conversation Meece (2002) stated. Now that they have mastered the basics, older children focus their energies on learning how to use language, greatly expanding their range of language registers (formal-informal speech) and styles, (narratives, arguments, etc.) in both speaking and writing, (p. 260) Meece made this broad statement without references, but did follow it with widely scattered examples and further elaboration. Meece (2002) stated, “Slang, or language used in casual settings to establish group solidarity and to signal group membership, is a prototypical practice during adolescence precisely because peer group socialization is so Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 170. 138 Table 32 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive Developmental Acquired (3) 1.(2) 5.(1) 1 (I) - 2.(1) 3 3,(2) (I) 13 7 6 Table 33 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive Developmental Acquired I 2 3 Table 34 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive Developmental Acquired 3 1 2 - 2 6 1 2 3 - 6 8 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 171. 139 important at thisage” (p. 261). Later she added, “Slang is also creative work; many new words are added to English every year through the ingenuity and cleverness of the teenage mind” (p 262). Meece (2002) addressed conflict when she stated: For older children, especially adolescents, interactions with peers and adults are a natural source of cognitive conflict. Through interacting with others, children clarify their views, obtain conflicting opinions, and reconcile their ideas with those of others, (p. 151) Meece used Piaget (1976) to support these comments. She did not define cognitive conflict. She continued, “Social interactions can also help children develop an awareness and understanding of others” (p. 152). Meece included a paragraph on aggression that stated, “Teasing, ridiculing, and shouting are the preferred modes of aggression among older children” (p. 454). Meece (2002) commented on the acquisition of conversational language when she said, “Discussion and reading groups for adolescents can help them to understand that others may have feelings like them” (p. 152). “Children use speech to guide each other’s activities, and these social interactions are gradually internalized as tools for regulating independent problem-solving efforts in the future” (p. 166). Meece quoted a study by Jonathan Tudge (1993) that examined the influence of peers on learning: The results showed that the less competent partner improved significantly on the balance beam task when paired with a peer who could reason about the problem at a more advanced level. This study also suggested that the less competent partner needed to adopt the reasoning ofthe more competent partner while performing the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 172. 140 task.... Of evengreater importance was the finding that there were circumstances under which children’s thinking may be adversely affected by a peer. (p. 166) Meece concluded that children can influence each other in their social interactions, and that the teacher needs to carefully structure situations for the benefit of students. The ability to reason was only one consideration in matching peers to help them solve a problem. When the more competent peer had little confidence in their own ability, the less competent peer also lost confidence in not only the more competent peer but also in their own ability to use more abstract reasoning. Meece (2002) did not include information on persuasion, negotiation idioms, ambiguity, or sarcasm. Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) In the subcomponent of discourse, Meece (2002) had three selections that were addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 33 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Meece (2002) gave an overview of humor when she stated, “Linguistic styles proliferate at this age, especially those associated with humor puns, quips, non-sequiturs, jokes, adlibs, double entendres, caricatures, and imitations are common fare” (p. 261). She listed types of discourse used (book reports, research papers, essays, poetry, letters), gave examples, and discussed the features or purpose of the discourse. Meece did not address proverbs or story telling. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Meece (2002) had 20 selections having to do with communicative competence, six were addressed descriptively, eight were addressed developmentally and six were Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 173. 141 about how communicativecompetence is acquired. See Table 34 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Regarding communicative competence, Meece (2002) stated, Individuals develop a repertoire of styles suited to a social context and the other participants. This ability includes knowing when and how to speak, being sensitive to appropriate topics, and adjusting style, vocabulary, and politeness levels to match the age and gender of other speakers, (p. 261) Meece also mentioned slang as a peer language, use of peers to develop competence, social perspective, and social rules of displaying emotions. Meece stated, “Discussion and reading groups for adolescents can help them to understand that others have feelings like them” (p. 152). Competence was also addressed later when she stated, “In a literate culture, developing communicative competence includes knowing how to communicate effectively in writing in many contexts, but especially in school” (p. 295). Meece (2002) mentioned vocabulary, and the need to know the rules of speaking and writing along with changing registrars, but she did not address what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar. Semantics—Concepts, (TI) Meece (2002) had two selections regarding concepts, one addressed from a descriptive perspective and one addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 35 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Meece (2002) stated, “Talk is especially critical in promoting concept development, developing interactional skills, and sharing knowledge in general” (p. 300). Elsewhere, Meece stated, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 174. 142 Table 35 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive - - I - 1 Developmental - - I 1 Acquired - - - Table 36 DepthofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive I - - I Developmental 3 2 - 5 Acquired - - - - Table 37 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive - - - - Developmental I I - 2 Acquired - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 175. 143 Older children canmentally construct relations among objects. They can infer the relationship between two objects by knowing its relationship to a third. They can infer the relationship between two objects in the middle of a series is both shorter and longer than others” (p. 137). Meece did not address uses of concepts. Semantics—Meanings (T2) Meece (2002) had six selections, one was addressed descriptively and the remaining five were addressed developmentally. See Table 36 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Meece (2002) stated. Around the age of 11 or 12, children pass another linguistic benchmark when they perceive that meaning is multidimensional: Words have both literal and metaphoric definitions.... Language takes on an entirely new dimension for creative expression and comprehension once the child understands how figurative language, such as metaphor, conveys meaning. Their cognitive and linguistic abilities complement each other.” (p. 260). Meece stated, “Teenagers generate slang expressions that their parents, for instance, might not understand at first and would certainly never use” (p. 262). Meece also addressed multiple word meanings and metaphorical meanings. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Meece (2002) had one selection that was addressed developmentally. See Table 37 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 176. 144 Meece (2002) stated,“Once children reach middle childhood, the sound, meaning, and grammatical systems are well developed apart from a few, less commonly used forms in speech, such as relative clauses and passive sentences” (p. 260). Meece was more specific in the kinds of clauses when she wrote, A longitudinal study (K-12) [Loban, 1976] showed that as children grow older they write longer clauses and embed dependent clauses more often. In particular, clauses are more complex because of changes in noun phrases found in the subjects and objects, including objects of prepositions” (p. 294). Meece addressed the kinds of clauses used and the use of clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Meece (2002) did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Meece (2002) had five selections about grammar, four were addressed developmentally and one addressed how grammar was acquired. See Table 38 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Meece (2002), wrote, “The sentences produced by 12 year-olds are precise, detailed, and condensed, demonstrating more syntactic and cognitive complexity than those written by younger children” (p. 294). She also stated,.. .“that written syntax has a different and more precise set of rules than spoken syntax” (p. 295). Meece mentioned the rules of syntax as a body of knowledge but did not identify any specific rules or give further examples. Meece did not address the rules of morphology, or how words and sentences are constructed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 177. 145 Table 38 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive Developmental 2 I Acquired I - 4 I - I Table 39 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Influence ofWritten Text for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive Developmental Acquired I 1 I - I Table 40 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Meece Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Meece Descriptive - Development 1 Acquired . . . 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 178. 146 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size (LI) Meece(2002) did not address vocabulary. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text (L2) Meece (2002) had two selections regarding the effect of written text, one was addressed developmentally and the other addressed the acquisition of language skills. See Table 39 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Meece (2002) connected learning to speak and learning to write and made parallels between them. Meece stated while discussing writing, To enhance writing development it is important to recall the process by which children develop spoken language. The need to communicate, an environment rich in social interchange, available and experienced adults, and hour upon hour of practice are all essential to language development, (p. 298) In addition, she stated: “As children grow older, written language development evolves in two dimensions: expanding the variety of writing forms or styles and writing for more abstract purposes” (p. 295). Meece did not address how the written text effects vocabulary. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis. (M) Meece (2002) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice (Ol) Meece (2002) included one sentence about voice change. This selection was addressed developmentally. See Table 40 for depth of selection in regard to how selection was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 179. 147 Meece (2002) outlinedpuberty changes by stating, “The first signs of puberty in males are .... Development of facial and body hair, and a gradual lowering of the voice” (p. 96). Meece did not address voice problems. Phonology—Inflection (02) Meece (2002) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Meece (2002) had 67 selections of which 66 (98.5%) selections that were coded as adequate and one was coded as unclear. No selections were coded as either misinformation or best information. Research Question 3: TheoreticalFramework Meece had 30 selections that were coded for theoretical framework. Most of those identified were in conversation (11 selections) followed by competence (9 selections). Overall there were more social/environmental selections under acquisition of language skills and more cognitive selections related to developmental sequences. The behavioral framework was only found in the acquired column. Table 41 identifies the sub components, theoretical frameworks and how each selection was addressed. Summary o fSelections by Meece Meece (2002) had 67 selections, 25 addressed language from a descriptive perspective, 27 addressed it developmentally and 15 addressed language form an acquisition perspective. Meece addressed nine ofthe sub-components. The depth of the selections included three isolated items, eight vignettes, 26 sentences, 30 paragraphs and one section. Most selections were adequate in quality. Ofthe selections identified as having a theoretical perspective 18 of 30 selections came from the social/environmental Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 180. 148 perspective. Figure 3provides a summary ofthe number of selections under each sub component along with how each sub-component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 181. 149 Table 41 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Meece Component How Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Sub-Component Addressed Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 4 6 Conversation,U1 Developmental - I - 1 Acquired 2 I 1 4 Pragmatics Descriptive - - - - Discourse, U2 Developmental - - - - Acquired - - 1 1 Pragmatics Descriptive - - 2 2 Competence Developmental - 1 I 2 Acquired - I 4 5 Semantics Descriptive - I - 1 Concepts, Developmental - 2 - 2 Acquired - - 1 1 Syntax Developmental - I - 1 Clauses, S1 Acquired - - I 1 Lexicology Descriptive - - I 1 Written, L2 Developmental - - I 1 Acquired - - I I Totals 2 10 18 30 Descriptive =10. Developmental = 7, Acquired = 13 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 182. 150 Figure 3 Summary ofSelections for Meece M eece Conversation Discussion Competence Meanings g Conjunctions Grammar m Vocabulary Wntten Morph.A. Voice Inflection 10 15 20 Selections 25 30 □ Description ■ Development □ Acquired Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 183. 151 Child Development -Berk Textbook: Laura Berk (2000). Child development, (5thed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Research Question 1: Sub-ComponentsAddressed The Berk (2000) textbook included 64 selections related to early adolescent language. The selections addressed five of the six components and eight of the 13 sub components of language. Pragmatics—Conversation, (U l) Berk (2000) had 16 selections related to conversation, seven of which were related to reasoning. Of the 16 selections, five were written from a descriptive perspective, nine from a developmental perspective and two from an acquired perspective. See Table 42 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Berk (2000) described some of the speaking and reasoning abilities of the early adolescent. She stated that early adolescents have the, “ability to give clear directions” (p. 250), and the “ability to consider multiple sources of information when explaining others’ emotions” (p. 413). Both of these examples she connected to improved cognitive abilities derived from growth during early adolescence. Berk addressed reasoning in connection with Piaget’s stages of development; however, Berk did not discuss reasoning in terms of language skills. Instead she described reasoning in terms of observable behaviors, such as solving a manipulative problem. In a table that addressed ages 10-15, Berk stated, “Children can step outside a two-person situation and imagine how the selfand other are viewed from the viewpoint Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 184. 152 Table 42 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Berk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive - 2,(1) L (I) - 5 Developmental - 1 U D 4, (2) - 9 Acquired - (I) (1) - 2 Table 43 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Berk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive - - I - 1 Developmental - - - - - Acquired - - - - - Table 44 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Berk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive - - I - 1 Developmental - 5 7 - 9 Acquired - I 2 - 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 185. 153 of a third,impartial party.” (p. 465). Berk identified this behavior as recursive thought and stated that by sixth grade only halfof early adolescents have mastered one-loop recursion (thinking about another person’s thinking). Berk (2000) stated, “Recursive thought makes human interaction truly reciprocal” (p. 466). Once again, Berk identified what the early adolescent might be thinking, but did not tie thinking to speaking explicitly. Berk (2000) stated that effect of imaginary audience and personal fable “are strongest in early adolescence and gradually decline” (p. 250). The imaginary audience is seen when the early adolescent becomes self-conscious and feels that everyone is looking at him/her. The personal fable is the self-talk that the early adolescent tells himself/herself, such as, “I’ll realize my hopes and ambitions” (p. 255). Berk stated, “In early adolescence, young people unify separate traits such as “smart” and “creative” into higher order, abstract descriptors, such as “intelligent.” But these generalizations about the selfare not yet interconnected, and often they appear contradictory” (p. 447). She continued to suggest that early adolescents might describe themselves in different ways in different contexts. Berk acknowledged early adolescents’ use of humor when she stated, “School-age children can grasp word meanings from definitions, and comprehension of metaphor and humor expands. Adolescents’ ability to reason abstractly leads to an enlarged vocabulary and appreciation of subtle meanings as in irony and sarcasm” (p. 394). She did not expand or clarify these statements. Berk (2000) gave many examples of what early adolescents would say, but she did not describe adolescent conversation in linguistic terms. She did not address Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 186. 154 persuasion, negotiation, idioms,or ambiguity. She mentioned, but did not discuss, irony or sarcasm. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Berk (2000) had one selection about discourse written from a descriptive perspective. See Table 43 for depth of selection in regard to how the selection was addressed. Berk (2000) stated “Around 9 to 11 years .. children tell coherent stories with a main plot and several subplots” (p. 275). Berk did not address discourse beyond age 11. Berk had nothing to say about other aspects of discourse such as proverbs, story telling at a later age, essays or letters. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Berk (2000) had 13 selections about communicative competence, one was descriptive, nine were from a developmental perspective, and three were about how language competence is acquired. See Table 44 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Berk (2000) addressed communication competence in several places. She stated, With age, children become better at resolving conflict through social problem solving. Components of the social problem-solving process—encoding and interpreting social cues, clarifying social goals, generating and evaluating strategies, and enacting responses—become more strongly linked to socially competent behavior during middle childhood, (p. 477) This description included expressive components of language, as well as receptive components. She also stated “Older children justify display rules by referring to social Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 187. 155 norms. (‘It’s impoliteto show you feel that way.’)” (p.407), and “Older children apply their more advanced referential communication skills to their speech register adjustments, taking extra steps to accommodate the needs of their listeners” (p. 389). Berk did not address what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar or vocabulary. She only briefly mentioned some of the rules of speaking, but not of writing. Semantics—Concepts, (TI) Berk (2000) had six selections regarding concepts, one each from the descriptive and acquired perspectives and four from the developmental perspective. See Table 45 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. In discussing the semantic (meaning) complexity of words of adolescents Berk (2000) stated. Even among young children, pronunciation is best for easily understood words. .... Working on the sound and meaning of a new word simultaneously may overload the system, leading children to sacrifice sound temporarily until the word’s meaning is better understood (p. 371). Although Berk cited young children, this selection was under a heading about adolescents. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Berk had nine selections about meanings, one descriptive and eight written from a developmental perspective. See Table 46 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 188. 156 Table 45 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Berk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive - - I 1 Developmental 1 2 I 4 Acquired - - 1 I Table 46 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Berk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive 1 - I Developmental 2 3 3 S Acquired - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 189. 157 In a “Tableof Language Development Milestones,” Berk (2000) listed, 6-10 years. Meanings of words are grasped on the basis of definitions. Appreciation of multiple meanings of words enhances understanding of metaphors and humor. 11-adulthood years. Understanding of subtle, nonliteral word meanings, as in irony and sarcasm improves (p. 390-91). Berk did not elaborate or expand on the table. Both age groups listed above are included in the definition of early adolescence for this study. Berk (2000) stated, “School-age children’s more reflective, analytical approach to language permits them to appreciate the multiple meanings of words. ... words, such as ‘cool’ or ‘neat’ have psychological meanings as well as physical meanings” (p. 377). Although Berk gave an example of words that have both psychological and physical meanings, she did not elaborate on how a more reflective or analytical approach to language would lead to an appreciation of those words. Later in the text she stated, “School-age children can grasp word meanings from definitions, and comprehension of metaphor and humor expands” (p. 394). Again on page 377 she stated, “They can add new words to their vocabulary simply by being given a definition (Dickinson, 1984).” Berk addressed multiple meanings but only mentioned metaphors. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Berk did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Berk did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 190. 158 Berk had nineselections about grammar, six from a developmental perspective and three from an acquired perspective. See Table 47 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Berk described the importance of grammar to the development of linguistic abilities when she stated. Like vocabulary, later grammatical achievements are fostered by children’s cognitive development and improved ability to analyze and reflect on language. Older children can deal with more complex relationships and are more attentive to subtle linguistic and situational clues. These capacities play major roles in helping them understand the most intricate grammatical forms, (p. 384) Berk (2000) stated, “Older children also apply their understanding of the passive voice to a wider range of nouns and verbs” (p.383). Berk also addressed understanding of pronoun reference and passive voice (abbreviated and full passives). She also mentioned in a table that “Refinement of complex grammatical structures continues” (p.391) during early adolescence but she did not discuss or explain this statement in the text. Berk did not discuss the rules of syntax or morphology or how words are constructed. She did, however, address some aspects of how sentences are constructed. Lexicology—Vocabulary, (LI) Berk (2000) had four selections regarding vocabulary, all from a developmental perspective. See Table 48 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Laura Berk (2000) stated, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 191. 159 Table 47 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Berk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - 2 I 3 - 6 Acquired - _> - - 3 Table 48 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary for Berk Textbook Howaddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - j 1 - 4 Acquired - - - - - Table 49 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Inflection for Berk Textbook Howaddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Berk Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - 2 2 2 - 6 Acquired - - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 192. 160 Between the startof elementary school and adolescence, vocabulary increases fourfold, eventually exceeding 40,000 words, a rate of growth that exceeds that of early childhood. In addition, as we saw in Chapter 7, the knowledge base that underlies school-age children’s vocabulary becomes better organized. This permits them to use words more precisely and think about them differently than they did at younger ages.” (p. 376) Berk added in a table: “ I I-adulthood. Vocabulary builds to over 40,000 words and includes many abstract terms” (p. 390-391). “Fifth and sixth graders no longer need to be shown what a word refers to in order to understand it. They can add new words to their vocabulary simply by being given a definition” (p. 376). Berk stated in regard to adolescents: “The capacity for abstract reasoning permits adolescents to add such words as “counterintuitive, incredible, and philosophy to their vocabularies” (p. 377). Berk did not specifically address compound words or word affixes. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2) Berk (2000) did not address the effect of written text on language. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis, (M) Berk (2000) did not address morphological analysis as a part of language development. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Berk (2000) did not address any issues of change in voice during early adolescence. Pholology—Irrflection, (02) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 193. 161 Berk (2000) hadsix selections about inflection, all from a developmental perspective. See Table 49 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Berk (2000) stated, “Changes in syllabic stress after certain abstract words take on endings—for example, “humid” to “humidity” and “method” to “methodical”—are not mastered until adolescence” (p.37l). Later, Berk described another kind of inflection when she stated, “School-age children sometimes realize that a sarcastic remark is insincere if it is said in a very exaggerated, mocking tone of voice” (p.377). Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Of Berk’s (2000) the 64 selections, 62 were coded as adequate (96.9%) and two were coded as unclear. None were coded as misinformation or best information. . Research Question 3: TheoreticalFramework Berk (2000) had 20 selections in which the theoretical framework was identified: two were behavioral, 11 cognitive and 7 were identified as having a social/environmental perspective. The sub-components with which they were associated and the perspective from which they were addressed are included in Table 50. Summary o fSelections by Berk Berk (2000) had 64 selections; however, 15 topics were repeated more than once (18 duplications). Ofthe 64 selections, nine were descriptive, 46 were developmental and nine were written from an acquired perspective. Berk addressed eight of the 13 sub components. The depth of the selections included no isolated items, 14 vignettes, 21 sentences and 32 paragraphs. Figure 4 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 194. 162 Table 50 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Berk Component Sub- Component How Addressed Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive - - I 1 Conversation,UI Developed - 3 2 5 Acquired - - I 1 Pragmatics Developed - ■n 2 5 Competence, U3 Acquired I I 1 3 Semantics Descriptive - I - 1 Concepts, T1 Developed - 1 - I Acquired 1 - - 1 Semantics Meanings, T2 Descriptive 2- 2 Totals 2 11 7 20 Descriptive = 2, Developmental = 13, Acquired = 5 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 195. 163 Figure 4 Summary of Berk’s Selections Berk ae «e o a. E 4n a co mjjgBgjBgga Meanings Conjunctions Grammar Wntten Morph A voice Inflection Selections ,S Descriptive ■ Developmental o Acquired ! Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 196. 164 Child Development -Santrock Textbook: John W. Santrock (2001). Childdevelopment. Boston: McGraw Hill. Research Question I: Sub-ComponentsAddressed in Textbook The Santrock textbook included SI selections related to early adolescent language. All six of the components and ten of the 13 sub-components were addressed in some manner. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Santrock (2001) had 18 selections regarding conversation, 12 were addressed descriptively and five developmentally and one was addressed by how language skills are acquired. Eight ofthe selections were about reasoning (found in parenthesis in Table 51). Santrock had two sections with headings, one in a chapter on selfand identity called Abstract and Idealistic that described how adolescents described themselves in various contexts and roles. The second section was in a chapter on social cognition that addressed Friendship Functions and included the comment that “Adolescents spend 103 minutes a day in meaningful interactions with friends (versus 28 with parents)” (p. 501). Santrock (2001) discussed what early adolescents say and talk about in the following selections: “The adolescent compares her parents to an ideal standard and then criticized their flaws” (p. 471). “Teenagers engage in all sorts of negative conformity behavior—for instance, they use seedy language, steal, vandalize, and make fun of parents and teachers” (p. 505). When young adolescents are asked what they want from a friend or how they can tell someone is their best friend they frequently say that a best friend will share Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 197. 165 Table 51 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - I L(I) 5,(3) 1 12 Developmental - (I) 1,(2) I 5 Acquired - (I) - 1 Table 52 Depth of Coverage (Length ofSelections) for Discourse for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - 2 - 2 Developmental - I I 2 Acquired - . - - Table 53 Depth of Coverage (Length ofSelections) for Communicative Competence for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - 2 - 3 - 5 Developmental 1 1 - 2 - 4 Acquired - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 198. 166 problems with them,understand them, and listen when they talk about their own thoughts or feelings, (p. 502) Santrock (2001) stated, in a table that the “Adolescent (ages 10-12) can step outside the two person dyad and view the interaction from a third-person perspective” (p. 379). Perspective is a skill necessary for problem solving and negotiation. Santrock discussed the adolescent’s verbal problem solving abilities, as well as concrete and formal reasoning abilities but did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, slang, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm and only mentioned metaphors. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Santrock (2001) had four selections, two addressed descriptively and two addressed developmentally. See Table 52 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. The one section, in a chapter on gender issues with the heading Similarities and Differences: Socioemotional addressed the differences between rapport and report talk. Santrock (2001) related the work ofDeborah Tannen (1990) that compared rapport talk (conversation) and report talk (discourse). Report talk is talk that gives information. Public speaking is an example of report talk. Males hold center stage through report talk with such verbal performances such as story telling, joking, and lecturing with information, (p. 407) Santrock also stated, In elementary school they narrate and describe or write short poems, in late elementary and middle school, they move to projects such as book reports that combine narration with more reflection and analysis, (p. 330) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 199. 167 Santrock did notelaborate as to whether the book reports were oral or written. Santrock did not address proverbs, storytelling, essays, or letters Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Santrock (2001) had nine selections regarding communicative competence. Five selections were addressed descriptively and four were addressed developmentally. See Table 53 for depth ofselections in regard to how selections were addressed. Santrock (2001) contrasted children who are maladjusted with those that do not have adjustment problems. “The social cognitive perspective views children who are maladjusted as lacking social cognitive skills to interact effectively with others” (p. 493). Santrock did not refer to the skills needed to interact effectively with others as language skills. Next, Santrock listed the skills identified with boys who did not have adjustment problems. They: generated more alternative solutions to problems, posed more assertive and mature solutions, gave less-intensive aggressive solutions, showed more adaptive planning, and evaluated physically aggressive responses less positively than boys with problems” (p. 493). Santrock’s social cognitive skills as listed here could also be called metalinguistic skills, or one’s awareness of language Semantics—Concepts, (TI) Santrock (2001) had three selections about concepts, two were addressed descriptively and one developmentally. See Table 54 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 200. 168 In a selectionon concepts Santrock (2001) discussed the importance of people understanding their own minds and those of other people. “Regardless of whether we are playing chess, football, poker, or tennis, we analyze our opponents’ intentions and beliefs, and vary our own behavior to take advantage of their expectations” (p. 257). To Santrock concepts continue to progress from the concrete of the child to the abstract of the adult who can fully consider the intentions of others. The early adolescent is involved simultaneously in understanding his/her own mind and the intentions of others. Santrock addressed the use of concepts, but not the formation of concepts. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Santrock (2001) had one selection on meanings, and it was addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 55 for depth of selection in regard to how selection was addressed. In a table titled, The Child's Development/ Behavior Santrock (2001) stated that the child “11-14 Understands metaphor and satire” (p. 328). Santrock did not elaborate further. Santrock did not address multiple meanings of words. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Santrock (2001) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Santrock (2001) did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Santrock (2001) had six selections about grammar, one addressed descriptively and five developmentally. See Table 56 for depth of selections and how selections were addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 201. 169 Table 54 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - 2 - 2 Developmental - I - 1 Acquired - - - - Table 55 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - - - - Developmental - I - 1 Acquired - - - - Table 56 Depth ofCoverage (Length ofSelections) for Grammar for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - I - 1 Developmental I 2 2 - - 5 Acquired - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 202. 170 Santrock included achapter on language development that did not address language development past late childhood, except in a table. Table 10.6, with no elaboration in the text, Santrock stated for children 11-14, “Understanding of complex grammar forms.” (p. 328). He did stated, “By the end of the elementary school years, children can usually apply most of the appropriate rules of grammar” (p 327). The elementary years typically end at 5thor 6thgrade, 11to 12 years of age. Santrock (2001) related grammar to writing when he stated, As their language and cognitive skills improve with good instruction, so will their writing skills. For example, developing a more sophisticated syntax and grammar serves as an underpinning for better writing” (p. 330). Here Santrock identified (oral) language skills as preceding written skills. Santrock referred to the rules of grammar as a body ofknowledge but did not discuss how words or sentences are constructed. Lexicology—Vocabulary, (LI) Santrock (2001) included three selections about vocabulary, all addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 57 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Santrock (2001) stated in his Chapter 10, Language Development, under a heading of language development in middle and late childhood, During middle and late childhood, a change occurs in the way children think about words. They become less tied to the actions and perceptual dimensions associated with words, and they become more analytical in their approach to words, (p. 326-327). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 203. 171 Table 57 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - - - - Developmental - 1 2 - - 3 Acquired - - - - Table 58 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Effect ofWritten Text for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - - - - Developmental - I 2 2 5 Acquired - - - - Table 59 Depthof Coverage (Length of Selections) for Morphological Analysis for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - - . - Developmental - - I 1 Acquired - - _ - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 204. 172 He also statedin a table titled, Children’s Development / Behavior for the child 11-14, “Vocabulary increases with addition of more abstract words” (p. 328). He did not define or describe abstract words or identify the amount of increase in vocabulary that occurs during early adolescence. At the bottom ofthe table was a note that read in part, “Also keep in mind that there is a great deal of variation in the age at which children reach these [language] milestones and still be considered within the normal range of language development” (p. 328). Santrock does not elaborate on the table or the note in the text. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2) Santrock (2001) had five selections of the effect of written text on vocabulary or other aspects of language, all addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 58 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Santrock (2001) described reading stages as they might relate to early adolescents: “Stage 3. In fourth through eight grade, children become increasingly able to obtain new information from print. In other words, they read to learn” (p. 327). Santrock did not elaborate on this statement. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis, (M) Santrock included one selection about morphological analysis addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 59 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Santrock stated, “The increasing ability of elementary school children to analyze words helps them understand words that have no direct relation to their personal experiences” (p. 326). Santrock did not elaborate as to what he meant by “analyze words.” No other reference was made to morphological analysis. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 205. 173 Phonology—Voice, (OI) Santrock hadone selection about voice change that was addressed developmentally. See Table 60 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Santrock (2001) indicated that, “Testosterone is a hormone associated in boys with the development of genitals, and increase in height and a change in voice” (p. 181). This comment did not indicate the direction or impact of the change in voice. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Santrock (2001) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Santrock (2001) had S1 selections and all were coded as being adequate or better than adequate. Of the 51 selections, 49 selections were coded as being adequate and two were coded as having the best available information. None were coded as having misinformation or unclear information. Research Question 3: TheoreticalFramework Santrock (2001) had 14 selections that were coded as having a theoretical perspective. Seven of the selections had a cognitive perspective and seven had a social/ environmental perspective. None were written from the behavioral perspective. Table 61 identifies the sub-component and how each selection was addressed. Summary o fSelections by Santrock Santrock (2001) had 51 selections of which 22 were addressed descriptively, 28 were addressed developmentally and one was addressed from an acquisition perspective. Santrock addressed 10 of 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included two Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 206. 174 Table 60 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Santrock Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Santrock Descriptive - Developmental 1 Acquired . . . 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 207. 175 Table 61 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Santrock Component Sub- How Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Component Addressed Pragmatics Descriptive 3 I 4 Conversation,U1 Developmental I I Pragmatics Descriptive I 3 4 Competence. U3 Developmental I 1 Semantics Descriptive I I Concepts. T1 Syntax Developmental I I Grammar. S3 Acquired I 1 Lexicology Developmental I I Vocabulary. LI Totals 0 7 7 14 Descriptive = 9; Developmental = 4; Acquired = 1; Total = 14 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 208. 176 isolated items, ninevignettes, 12 sentences, 26 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 5 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 209. 177 Figure 5 Summary ofSantrock’s Selections Santrock £e • e ea, E o 9a a CO Conversation m Discourse Meanings Grammar vocab Written Morph A. voice Inflection >a Descriptive ■ Developmental^ □ Acquired | Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 210. 178 Child Development -Bee Textbook: Helen Bee (2000). The developing child' (9thed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-ComponentsAddressed In her textbook Helen Bee (2000) included 31 selections related to early adolescent language. Two of the six components and four of the 13 sub-components were addressed. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Of the 20 selections found that related to conversation, 10 had to do with reasoning. Of the 20 selections, four were written from a descriptive perspective, 14 were written from a developmental perspective and two from an acquired perspective. See Table 62 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Bee (2000) stated that reasoning abilities develop fairly rapidly during the ages of about 11 to 15. Early adolescents begin to operate with possibilities in addition to reality, and faced with disconfirming evidence they are more likely than younger children to change their theory or initial guesses. She stated, “Whether one develops or uses these forms of logic depends heavily on experience, expertise, and environmental demand” (p. 191). Bee’s discussion of reasoning was extensive and backed by research that described moral reasoning (e.g., Lawrence Kohlberg, 1964; 1976; 1980; 1981; Lawrence Walker, 1980); and formal operational reasoning (e.g., Susan Martorano, 1977; Piaget, 1932). Bee (2000) discussed the content of children’s conversations by reviewing the work of Carl Barenboim (1977; 1981) who studied children ages 6-16 and the statements that they used in their conversations. In part Bee stated, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 211. 179 Table 62 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Bee Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Bee Descriptive - - 4 4 Developmental (1) 2 4,(7) 14 Acquired - (2) - 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 212. 180 Statements that involvedsome internal personality construct he [Barenboim] called psychological constructs (such as “Sarah is so land.” ...) while any that included qualifiers, explanations, exceptions, or mentions of changes in character he [Barenboim] called organizing relationships (e.g., “He’s only shy around people he doesn’t know.” Or ...). ... You can see that behavioral comparisons peaked at around age 8 or 9, psychological constructs peaked at about age 14, and organizing relationships did not appear at all until age 10 and were still increasing at age 16. (p. 359) Bee did not expand upon this research or comment on the importance of these changes. Intimacy is one aspect of the content of early adolescent conversations. Bee (2000) reported a study of intimacy by Biglow and LeGiapa (1975) and then summarized: “References to intimacy potential (e.g., ‘I can tell her things about myself I can’t tell anyone else’) did not appear until seventh grade and then increased further in eighth grade” (p. 360). Bee summarized the research of Biglow and LeGiapa (1975), Carl Barenboim (1977; 1981) Lawrence Kohlberg (1964; 1976; 1980; 1981), Lawrence Walker (1980), Susan Martorano, (1977) and Piaget, (1932) when she stated, Taking together all of what I have told you so far, you can see that the patterns of developmental change in children’s understanding of themselves, of others, and of relationships are strikingly similar, shifting in all the ways I mentioned at the beginning of the chapter from outer to inner characteristics, from observation to inferences, from definite to qualified, and from egocentric to a general view. (p. 360) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 213. 181 Bee (2000) didnot address other uses of language in conversation, including persuasion, negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm. Pragmatics—Discourse (U2) Bee (2000) had one selection on discourse that discussed the content of essays from a developmental perspective. See Table 63 for depth of selection in regard to how selection was addressed. Bee (2000) reviewed research on essays by Brian Biglow and John Le Gaipa (1975) who asked students, to write an essay about how their expectations of best friends differed from expectations of other acquaintances. You can see that references to demographic similarity were highest among fourth graders, while mentions of loyalty and commitment were highest among seventh graders, (p. 360) Bee (2000) did not address other aspects of discourse, including proverbs, story telling, oral reports or letters. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Bee (2000) had nine selections regarding communicative competence, primarily on social cognition. O f the nine selections, four were written from a descriptive perspective, four from a developmental perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 64 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Bee (2000) described communicative competence when she discussed social cognition: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 214. 182 Table 63 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Bee Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Bee Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - - 1 - I Acquired - - - - - Table 64 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Bee Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Bee Descriptive - I - 4 Developmental - 2 2 - 4 Acquired - I - - 1 Table 65 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Bee Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Bee Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - - I - 1 Acquired - - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 215. 183 Social cognition differsfrom other aspects of cognition, however, in that the child must learn that people behave with intention, mask feelings, and operate by special socially defined scripts or rules. The ability to read others’ emotions and intentions is an important element in the child’s general social competence. Those who are less skilled, who have less “emotional knowledge,” are more likely to be rejected by their peers, (p. 374) She did not elaborate on “socially defined scripts or rules.” Bee (2000) also described a study by L. J. Walker (1980) on social cognition: “The developmental sequence of events found in social cognition was that “the child developed logical thinking first, then more advanced social understanding, and then the parallel moral judgments” (p. 374). These changes in cognition were bom out by conversation samples taken by Walker in his study. Bee (2000) did not use linguistic terms when describing these receptive components of communicative competence (such as pragmatics) although she had earlier defined them in her textbook. Bee did not address other aspects of communicative competence: the rules of speaking or writing, or what the early adolescent needs to know about grammar or vocabulary. Semantics—Concepts. (Tl) Bee (2000) had one selection about concepts written from a developmental perspective. See Table 65 for depth of selection in regard to how selection was addressed In regard to changes in the ways that early adolescents use previous ways of thinking, Bee stated, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 216. 184 The 12- or13-year old is assimilating an enormous number of new physical, social, and intellectual experiences Old patterns, old schemes no longer work very well, but new ones have not been established. It is during this early period that the peer group is so centrally important, (p. 480) Bee (2000) did not explain further how concepts were learned or used during early adolescence. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Bee (2000) did not address meanings. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Bee (2000) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Bee (2000) did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Bee (2000) did not address grammar for early adolescents. She did, however, include a chapter titled The Development o fLanguage that addressed language development through complex sentences for ages 30-48 months. After referencing complex sentences and passive forms she stated, “But these are refinements. The really giant strides occur between ages 1and 4 as the child moves from single words to complex questions, negatives, and commands” (p. 239). Lexicology—Vocabulary Size. (LI) Bee (2000) did not address vocabulary size. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text on Vocabulary, (L2) Bee (2000) did not address the efiect of the written text on vocabulary. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 217. 185 Morphology—Morphological Analysis, (M) Bee(2000) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Bee (2000) did not address voice. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Bee (2000) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Bee (2000) had 3 1 selections that were coded for quality. Of the 31 selections, 28 selections were coded as adequate (90.3% of the selections) and three as being unclear. None of the selections was coded as having misinformation or being best information available. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Bee (2000) had ten selections that were coded for theoretical framework. Of the ten selections, five were written from a cognitive theoretical perspective and five were written from a social / environmental perspective. Table 66 identifies the sub components associated with the theoretical framework in the selections along with how the selection was addressed. Summary o fSelections by Bee Bee (2000) had 31 selections eight from a descriptive perspective, 20 from a developmental perspective and 3 from an acquired perspective. Bee addressed four of the 13 sub-components. Most of the selections were coded as adequate, but three were unclear. The depth of the selections included one vignette, eight sentences and 22 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 218. 186 paragraphs. Figure 6provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub component along with how each subcomponent was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 219. 187 Table 66 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Bee Component Sub- How Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Component Addressed Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 2 4 Conversation,Ul Developed - I 1 2 Acquired - I - 1 Pragmatics Descriptive - - I I Competence, U3 Semantics Descriptive - 1 I 2 Concepts. Tl Totals 0 5 5 10 Descriptive = 7; Developmental = 2; Acquired = I Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 220. Figure 6 Summary ofBee’s Selections Bee Conversation Discourse Competence Concepts g Meanings c c Clauses o E Conjunctions o Grammar 3 CO Vocab Written Moiph. A. Voice Inflections HH 10 15 Selections 20 25 |m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 221. 189 Child Development -Lefrancois Textbook: Guy Lefrancois (2001). O fchildren, (9thed.). Toronto, Ontario: Wadsworth. Research Question I: Sub-ComponentsAddressed In his text Lefrancois included 23 selections that briefly addressed three of the six components of language and five of the 13 sub-components. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Of the 16 selections regarding conversation for Lefrancois (2001), nine were descriptive and seven addressed conversation developmentally. Only two selections were concerned with abstract and concrete reasoning, (noted in parenthesis in Table 67 below). Table 67 also lists how the selections were addressed and the depth of each selection. Lefrancois (2001) seldom identified the ages of students whom he was discussing and included information relevant to school age children’s language in the chapter on early childhood. He described reasoning in relation to Piaget’s stages of cognitive development. As a part of conversational development, Lefrancois (2001) focused on bullying. He described a bully as an aggressive, quarrelsome person who appears to take pleasure in infliction of pain or harm, or in terrorizing people who are weaker. . . . Bullying. .. includes a wide range ofbehaviors from very mild (verbal taunts, for instance) to extreme ...” (p. 436). He addressed bullying without mention of age. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 222. 190 Table 67 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Lefrancois Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Lefrancois Descriptive Developmental Acquired 3 2,(1) 2,(1) - 9 7 - 7 Table 68 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Lefrancois Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Lefrancois Descriptive Developmental Acquired 1 - I Table 69 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Lefrancois Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Lefrancois Descriptive Developmental Acquired 2 2 2 - 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 223. 191 Lefrancois (2001) alsoincluded a long section concerning Selman’s developmental progression of social cognition. Selman’s social cognition descriptors for the early adolescent ages as cited by Lefrancois are listed below: • Self-reflective. Ages 6-12. Actually, we can have different points of view. There’s hers and there’s mine. I can see mine; she can see her’s. (Cooperators) • Mutual. Ages 9-15. Well, maybe I can see hers and she can see mine. We can even talk about or different points of view. (Intimates and mutual supporters) • Ages12 to Adulthood. Actually, within the context of discombobulism, and taking into consideration the teachings of MUMU and the charter of personal delimitations, her point of view is totally philanthropic, (p. 424) (Dependent but autonomous) (p. 430) For clarification, after each age division from Lefrancois’ textbook this researcher inserted the label that Selman (1981) had for the age group from his developmental progression of friendships. Lefrancois added “Note that this progression of stages reflects children’s ability to verbalize their perspectives and their understanding of other perspectives” (p. 424). Lefrancois did not address negotiation, persuasion, problem solving, slang, idioms, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Lefrancois (2001) had one selection regarding discourse. That selection was addressed developmentally. See Table 68 for depth of selection in regard to how selection was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 224. 192 Lefrancois (2001) gavetwo examples of humor in the naming of pet cats that contrasted the understanding of humor at different ages. Lefrancois did not address proverbs, essays, letters or story telling beyond the example of humor. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Lefrancois had four selections regarding communicative competence. Two selections were addressed descriptively and two were addressed developmentally. See Table 69 for depth of selections in regard to how selections were addressed. Lefrancois (2001) described communicative competence through social interactions. He stated, Social competence—reflected in children’s ability to sense what is happening in social groups, in a high degree of responsiveness to others, and in an understanding that relationships develop slowly over time—is important for peer acceptance, (p. 461) He did not address what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar, vocabulary, or the rules of speaking or writing. Semantics—Concepts, (Tl) Lefrancois (2001) had one selection that addressed concepts. That selection was written from a developmental perspective. See Table 70 for depth of selection in regard to how selection was addressed. Lefrancois (2001) did not describe concepts during early adolescence but did discuss concepts during early childhood and compared these early concepts with those of adults when he stated. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 225. 193 Table 70 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Lefrancois Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Lefrancois Descriptive - - - Developmental I - 1 Acquired - - - Table 71 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Lefrancois Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Lefrancois Descriptive . . . i - 1 Developmental - - - Acquired - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 226. 194 “Internalizing by meansof symbols is what allows preschoolers to begin to relate objects and events in terms of their common properties. That is it allows them to form concepts. But these concepts are not as complete and logical as adults’ and are therefore referred to as preconcepts.” (p. 298) Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Lefrancois (2001) did not address meanings. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Lefrancois (2001) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Lefrancois (2001) did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar. (S3) Lefrancois (2001) did not address grammar during early adolescence. He focused only on grammatical development during early childhood. He stated, “More complex sentences and adultlike grammatical structures are usually present by age 4” (p. 325). He offered no further discussion of grammatical development. Lexicology—Vocabulary Size, (LI) Lefrancois (2001) did not address vocabulary size or increase. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2) Lefrancois (2001) did not address the effect of written text. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis, (M) Lefrancois (2001) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 227. 195 Lefrancois (2001) hadone selection about voice change, addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 71 for the depth of this selection. Lefrancois (2001) stated, “The boy’s voice changes much more dramatically than the girl’s; and he also grows rapidly, particularly in height and length of limbs” (p.473). Lefrancois did not elaborate about the nature or impact of the voice change. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Lefrancois (2001) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Lefrancois had 23 selections where the quality was identified. All 23 selections (100% of the selections) were coded as being adequate. None were coded for being unclear, misinformation or being best information available. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Lefrancois had eight selections where a theoretical perspective could be identified. Of the eight selections, four were written from the cognitive perspective and four from a social/environmental perspective. Seven selections were associated with a theoretical framework were descriptive. Table 72 identifies the sub-component of the selection, how the selection was addressed and the theoretical framework was identified. Summary o fSelections by Lefrancois Lefrancois had 23 selections, 12 were addressed descriptively, 11 were addressed developmentally and none addressed language acquisition. Lefrancois addressed five of 13 sub-components. The depth ofthe selections included no isolated items, three vignettes, eight sentences, 12 paragraphs and no sections Figure 7 provides a summary of Lefrancois’ selections. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 228. 196 Table 72 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Lefrancois Component Sub- Component How Behavioral Addressed Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive 4 3 7 Conversation,UI Developed - I 1 Totals 0 4 4 8 Descriptive = 7; Developmental = I; Acquired =0 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 229. 197 Figure 7 Summary of Lefrancois’ Selections Lefrancois E o 9a 3 CO Conversation Discourse Competence Concepts Meanings Clauses Conj Grammar Vocab Written MorphA. Voice Inflection 10 Selections 15 20 a Description ■ Developmental □Acquisition i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 230. 198 Educational Psychology -Ormrod Textbook: Jeanne Ellis Ormrod (2000). Educationalpsychology, developing learners, (3rded). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Ormrod had SI selections that addressed four of the six components of language and ten of the 13 sub-components of language. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) In the textbook by Ormrod (2000) there were six selections regarding conversation, two were about concrete and abstract reasoning (indicated by parentheses in Table 73). Four of the six selections were written from a descriptive perspective. Ormrod (2000) used research to describe early adolescents’ actions and behaviors: Kohlberg’s (1984) stages of moral reasoning; Selman's (1980) levels of perspective taking; Erikson’s (1962, 1972) role identity vs. role confusion; and Elkind’s (1981) imaginary audience and personal fable. In a review of Kohlberg’s stages of moral reasoning Ormrod stated, ’’Many junior high school students are capable of taking an outside perspective of a two-person relationship; thus they appreciate the need for cooperation, compromise, and mutual trust” (p. 108). In a discussion about Selman’s (1980) levels of perspective taking, Ormrod identified the need for compromise, an element necessary in negotiation. Students not only see the ‘outside’ perspective ofthe two-person relationship. They appreciate the need to satisfy both oneselfand another simultaneously and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 231. 199 Table 73 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive 1 I. (2) - 4 Developmental I 1 - 2 Acquired - - - - Table 74 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive I - - I Developmental - 2 - 2 Acquired - - - - Table 75 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive 3 4 - 7 Developmental I 6 - 7 Acquired - - I 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 232. 200 therefore understand theadvantages of cooperation, compromise, and trust (P- 105) In regard to Elkind’s imaginary audience. Ormrod stated, “First, many adolescents believe that in any social situation, everyone else’s attention is focused squarely on themselves” (p. 87). In discussing Elkind’s personal fable, Ormrod stated that, “By sharing their thoughts and feelings with one another, students may discover that they aren’t as unique as they once thought, thereby poking holes in the personal fable I spoke of earlier” (p. 91). Ormrod addressed reasoning and “social problem solving” (p. 93), but did not address persuasion, or negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, ambiguity or metaphors. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Ormrod had three selections about discourse including proverbs, two from a developmental perspective. See Table 74 for depth of coverage. Ormrod (2000) discussed what she referred to as proverbs and stated that, Children in the early grades take the words they hear at face value “tied-up or hitting the roof.” And they have little success drawing generalizations from such proverbs as “look before you leap” or “Don’t put the cart before the horse.” Students’ ability to interpret proverbs in a generalized, abstract fashion continues to develop even into the high school years, (p. 62). Ormrod (2000) also discussed written discourse and gave the following example, We see several changes as students move through the secondary grades. First, students are more capable of analyzing and synthesizing their thoughts when Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 233. 201 they write, andso they are better able to write research papers and argumentative essays (p.359). Ormrod made several suggestions for expanding writing ability. She did not expand further on the changes seen in writing during the school years. Ormrod (2000) discussed proverbs, and writing essays, but did not address storytelling, oral reports, or letters. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Ormrod (2000) had 15 selections regarding communicative competence, including the rules for speaking, only one from an acquired perspective with the other selections split between descriptive and developmental perspectives. See Table 73 for details as to the depth ofcoverage. Ormrod (2000) provided a general overview of development of communicative competence. She stated. By the time they begin school, at five or six years of age, they use language that seems adult-like in many respects. Yet students’ language capabilities continue to develop and mature throughout the school years. Numerous changes occur in both receptive language—students’ ability to understand what they hear and read—and expressive language—their ability to communicate effectively through speaking and writing, (p. 59). Ormrod (2000) used linguistic vocabulary when she identified skills as pragmatic: Children continue to refine their knowledge of pragmatics throughout the elementary grades; my own observation has been that this process continues into the middle and high school years as well. When students haven’t mastered Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 234. 202 certain social conventions—forinstance, when they interrupt frequently or change the subject without warning—others may find their behavior irritating or strange; a lack of pragmatic skills, then, can seriously interfere with students’ relationships with peers” (p. 63). The “social conventions” Ormrod referred to fall under rules of speaking and are part of communicative competence. She included Eisenberg’s pro-social behavior in regard to empathy. Ormrod stated. By late elementary school years, students may also begin to feel empathy for people they don’t know...Empathy may be especially instrumental in the development of pro-social behavior students are more likely to act on someone else’s behalf if they share that person’s feelings of sadness or frustration” (p. 97). Empathy is a pragmatic skill that is included in communicative competence. Ormrod addressed many of the rules for speaking but did not address rules for writing. She did not address how early adolescents use or respond to different types of speech acts, and she did not address the knowledge of grammar or vocabulary needed for communicative competence. Semantics—Concepts, (TI) Ormrod (2000) had seven selections about concepts. Two of the selections were sections, one about the construction of concepts, and the second on the use of concepts. All but one of the selections was from the acquired perspective. See Table 76 for depth of coverage. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 235. 203 Table 76 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive 1 - 1 Developmental - - - Acquired I 3 2 6 Table 77 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Ormrod Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive - - - Developmental I 1 - 2 Acquired I - 1 Table 78 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive - - - Developmental I - 1 Acquired 1 - 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 236. 204 Ormrod (2000), stated,“In addition to learning concepts, students also leam how concepts are interrelated” (p. 274). She went on to discuss super-ordinate and sub ordinate categories of concepts. Later she described “concept maps” and gave two examples of concept maps made by fifth graders. She further defined concepts as having seven possible traits and listed how they were related. One example, over generalization, was described as, “over generalization is a case of incorrectly identifying negative instances as examples of a concept, and a concept is easier to learn when its defining features are salient” (p. 327). Ormrod also addressed misconceptions. Her writing about concepts was unusually clear and detailed. She addressed both learning concepts and using concepts. Semantics—Meanings (T2) Ormrod (2000) had three selections regarding meanings of words and phrases, two from a developmental perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 77 for the depth of coverage. In regard to upper elementary students, Ormrod (2000) stated, “They are more adept at drawing inferences, and they become increasingly able to leam new information from what they read” (p. 350). She also stated that as students move into secondary grades, “they become more cognizant of the subtle aspects of fiction—for example, the underlying theme and symbolism of a novel” (p. 350). Ormrod’s definition of secondary students included all students who were not in elementary school. This definition, then, includes the latter halfof early adolescence. Ormrod (2000) also discussed inferred meanings of words. She did not, however, address metaphorical meanings. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 237. 205 Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Ormrod (2000)had two selections about clauses, one from a developmental perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 78 for depth of coverage. In reference to secondary students, Ormrod (2000) stated. When asked to write about a particular topic, they retrieve and generate many more ideas than students in the elementary grades do. Their sentences are more likely to vary in structure and frequently contain one or more dependent clauses, (p. 359) Ormrod also stated that teachers must “introduce various kinds of simple and complex sentences” (p. 356). Ormrod did not elaborate further on the kinds of clauses used. Syntax—Conjunctions. (S2) Ormrod (2000) had two selections regarding kinds of conjunctions used, one descriptive and one developmental. See Table 79 for depth of coverage. Ormrod (2000) stated. Children in the upper elementary and junior high grades have trouble with many connectives—words such as but, although, yet, however, and unless, [example] ...Even 12 year-olds have trouble identifying the correct sentence in pairs like these reflecting only a vague understanding of the connectives but and although. (p. 60) The research cited by Ormrod asked the children to identify the correct sentence of two, both containing conjunctions, one used improperly. She also attributed the ability to use Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 238. 206 Table 79 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive 1 - 1 Developmental I - 1 Acquired . . . - - Table 80 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive - - - Developmental 3 - 2 - 5 Acquired 2 - 2 Table 81 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive - - - Developmental I 2 - 3 Acquired _ - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 239. 207 more abstract conjunctionson a child’s ability to use abstract thinking. Ormrod did not address other conjunctions or their use. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Ormrod (2000) included seven selections about grammar, most (five of the seven) from a developmental perspective and the rest from an acquired perspective. See Table 80 for depth of coverage. Ormrod (2000) stated. As they move into the upper elementary and middle school grades, they begin to analyze speech in terms of its component parts, (nouns, verbs, adjectives) such growth is almost certainly due, at least in part to the formal instruction they receive about parts of speech” (p. 63). Grammar was discussed in regard to written language and oral language: “Our students are more likely to improve their speech and writing when they .. receive direct feedback about ambiguities and grammatical errors in their speech and writing” (p. 61). Ormrod did not expand upon how learning might occur beyond formal instruction. Lexicology—Vocabulary, (LI) Ormrod (2000) had two selections about the size of vocabulary and how students increase their vocabularies, both from a developmental perspective. See Table 81 for depth of coverage. Ormrod (2000) stated, It has been estimated that the average first grader knows the meaning o f8,000 to 14,000 words, whereas the average high school graduate knows the meanings of at least 80,000words. Children leam some words through direct vocabulary Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 240. 208 instruction at school,but they probably learn many more by inferring meaning from the context in which the words are heard or read.” (p. 59). Although she did not directly address the number ofwords in an early adolescent’s vocabulary, it was certainly implied by including early adolescent ages within the span of years included in the example. She also identified ways in which vocabulary is increased. Ormrod elaborated on the contexts in which words are learned when she described how students “play” with language. Many slang words begin as “word-play.” In a chapter summary, Ormrod (2000) addressed how a teacher might increase vocabulary when she stated, “... for instance, we can explicitly teach vocabulary and grammar, give students many opportunities to practice oral communication skills, and teach them one or more foreign languages” (p. 72). She did not, however, address the kinds of words (abstract, compound, with affixes) early adolescents leam. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2) Ormrod (2000) had three selections about the effect of the written text on vocabulary or other aspects of language, two from a developmental perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 82 for depth of coverage. Ormrod (2000), stated, “Furthermore, they begin to think about how their readers might respond to what they have written and so are more likely to proofread and revise their work” (p. 359). Awareness of an audience or reader, in this case, is a pragmatic skill. Ormrod also stated, “Avid readers leam many more new words than do students who read infrequently” (p. 61). Ormrod addressed the idea that written text can influence vocabulary acquisition and other aspects of language. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 241. 209 Table 82 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Effect ofWritten Text for Ormrod Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Ormrod Descriptive - - - - Developmental - - 2 2 Acquired - 1 - 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 242. 210 Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis (M) Ormrod (2000)did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice, (01) Ormrod (2000) did not address voice. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Ormrod (2000) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections All of Ormrod’s (2000) 51 selections (100%) were coded as adequate. None were coded as misinformation, unclear information, or best information. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework The theoretical framework could be identified in only nine of the selections in the Ormrod (2000) textbook. Four were behavioral, one cognitive, and four were written from the social/ environmental perspective. One selection was descriptive and two were written from a developmental perspective, while six were written from the acquired perspective. See Table 83 for components where theoretical perspectives were located and the manner in which the selections were addressed. Summary o fSelectionsfo r Ormrod Ormrod (2000) had 51 selections, 14 from a descriptive perspective, 25 from a developmental perspective and 12 from an acquired perspective. Ormrod addressed ten ofthe 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included four isolated hems, three vignettes, 12 sentences, 29 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 8 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 243. 2 1 1 Table83 Selections Identified by Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Ormrod Component Sub- Component How Addressed Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive - I 1 Competence, U3 Acquired 1 - I Semantics Concepts. Tl Acquired I 1 2 Syntax Conjunctions Developmental 1 I Syntax Grammar Acquirede I I 2 Lexicology Vocabulary. LI Developmental I 1 Lexicology Written, L2 Acquired I 1 Totals 4 I 4 9 Descriptive = 1; Developmental = 2; Acquired = 6: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 244. 212 Figure 8 Summary ofOrmrod’s Selections Ormrod Conversation Discourse Competence Concepts Meanings Grammar vocab written Moron A voice Inflection 6 8 10 Selections 12 14 16 [m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 245. 213 Educational Psychology -Eggen Textbook: Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak (2001). Educationalpsychology windows on classrooms, (5thed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Research Question I: Sub-ComponentsAddressed Eggen and Kauchak had 46 selections related to early adolescent language. Five of the six components of language and seven of the 13 sub-components were addressed. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 13 selections regarding conversation, seven of which addressed reasoning. Four of the selections described language, five addressed language developmentally and four addressed language from an acquired perspective. See Table 84 for information on depth of coverage. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) addressed early adolescent conversation in regard to gender differences and social problem solving. They stated, Differences in participation become greater as students move through school with an especially significant decrease in girls’ participation during the middle school years. In 7thgrade, they [girls] initiated 41% of the student-teacher interactions, but by 8thgrade this number decreased to 30%. (p. 150) Later they returned to the issue of gender separated schools and classes and stated, “One study found girls more likely to ask and answer questions in a girls-only middle school math class than in coeducational classes” (p. 152). These authors did not attempt to explain the presence or absence of language participation in gender separated classes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 246. 214 Table 84 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Eggen Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Eggen Descriptive - - - 3,(1) - 4 Developmental - (1) (1) 2,(1) - 5 Acquired - - (1) L(2) - 4 Table 85 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Eggen Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Eggen Descriptive - - I I - 2 Developmental - - - I - I Acquired - - - - - - Table 86 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Eggen Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Eggen Descriptive 2 - 6 8 Developmental 2 3 5 Acquired 6 6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 247. 215 In regard tosocial problem solving, Eggen and Kauchak (2001) commented: “Research indicates that social problem solving develops gradually... Older children realize that persuasion and compromise can result in solutions that are beneficial to all and they’re better at adapting when initial efforts aren’t successful.” (p. 86) Social skills classes were described: “Programs to teach social problem solving skills... have improved [the children’s] ability to talk about and analyze social problems” (p. 87). Specific language skills, however, were not mentioned. In addition, Eggen and Kauchak (2001) described self-reflective perspective taking and also listed Selman’s stages of moral reasoning. Neither topic, however, was developed in relation to language skills. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address other aspects of conversation, including negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had three selections about discourse. Two selections were addressed from a descriptive perspective and one was addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 85 for information regarding depth of coverage. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) focused on written discourse. For example, they stated, “a teacher has students write letters to friends and relatives and compose stories about their own experiences” (p. 58). They also stated, .. .eight to 12 year-olds can generate ideas but have trouble organizing and evaluating them. Attempts to consciously eliminate some ofthese hurdles have proven successful. For example, to bypass the graphic challenge, researchers Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 248. 216 allowed fourth andsixth graders to dictate rather than write their essays, resulting in products that were twice as long and better in quality, (p. 375) Eggen and Kauchak also discussed essays as part of assessments: “Essay items require students to make extended written responses to questions or problems” (p. 607). They continued by saying that essays are valuable because they can be used to see ifthe student can defend an argument, organize an idea, or describe understanding. Eggen and Kauchak presented this information on early adolescents from a teacher’s point of view and stated what the teacher should have the students produce. Eggen and Kauchak did not mention other aspects of discourse, such as proverbs, storytelling, or oral reports. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 19 selections about communicative competence, eight were addressed descriptively, five developmentally and six by how communicative competence is acquired. See Table 86 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) discussed the ability to know what is important and what is not important in communication. In part they stated, Researchers found, for example, that a third of 5thgraders couldn’t differentiate between more and less important ideas, seventh graders were beginning to develop some proficiency, and high school students were quite good at it (p. 368). In other aspects of communication Eggen and Kauchak discussed writing strategies, perspective taking, shared understanding, and social skills but they did not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 249. 217 address what theearly adolescent needs to know about grammar, vocabulary, or the rules of speaking or writing. Semantics—Concepts, (Tl) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had five selections about concepts, two were addressed descriptively and three were about the acquisition of concepts. Table 87 contains information on the depth of coverage and how selections were addressed. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) stated, Understanding language development is important for several reasons: I. As shown in the preceding discussions of Vygotsky and Piaget, language is a catalyst for developmental change. As children interact with peers and adults, they construct increasingly complex and accurate schemes and ideas about the world (p. 63). Eggen and Kauchak added, “Conceptually driven views [ofreading] suggest that the meaning learners take from text is determined by individual expectations and prior knowledge” (p. 365). Eggen and Kauchak addressed the formation and use of concepts but only tied concepts to language through reading. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address meanings. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address conjunctions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 250. 218 Table 87 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Eggen Textbook How Addressed hem Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Eggen Descriptive 2 - 2 Developmental . - - Acquired . 3 3 Table 88 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Eggen Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Eggen Descriptive - - - Developmental . - - Acquired 3 - 3 Table 89 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Effect ofWritten Text for Eggen Textbook How Addressed hem Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Eggen Descriptive - - - - Developmental I - 1 Acquired 1 - 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 251. 219 Syntax— Grammar, (S3) Eggenand Kauchak (2001) had three selections for grammar, all addressed from an acquired perspective. Table 88 contains information regarding the depth of selections for grammar and how the selections were addressed. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) provided a short passage composed of nonsense language to be read, then stated, “The aspect of linguistic knowledge that you used to make sense of the wuggen passage was syntax, the way words in larger units make sense” (p. 361). Later they added, “to bypass the syntactic challenge, young writers can be allowed to initially make grammatical errors and use invented spellings, saving corrections for the revising stage” (p. 375). Eggen and Kauchak also addressed strategies for writing. They stated, “ For, example, sixth graders who were taught to add, delete, substitute, and rearrange their written products did significantly more revisions, and their stories improved more than the stories written by students who did not receive strategy instruction” (p. 375). Eggen and Kauchak did not mention specific rules of morphology or syntax or how words or sentences were constructed, but they did address how student compositions could be constructed. Lexicology—Vocabulary Size, (LI) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address vocabulary size. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text on Vocabulary, (L2) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had two selections of the effect of written text on vocabulary or other aspects of language, one was addressed developmentally and the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 252. 220 other from anacquired perspective. See Table 89 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) stated, The development oflanguage is closely tied to learning to read and write. As you’ll see in Chapter 9, these processes provide learners with essential learning and communication tools, (p. 63) The reader was referred to Chapter 9. While Chapter 9 did discuss techniques for teaching reading and writing, it did not address early adolescent language or its development. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis, (M) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice (Ol) Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had one selection about voice that was addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 90 for information regarding the depth of selection. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) stated, It is not easy being a student who talks differently. In communicating with these students, a teacher should be patient and refrain from correcting their speech, which calls attention to the problem” (p. 180). They did not identify the voice problem (articulation, voice quality, voice volume, etc.) but what was stated could be applied to the early adolescent male whose voice was changing. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 253. 221 Table 90 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Eggen Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Eggen Descriptive Developmental Acquired 1 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 254. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Eggen andKauchak (2001) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 46 selections on early adolescent language. Of the 46 selections, 43 were coded adequate (or 93.5% of the selections) and three were coded as being unclear. None were coded as having misinformation or best information. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 18 selections that were coded for theoretical framework. Five of the selections were coded as being written from a cognitive perspective and 13 were written from a social / environmental perspective. None were coded for being written from a behavioral perspective. Table 91 identifies the sub component and how theoretical framework was addressed for each ofthe selections. Summary o fSelections by Eggen and Kauchak Eggen and Kauchak (2001) had 46 selections; 17 selections described language, 12 addressed language deveiopmentally and 17 addressed language from the perspective of acquisition. Eggen and Kauchak addressed seven of the 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included no isolated items, three vignettes, seven sentences, 33 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 9 provides as summary ofthe number of selections under each sub-component along with the perspective by which each sub component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 255. Table 91 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Eggen Component Sub- Component How Addressed Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive - I I 2 Conversation,U1 Developed - - I I Acquired - - 1 I Pragmatics Descriptive - t I 2 Competence, U3 Developed - 2 - 2 Acquired - - 3 3 Semantics Descriptive - - I I Concepts. T1 Developed - - 1 2 Syntax Grammar Acquired 1 1 Phonology Voice Descriptive I Totals 0 5 13 18 Descriptive = 5; Developmental = 5; Acquired = 8: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 256. 224 Figure 9 Summary ofSelections for Eggen and Kauchak Eggen and Kauchak E o o CO Conversation Discourse Competence Concepts Meanings Clauses Grammar vocab Written Morph A Inflection 10 Selections 15 20 mDescriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 257. 225 Educational Psychology -Elliott Textbook: Stephen N. Elliott, Thomas R. Kratochwill, Joan Littlefield Cook, and John F. Travers (2000). Educationalpsychology: effective teaching, effective learning, (3rded.). Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Elliott et al. (2000) had 26 selections. Four of the six components of language and six of the 13 sub-components were addressed. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Elliott et al. (2000) had 13 selections regarding conversation, of which six were about reasoning (see Table 92). Ofthe 13 selections seven were addressed descriptively and six were addressed developmentally. The section was about concrete and abstract reasoning. Elliott et al. (2000) tied language to Piaget’s stages: The early childhood years see the slow and steady disappearance of egocentrism, except in verbal thought, where traces of egocentrism remain until children are about 11 or 12 years old. Usage and complexity of language increase dramatically as children pass through the four stage of cognitive development. (p. 47) The authors gave no examples of early adolescent language while discussing Piaget’s stages. Elliott stated that in language three types of changes take place at the middle childhood level (6-10). The changes identified were: I. Students, from age seven on, use language for their own purposes, such as remembering and planning; 2. Students Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 258. 226 Table 92 Elliott’s Depthof Coverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Elliott Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Elliott Descriptive L (I) 1.(3) (1) 7 Developmental L (I) 4 - 6 Acquired . - - - Table 93 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Elliott Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Elliott Descriptive I - I 2 Developmental - - - Acquired - - - Table 94 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Elliott Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Elliott Descriptive - - - - Developmental - I - 1 Acquired - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 259. 227 use language lessliterally and more figuratively; and 3. Students are more able to communicate effectively with others. In regard to language development these authors stated; “Although refinements are made between the ages of 5 and 10, most children have completed the greater part of the process of language acquisition by the age of 4 or 5” (p. 58). A table titled “Typical Language Accomplishments” (p. 67) listed only accomplishments for children six through ten. For the ten-year-old they listed; “Describes situations by cause and effect; writes fairly lengthy essays; likes mystery and science stories; masters dictionary skills; good sense of grammar” (p. 67). Elliott et al. only briefly described some aspects of language that might be seen in the ten-year-old and they did not address language past the age of 10. Elliott et al. did not address other aspects of conversation, including persuasion, negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, or ambiguity. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Elliott et al. (2000) had two selections that described discourse. The section, under assessments, addressed oral classroom presentations that included a list of expected behaviors or skills and scoring criteria. See Table 93 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. In a table, Elliott et al. (2000) listed the language achievements for the middle childhood years; “Age 10. Describes situations by cause and effect, writes fairly lengthy essays; likes mystery and science stories;...” (p. 67). Elliott et al. did not address other aspects ofdiscourse, such as proverbs, storytelling, or letters. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 260. 228 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Elliottet al. (2000) had one selection about communicative competence addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 94 for information regarding the depth of the selection. In a section devoted to language development in middle childhood, Elliott et al. (2000) listed changes that occurred during this age. Students are able to communicate with others more effectively. They understand relationships; they can also express these relationships accurately, using appropriate language. In a sense, more effective communication is the product of the interaction of many developmental forces: physical growth as seen in the brain’s development; cognitive development as seen in the ability to use symbols and to store them; and language development as seen in vocabulary development and usage. Language has not become an effective tool in adapting to the environment especially the classroom, (p. 66) In this selection Elliott et al. did not address what early adolescents need to know about communicative competence regarding grammar, vocabulary, or the rules of speaking or writing. Semantics—Concepts, (Tl) Elliott et al. (2000) had five selections about concepts, one addressed concepts descriptively and four addressed concepts from the acquisition perspective. See Table 9S for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Elliott et al. (2000) advised teachers to structure learning around primary concepts. The authors stated that good teachers, to teach concepts, “consistently give Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 261. 229 Table 95 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Elliott Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Elliott Descriptive - I - 1 Developmental - - - - Acquired - 3 1 4 Table 96 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) forGrammar for Elliott Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Elliott Descriptive I I I I - 4 Developmental . - - - Acquired - - - - Table 97 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Effect ofWritten Text for Elliott Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Elliott Descriptive I - - 1 Developmental - - - - Acquired - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 262. 230 examples, and theycompare the concept to other categories that do not include it” (p 278). They continued by discussing the importance and use ofconcepts. Concepts are vital to thinking, reasoning, and perceiving relationships. The quality of a student’s concepts is the best measure of probable success in learning, because meaning is basic to learning. Also, concepts determine what we know, believe, and do... Meaningful concepts are also a great aid to memory. (P- 278) They gave many suggestions as to which concepts to present, how to present them, as well as, how to help student learn concepts. Elliot et al. did state “Now the teacher may attempt to expand the concepts that the pupils experienced in their literature and simultaneously work on vocabulary using various techniques” (p. 65). They did not, however, state the link between word meanings and concepts. Instead, they associated concepts with thinking, reasoning, and perceiving relationships. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Elliott et al. (2000) did not address meanings of words or phrases. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Elliott et al. (2000) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Elliott et al. (2000) did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Elliott et al. (2000) had four selections about grammar, one was addressed descriptively and three were addressed developmentally. See Table 96 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 263. 231 Under assessments, Elliottet al. (2000) included criteria for grading a written paper. The criteria included evaluating a paper’s format, mechanics, usage, sentence structure and organization. The mechanics, usage, and sentence structure criteria each addressed elements ofgrammar including: sentence fragments, word agreement, punctuation, capitalization, and sentence structure. They also stated, “Grammar seems to be designed to convert ideas into word combinations” (p. 59). Elliott et al. did not address rules of syntax or morphology or include how words or sentences are constructed. Lexicology—Vocabulary Size, (LI) Elliott et al. (2000) did not address vocabulary size for the early adolescent. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2) Elliott et al. (2000) had one descriptive selection about the effect of written text on vocabulary or other aspect of language. See Table 97 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. In a table, Elliott et al. (2000) identified that by age 10 a child masters dictionary skills. No further elaboration was provided in the text. Morphology, MorphologicalAnalysis, (M) Elliott et al. (2000) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Elliott et al. (2000) did not address voice. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Elliott et al. (2000) did not address inflection. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 264. 232 Research Question 2:Quality o fLanguage Selections Elliott (2000) had 26 selections, all of which were coded as adequate (100%). None were coded as misinformation, as being unclear, or as best information. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Elliott et al. (2000) had seven selections coded for theoretical framework, all from a cognitive perspective. Table 98 identifies the components where the selections were identified and how the selections were addressed. Summary o fSelectionsfor Elliott et aL Elliott et al. (2000) had 26 selections, 15 were addressed descriptively, seven developmentally and four addressed acquisition of language skills. Elliott et al. addressed six of the 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included one isolated item, five vignettes, three sentences, 14 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 10 provides a summary of the number of selections under each subcomponent along with the perspective by which each sub-component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 265. 233 Table 98 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Elliott Component Sub- How Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Component Addressed Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 - 2 Conversation,UI Developed - I - I Pragmatics Descriptive - I - 1 Competence, U3 Developed - 2 - 2 Semantics Descriptive - I - 1 Concepts, T1 - - Syntax Developmental - 1 - 1 Grammar - - Totals 0 7 0 7 Descriptive = 4; Developmental = 3; Acquired = 0: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 266. 234 Figure 10 Summary ofSelections for Elliot et al. Elliott «t al. Conversation Discourse Com petence Concepts Meanings C lauses Con] Grammar Vocab Written Morph A. Voice Inflection 0 5 10 15 Selections Q Descriptive ■Developm ental □Acquired i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 267. 235 Educational Psychology -Sternberg Textbook: Robert J. Sternberg and Wendy M. Williams (2002). Educational psychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Sternberg and Williams had 26 selections that addressed early adolescent language. Four of the six components and seven of the 13 sub-components were addressed. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Sternberg and Williams (2002) had seven selections; two addressed reasoning (see Table 99). Three of the seven selections were addressed descriptively and four were addressed by how language skills are acquired. The sections were on Reasoning (p. 314- 318,) Problem Solving (p. 319-328), and Development o fPerspective Taking (98-99). Sternberg and Williams (2002) included a chapter (Chapter 9) on thinking, concept formation, reasoning, and problem solving. The text stated, “When children argue, they can often be fast and loose in monitoring the validity of their arguments” (p. 314). Sternberg has conducted research on the reasoning of children. Although this textbook was very detailed in three sections on reasoning it did not discuss the linguistic vocabulary needed for reasoning or the syntax necessary to develop logical arguments. The textbook listed and discussed the rules of reasoning, the types of reasoning problems, repairing fallacious reasoning, developing reasoning skills, and insight problems. It also addressed “perspective taking” (p. 98) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 268. 236 Table 99 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Sternberg Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Sternberg Descriptive 2 (I) 3 Developmental - - - Acquired I - I U D 4 Table 100 Depth of Coverage (length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Sternberg Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Sternberg Descriptive - - - 2 - 2 Developmental 2 - 2 Acquired 1 1 2 Table 101 Depth ofCoverage (length ofSelections) for Concepts for Sternberg Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Sternberg Descriptive 3 - 3 Developmental 1 - 1 Acquired I 2 3 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 269. 237 Sternberg and Williams(2002) included information on reciprocal teaching, an instructional strategy that can be used to improve reading comprehension. While discussing 19 studies on reciprocal teaching it was stated, “the approach works best when the comprehension strategies are taught explicitly before the actual reciprocal teaching begins” (p. 454). In reciprocal teaching students are taught, among other things, to question each other about events found in stories to find the main theme. In questioning each other, students help each other clarify the meaning of events and vocabulary in the story. Sternberg and Williams (2002) in their discussion of social economic status (SES) and language use stated that. Lower SES children often use language with a focus on the present; this language is more concrete, less descriptive and flowery, and more simple and basic... Middle-class children often speak in more elaborate sentences, using more words overall, (p. 216) In the quote above, Sternberg and Williams cited Basil Bernstein’s 1961and 1971studies. This statement was also somewhat contradicted by W. Labov (1997) that was also cited in Sternberg & Williams (2002). Labov found that lower SES children use more elaborate language under certain circumstances and that this elaboration was found both in speaking and writing. In their textbook. Sternberg and Williams did not include information about other topics of conversation, including persuasion, negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, or ambiguity. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 270. 238 Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Sternberg andWilliams (2002) did not address discourse. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Sternberg and Williams (2002) had six selections about communicative competence, including one section regarding The Relationship between Language and Thought. Of the six selections, two selections were addressed descriptively, two developmentally and two from an acquired perspective. See Table 100 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Sternberg and Williams (2002) stated, “Language is related not only to thought but also to the social context of its use” (p. 69). The text did not expand on the social context. In discussing Kohlberg’s theory of moral development, Sternberg and Williams stated. At level H individuals think in terms of conventional morality, a level of moral reasoning that reflects a person’s internalization of social rules. An individual conforms to social rules because he or she believes it is right to do so. (p. 104) After an example they continued, “In stage 3, the first stage at this level, people’s reasoning is guided by mutual interpersonal expectations and interpersonal conformity” (p. 105). Although Sternberg and Williams mentioned social rules they did not tie them to language or rules of speaking or writing. Comprehension is also necessary for communicative competence and “Ellen Markman (1977) has studied verbal comprehension at the level of paragraph understanding” (p. 62). Following a paragraph that included an example of a contradictory remark, Sternberg and Williams (2002) continued, “Amazingly, almost Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 271. 239 halfof the childrenbetween 8 and 11 years of age that Markman tested did not notice the contradiction, even when warned in advance that such contradictions might exist” (P- 62). Stenberg and Williams (2002) did not address knowledge ofgrammar or vocabulary in regard to communicative competence. Semantics—Concepts, (TI) Stenberg and Williams (2002) had seven selections about concepts including two sections, one on Defining Features o fConcepts and the second one on Characteristic Features o f Concepts. Ofthe seven selections, three were addressed descriptively, one developmentally, and three from an acquired perspective. See Table 101 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Stemberg and Williams (2002) defined and listed the characteristics of concepts in two sections, discussed implications for teaching and included information on building concept maps. Elsewhere they discussed Frederic Bartlett’s research from 1932 related to memory. The authors stated, “ Bartlett suggested that people bring into a memory task, schemas, or cognitive frameworks for organizing associated concepts, based on previous experience, which affect how we leam and remember” (p. 294). Stemberg and Williams also stated, “Students use concepts and reasoning to solve problems and through this process, leam about and make sense of the world” (p. 319). Prior experience was a primary consideration in the formation of concepts for Stenberg and Williams. This was brought out in yet another part ofthe textbook when in a summary it was stated, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 272. 240 We now knowthat children’s inability to think at a high level is due not to immaturity of higher order cognitive operations, but to lack of an experiential knowledge base. ... Once children acquire a knowledge base in an area, they can often think at a higher level in that area than in other areas in which they do not have the same amount of knowledge (Wellman & Gelman, 1998)” (p. 53). Stemberg and Williams addressed concept formation and use of concepts but failed to explicitly tie concepts to language. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Stemberg and Williams (2002) had one selection about meanings that was addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 102 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Stemberg and Williams (2002) stated, “Middle-class children typically use more metaphorical expressions and speak in less concrete terms” (p. 216) than lower-class children. Stemberg and Williams, however, did not address multiple meanings of words or expand on metaphorical expressions beyond this sentence. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Stemberg and Williams (2002) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Stemberg and Williams (2002) did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Stemberg and Williams (2002) had one selection about grammar that was addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 103 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 273. 241 Table 102 Depth ofCoverage (length of Selections) for Meanings for Sternberg Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Sternberg Descriptive I - 1 Developmental - - - Acquired - - - Table 103 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Stemberg Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Stemberg Descriptive - - - Developmental 1 - 1 Acquired - - - Table 104 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Vocabulary Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Stemberg Descriptive I - I Developmental 1 - I Acquired 1 - 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 274. 242 Stemberg and Williams(2002) had one selection about grammar that was addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 103 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Stemberg and Williams (2002) stated: “However, by about age 10, the structure of children’s language differs little from that of a typical adult, although their vocabulary is likely to be lesser and their knowledge of formal grammar still lacking” (p.67). Formal grammar instruction does include knowledge of the rules of syntax and morphology Stemberg and Williams did not elaborate further. Lexicology—Vocabulary. (LI) Stemberg and Williams (2002) had three selections, one was addressed descriptively, one was addressed developmentally, and one addressed the acquisition of vocabulary. See Table 104 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Stemberg and Williams (2002) stated, Hypothesis testing is illustrated in children’s acquisition of the meaning of words. For example, meanings of many words are learned in context, as described earlier, through hypothesis testing. ...Stemberg and Powell (1983) found a high correlation between students’ ability to figure out meanings of words and the context, suggesting this ability is crucial to the formation of vocabulary” (p. 68). They also stated, “Robert Stemberg and several other researchers have suggested that most vocabulary is learned from context” (p. 62). Stemberg and Williams did not Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 275. 243 address the sizeof the vocabulary of the early adolescent or what kinds of words (compound words, words with affixes) that were learned by the early adolescent. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text Stemberg and Williams (2002) did not address the effect of written text on vocabulary or other aspect of language. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Stemberg and Williams (2002) had one selection that addressed voice. See Table 105 for information regarding the depth of the selection and how it was addressed. Stemberg and Williams (2002) described voice problems: Voicing problems are characterized by hoarseness, inappropriate pitch, loudness, or intonation (as when one speaks in a monotone). Often, children merely need to be made aware of such problems and with a little help from the teacher can correct them. (p. 184) Stemberg and Williams did not elaborate on the help the teacher might give. These authors did not address the voice change that occurs in early adolescence. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Stenberg and Williams (2002) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Stemberg and Williams (2002) had 26 selections of which 24 (92.3%) were addressed adequately or better. Four selections were addressed with best information and two selections were unclear. None were coded as having misinformation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 276. 244 Table 105 Depth ofCoverage (length of Selections) for Voice for Sternberg Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Sternberg Descriptive Developmental Acquired I 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 277. 245 Table 106 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Sternberg Component Sub component How Addressed Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive - I 1 2 Conversatioa,Ul Acquired - - I I Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 I 3 Competence, U3 Developed - 1 1 2 Acquired 1 t I 3 Semantics Concepts, TI Acquired 3 3 Syntax GramarT2 Descriptive I I Phonology Voice Acquired I 1 Totals 2 5 9 16 Descriptive =5; Developmental = 3; Acquired = 8 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 278. 246 Research Question 3:Theoretical Framework Sternberg and Williams (2002) had 16 selections in which a theoretical framework was found. Two were from the behavioral perspective, five from the cognitive perspective and nine from a social/environmental perspective. See Table 106 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Summary o fSelections by Sternberg and Williams Sternberg and Williams (2002) had 26 selections, 11were addressed descriptively, five were addressed developmentally and ten addressed the acquisition of language skills. The 26 selections addressed seven of the 13 sub-components of language. Eight of the 16 selections that reflected a theoretical perspective were about how language is acquired. The depth of selections included no isolated items, two vignettes, two sentences, 16 paragraphs and six sections. Figure 11 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 279. 247 Figure 11 Summary ofSelections by Sternberg and Williams Sternberg o a. E o 9n 3 CO Conrersation Discourse Competence Concepts Meanings Clauses Conj Grammar Vocab VWitten Morph A Voice Inflection - _ L _ E E E E 5 10 Selections 15 0 Descrptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 280. 248 Educational Psychology -Woolfolk Textbook: Anita Woolfolk (2001). Educationalpsychology, (8thed). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Woolfolk (2001) had 24 selections regarding early adolescent language. Four of six components and nine of the 13 sub-components of language were addressed.. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Woolfolk (2001) had four selections regarding conversation, two of these selections were about reasoning (and are found in parenthesis in Table 107). Of the four selections, two were addressed descriptively and two addressed acquisition of language. See Table 107 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Woolfolk (2001) addressed negotiation when she stated. Many constructivists share Vygotsky’s beliefthat higher mental processes develop through social negotiation and interaction, so collaboration in learning is valued. The Language Development and Hypermedia Group (1992) suggests that a major goal of teaching is to develop students’ abilities to establish and defend their own positions while respecting the positions of others and working together to negotiate or co-construct meaning. To accomplish this exchange, students must talk and listen to each other, (p. 335) In this selection Woolfolk stated what students need to do and she described the outcome of negotiated social interaction, but she was not explicit in describing the language to be used. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 281. 249 Table 107 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Woolfolk Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive U D - 2 Developmental (1) 1 - 2 Acquired I - 1 Table 108 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Discourse for Woolfolk Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive 1 - I Developmental - - - Acquired - - - Table 109 Depth ofCoverage (Length ofSelections) for Communicative Competence for Woolfolk Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive I - 1 Developmental I - 1 Acquired I - 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 282. 250 Regarding perspective taking,a skill necessary for negotiation, Woolfolk (2001) stated “perspective taking ability develops over time until it is quite sophisticated in adults” (p. 77). Regarding sarcasm Woolfolk stated, “Many children are in their preadolescent years before they are able to distinguish between being kidded from being taunted or before they know that a sarcastic remark is not meant to be taken literally” (p 54). Woolfolk did not address persuasion, slang, idioms, or ambiguity. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Woolfolk (2001) had one selection about discourse and it was addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 108 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Woolfolk (2001) discussed story grammar, sometimes referred to as schema for story or story structure. “To comprehend a story, we select a schema that seems appropriate. Then we use this framework to decide which details are important, what information to seek, and what to remember” (p. 254). She continued to demonstrate how students use schema to remember events, but she did not explain how students use schema to write or tell a story. She did not discuss proverbs or story-telling. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Woolfolk (2001) had four selections about communicative competence, one addressed descriptively, one developmentaily and two that addressed how language is acquired. See Table 109 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Regarding general communicative competence, Woolfolk (2001) stated, "By about age 5, most children have mastered the basics of their native language” (p. 53). In Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 283. 251 addition, she stated,“as children mature, they are more able to assess and consider the intentions of others” (p. 77). Woolfolk also mentioned social conventions, but only as a criticism of Kohlberg’s theory of moral reasoning. She did not address the rules of speaking or writing that contribute to communicative competence, or vocabulary or grammar in regard to communicative competence. Semantics—Concepts, (Tl) Woolfolk (2001) included five selections regarding concepts, one was addressed developmentally and four from an acquisition perspective. She had four sections regarding concepts: Views o fConcept Learning, Strategiesfo r Teaching Concepts, Teaching Concepts through Discovery, and Teaching Concepts through Exposition. See Table 110 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Woolfolk (2001) addressed schema early in her textbook and referred to schema often. She discussed story schemas, but only in reference to understanding events, and not in relation to writing or telling stories. Woolfolk (2001) stated, Within each domain children move from grasping simple schemes during the early preschool years, to merging two schemes into a unit (between ages 4-6), to coordinating these scheme units into larger combinations, and finally, by about ages 9 to 11, to forming complex relationships that can be applied to many problems (p. 43). In addition, Woolfolk described a concept attainment model, wherein concepts are identified, tested and analyzed. Finally, she discussed extending concepts to larger Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 284. 252 Table 110 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Woolfolk Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive - - - - Developmental I - 1 Acquired _ 4 4 Table 111 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Meanings for Woolfolk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive I - 1 Developmental . - - Acquired - - - Table 112 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Clauses for Woolfolk Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive 1 - 1 Developmental - - - Acquired - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 285. 253 schema. Woolfolk didaddress the formation of concepts and the use of concepts, but she did not explicitly tie concepts to language. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Woolfolk (2001) had one selection about meanings and it was addressed descriptively. See Table III for information regarding the depth of the selection. Woolfolk (2001) stated, “They may also take statements literally and thus misunderstand sarcasm or metaphor” (p. 54). Woolfolk did not address the multiple meanings of words. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Woolfolk (2001) had one selection regarding clauses that was addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 112 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Woolfolk (2001), stated, “Other accomplishments during elementary school include first understanding and then using complex grammatical structures such as extra clauses, qualifiers, and ...”(p. 53). Woolfolk did not elaborate as to the kind or location of clauses. In addtion, Woolfolk’s definition of elementary school went to age 11. an age also within the definition of early adolescence. Use of clauses later in early adolescence was not discussed. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Woolfolk (2001) had one selection regarding conjunctions that was addressed from a descriptive perspective. See Table 113 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 286. 254 Table 113 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Woolfolk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive I - 1 Developmental - - - Acquired - - - Table 114 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Grammar for Woolfolk Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive - - - Developmental 3 - 3 Acquired I - 1 Table 115 Depth of Coverage (Length ofSelections) for Vocabulary for Woolfolk Textbook HowAddressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Woolfolk Descriptive - - - Developmental I 2 3 Acquired - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 287. 255 Woolfolk (2001), stated,“Other accomplishments during elementary school include first understanding and then using ... conjunctions” (p. 53). This mention of conjunctions acknowledged the use of conjunctions but did not tell the reader which conjunctions might be used or how. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Woolfolk (2001) had four selections about grammar, three were addressed developmentally and one from an acquired perspective. See Table 114 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. In regard to grammar and early adolescents Woolfolk (2001) stated. The important point is that children develop language as they develop other cognitive abilities by actively trying to make sense of what they hear and by looking for patterns and making up rules to put together the jigsaw puzzle of language (p. 53). Later Woolfolk continued. They have knowledge about language itself. They are ready to study and extend the rules that have been implicit—understood but not consciously expressed. This process continues throughout life, as we all become better able to manipulate and comprehend language (p. 54). Woolfolk did not elaborate further. She did address the passive voice and mentioned syntax as the basic word order that is mastered early in life with more complicated forms taking much longer to master. Woolfolk did not address the rules of grammar or how words or sentences are constructed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 288. 256 Lexicology—Vocabulary Size, (L1) Woolfolk(2001) had three selections related to size ofvocabulary. All selections were addressed developmentally. See Table 115 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Woolfolk (2001), stated, “The average 6-year-old has a vocabulary of 8,000 - 14,000 words, growing to about 20,000 by age 11” (p. 54). Woolfolk did address vocabulary increases and touched on one end of the early adolescent age group (ages 10-11), but she did not address vocabulary development of older students. She further stated, “Cazden (1988) suggests that word meanings are most easily learned through interactions and conversations with an adult in which the adult introduces new words” (p. 55). Woolfolk did not address other ways by which the early adolescent might leam vocabulary (reading, word-play) or the kinds of words that are learned during early adolescence. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text (L2) Woolfolk (2001) did not address effect of written text on vocabulary or other aspects of language. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis, (M) Woolfolk (2001) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Woolfolk (2001) did not address voice. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Woolfolk (2001) did not address inflection. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 289. 257 Research Question 2:Quality o fSelections Woolfolk (2001) had 24 selections and all (100%) were coded as being adequate information. None were coded as having misinformation, unclear information, or best information. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Woolfolk (2001) had eight selections coded for theoretical framework. Two were coded as being from a behavioral theoretical perspective, two were from a cognitive theoretical perspective and four were from a social/environmental theoretical framework. See Table 116 for a distribution of selections across components and how each was addressed. Summary o f Woolfolk’s Selections Woolfolk (2001) had 24 selections, seven were addressed descriptively, ten were addressed developmentally and seven addressed acquisition of skills. Woolfolk addressed nine of the 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included two isolated items, no vignettes, three sentences, 15 paragraphs and four sections. Figure 12 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 290. 258 Table 116 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Woolfolk Component Sub- Component How Addressed Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Conversation,UI Descriptive I 1 Pragmatics Competence. U3 Acquired 2 2 Syntax Grammar. S3 Acquired 2 I I 4 Lexicology Vocabulary. L1 Developmental I I Totals 2 2 4 8 Descriptive = I: Developmental = I: Acquired =6 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 291. 259 Figure 12 Summary ofSelections for Woolfolk Conversation i Discoursei i Competence Concepts M Meanings e • Clauses o g Conjunctions 0 1 Grammar A 3 40 Vocab Written M.Analysis Voice Inflection 0 5 10 15 20t Selections !m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired Woolfolk Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 292. 260 Educational Psychology -Snowman Textbook: Jack Snowman and Robert Biehler (2000). Psychology applied to teaching, (9thed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 22 selections and addressed two of the six components of language and three of the 13 sub-components of language. About language the textbook stated. “Kindergartners are quite skillful with language” (p. 77). Language was not directly addressed for older children. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 13 selections regarding conversation, three of the selections had to do with reasoning (noted in parenthesis in the Table 117). Of the 13 selections, nine were addressed descriptively, three were addressed developmentally, and one addressed how language skills are acquired. There were two sections, one on Social Characteristics: Elementary Grades (p. 84) (which included grades 5 and ages included in the definition of early adolescence) and one on Cognitive Characteristics: Middle School (p. 92). Snowman and Biehler (2000) described the logic that the early adolescent uses as being constrained and inconsistent. But general and abstract ideas often escape the [late] elementary age child. For example, sarcasm, metaphor, and allegory are usually lost on the concrete stage thinkers. A similar fate usually befalls the idea that knowledge is often the product of inferential reasoning and may therefore be rejected as untrue if flaws Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 293. 261 in the reasoningcan be shown. The knowledge base o f^ -S ^ grade children contains many misconceptions, and they may behave illogically. (p. 36) The textbook continued with an example ofa debate between classmates, w!*ere one student may “red offa string of facts, some of which reflect authoritative soloes, some of which are exaggerations, and some of which are invented on the spot” (p 86). Snowman and Biehler (2000) discussed how children describe them^Ives 10 early adolescence this self-portrait was “described for the first time in terms of emotions (pride, shame, worry, anger, happiness) and how well they can be controlled” (P 85). Snowman and Biehler listed the emotions—the abstract vocabulary—as whf* early adolescents used to communicate with others. Snowman and Biehler (2000) stated. "Early adolescents find it reassuring to dress and behave like others, and they are likely to alter their own opinions to coincide with those of a group (p. 89). They omitted information about how their language will also conform to group norms, whether theirgroup uses slang, a dialect, or Standard English. Snowman and Biehler (2000) continued to discuss early adolescents stated, They are deeply concerned about such things as ...with whom they should should not be seen in public, and how they greet and talk with various people” (p. 02). These authors discussed aspects of linguistics without using linguistic vocabulary. In linguistic terms this was an example ofearly adolescents who are beginning to shift registers. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 294. 262 Table 117 Depth ofCoverage(Length of Selections) for Conversation for Snowman Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Snowman Descriptive 6. (2) 1 9 Developmental 2.(1) - 3 Acquired . I 1 Table 118 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Snowman Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Snowman Descriptive - - 3 - 3 Developmental - - - Acquired 1 1 2 Table 119 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Snowman Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Snowman Descriptive Developmental Acquired 2 2 2 2 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 295. 263 Snowman and Biehler(2000) quoted a study by Harter, Waters, and Whitesell (1997) who gave questionnaires to students in grades 6-12. The main findings ofthis research were that students were: most likely to speak their mind when they are with close friends, classmates and same gender, but less likely to do so when they are in the presence of members of the opposite gender, parents, and teachers, (p. 128) Snowman and Biehler (2000) called ordinary conversation the "‘public” or “restricted” language and stated, “low SES children are much less proficient than middle-class children in the use of the ‘formal’ or ‘elaborated’ language of the classroom” (p. 146). These authors did not elaborate but acknowledged that there were different dialects that the early adolescents might have. Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address slang, idioms, ambiguity, persuasion, or negotiation. They did mention sarcasm but they did not elaborate. Pragmatics—Discourse. (U2) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address discourse. Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Snowman and Biehler (2000) had five selections regarding communicative competence, three were addressed descriptively and two addressed the acquisition of skills. The section was on Research on Learning Strategy Training (p. 275). See Table 118 for information regarding the depth ofselections and how each was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 296. 264 Snowman and Biehler(2000) mentioned aspects ofcommunicative competence in the context of peer interaction, special groups, and gender differences. In regard to peer interactions they stated: The conflict that arises over differences of opinion, for example, can be constructive if it is used as a stimulus to search for more information or to rethink one’s conclusions. But it can destroy group cohesion and productivity if it results in students stubbornly clinging to a position or referring to one another as “stubborn,” “dumb”, o r“nerdy.” (p. 360) Snowman and Biehler were describing one aspect of communicative competence when they discussed conflict management. Snowman and Biehler (2000, p. 275) also discussed reciprocal teaching (RT), developed by Palincsar and Brown (1984), where students with reading comprehension problems teach each other by using summarizing, self-questioning, clarifying and predicting strategies. Snowman and Biehler continued with, Positive interdependence and promotive interaction are not likely to occur if students do not know how to make the most of face-to-face interactions. And you can safely assume that the interpersonal skills most students possess are probably not highly developed. As a result, they have to be taught such basic skills as leadership, decision-making, trust building, clear communication, and conflict management, (p. 360) Snowman and Biehler addressed the lack of language skills but referred to them as “face-to-face interactions” and “interpersonal skills.” Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 297. 265 Snowman and Biehlerdid not address other rules for speaking or writing. They also did not address the grammar or vocabulary necessary for communicative competence. Semantics—Concepts, (Tl) Snowman and Biehler (2000) had four selections about concepts: two were addressed descriptively and two addressed the acquisition of concepts. See Table 119 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Snowman and Biehler (2000) discussed what Vygotsky called spontaneous concepts (facts, concepts and rules learned from everyday experiences) and scientific concepts (learned through academic experiences). Vygotsky considered concepts to be psychological tools that “allow us to consciously and systematically manipulate our environment” (p. 53). Snowman and Biehler stated that scientific concepts need to be taught in schools and that such teaching is the role of instruction. Later they discussed classroom research conducted by Knapp, Shields and Turnbull in 1995. Knapp and his colleagues found that children whose instruction emphasized conceptual understanding and problem solving performed better on mathematics, reading comprehension, and writing text items that measured advanced skills than their counterparts whose instruction focused on mastery ofbasic skills, (p. 154) In this research, students from classrooms that emphasized concepts scored better on examinations than did those from classrooms that stressed mastery learning. To achieve conceptual understanding, Snowman and Biehler stated that the teachers used classroom discussions to let students work out the reasons behind Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 298. 266 mathematical procedures orto explore alternative solutions to math problems, required students to read longer passages and gave them opportunities to discuss what they had read, taught them reading comprehension strategies, and gave them more extended writing assignments, (p. 154) Each of these procedures, (discussing, exploring alternative solutions, reading and writing lengthy passages, learning strategies for comprehension) can be used to clarify and further define concepts. Snowman and Biehler linked language to concepts by attributing discussions and other language activities to the formation and clarification of concepts. They also used research to described how concepts might be developed in classrooms. Snowman and Biehler (2000) addressed both the formation and the use of concepts. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address meanings. Syntax—Clauses. (SI) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address conjunctions. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address grammar. Lexicology—Vocabulary (LI) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address vocabulary. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 299. 267 Lexicology—Effect of WrittenText (L2) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address the effect of written text on vocabulary or other aspect of language. Morphology—MorphologicalAnalysis, (M) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address voice. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not address inflection. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 22 selections of which 21 selections (95.5%) were coded adequate and one was coded as being unclear. None were coded as being misinformation or best information. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 13 selections that could be identified as being written from a theoretical perspective. Ofthe 13, one was written from a behavioral perspective, five were written from a cognitive perspective and seven from a social / environmental perspective. Table 120 identifies the sub-components associated with each of the theoretical selections along with how each selection was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 300. 268 Table 120 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Snowman Component Sub- Component How Behavioral Addressed Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive 2 2 4 Conversation,III Developed I I 2 Acquired I - - 1 Pragmatics Descriptive 1 1 2 Competence, U3 Acquired - 2 2 Semantics Concepts. Tl Acquired 1 I 2 Totals I 5 7 13 Descriptive = 6; Developmental = 2; Acquired = 5: Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 301. 269 Summary o fSelectionsby Snowman and Biehler Snowman and Biehler (2000) had 22 selections, 14 were addressed descriptively, three were addressed developmentally and five were about the acquisition of language skills. Snowman and Biehler addressed three of the 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included no isolated items, no vignettes, no sentences, 19 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 13 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 302. 270 Figure 13 Summary of Selections for Snowman and Biehler Snowman & Biehler Discouise Competence Concepts Meanings Clauses Conj Grammar Vocab Written Morph A. Voice Inflection Selections m Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 303. 271 Educational Psychology -Slavin Textbook: Robert E. Slavin (2000), Educationalpsychology, theory andpractice, (6th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components Addressed Slavin (2000) had 21 selections that addressed four of the six components of language and six of the 13 sub-components. Slavin discussed the language development of preschool children but did not discuss language beyond that age. Halfof Slavin's early adolescent language selections came from his chapters on Learners with Exceptionalities and Student Diversity. Pragmatics—Conversation, (Ul) Slavin (2000) had 10 selections about conversation of which four were about reasoning (noted in parenthesis in Table 121). Eight of the selections were addressed as descriptive, one was addressed developmentally and one addressed how language skills are acquired. See Table 121 for information regarding the depth of selections. Slavin (2000) while discussing students with emotional and behavioral disorders, stated, “Unlike children who are aggressive, who may appear quite normal when they are not being aggressive, children who are withdrawn and immature often appear odd or awkward at all times. They almost always suffer from a lack of social skills” (p. 424). Slavin (2000) described conversations that took place between early adolescents and their teachers: Sometimes students will tell teachers personal information they would not tell their parents. ... At the same time,...some preteens talk back to teachers in ways Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 304. Table 121 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conversation for Slavin 272 Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Slavin Descriptive - (1) 5, (2) - 8 Developmental - - (I) - I Acquired - - I - 1 Table 122 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Communicative Competence for Slavin Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Slavin Descriptive - - 2 - 2 Developmental - - - - - Acquired - - 2 1 3 Table 123 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Concepts for Slavin Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Slavin Descriptive - - I - 1 Developmental - - - - - Acquired - - - I 1 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 305. 273 they would neverhave considered several years earlier, and some openly challenge teachers, (p. 95) Slavin described the teacher-child interaction, but he did not explain the verbal behavior of these preteens—what they said or how they said it. He did not use linguistic terms to describe these social interactions. Addressing research by Sadker, et. al (1997), Slavin (2000) reported when teachers were asked who talked more, boys or girls, “Most teachers responded that the girls talked more even though in fact the boys participated more than the girls by a ratio of 3:1” (p. 128). Slavin did not draw conclusions for the reader. Slavin (2000) said in regard to peer relationships: As with elementary school-aged children, popular and well-accepted adolescents tend to display positive conflict resolution and academic skills, pro-social behavior, and leadership qualities, whereas rejected and low-accepted adolescents tend to display aggressive and antisocial behavior and low levels of academic performance, (p. 95) Slavin did not say whether the well-accepted adolescents have a different level of linguistic skills than those with Iow-levels of acceptance, skills such as: vocabulary, sentence structures, ability to read emotions, awareness of the needs of others, etc. Slavin (2000) did not address persuasion, negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, or ambiguity. Pragmatics—Discourse, (U2) Slavin (2000) did not address discourse. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 306. 274 Pragmatics—Communicative Competence, (U3) Slavin(2000) had five selections about communicative competence, two were addressed from a descriptive perspective and three addressed how language skills were acquired. Slavin’s section was titled Helping Children Develop Social Skills (p. 89). See Table 122 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. Slavin (2000) discussed social skills and their acquisition during middle childhood. He promoted teacher reinforcement of positive skills with an entire group of children. “It draws attention of the peer group to the target child’s positive rather than negative actions” (p. 89). He also stated, Adolescents who have satisfying and harmonious friendships also report higher levels of self-esteem, are less lonely, have more mature social skills, and do better in school than do adolescents who lack supportive friendships, (p. 95) Slavin did not explain what he meant by more mature social skills. Slavin (2000) did not address what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar, vocabulary, or the rules of speaking or writing. Semantics—Concepts, (Tl) Slavin (2000) had two selections regarding concepts. One selection was addressed descriptively and one selection was addressed from an acquired perspective. See Table 123 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. The one section was titled Concept Learning and Teaching (p. 236). Slavin (2000) stated. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 307. 275 Long term semanticmemory contains the facts and generalized information that we know; concepts, principles, or rules and how to use them, and our problem solving skills and learning strategies, (p. 181) Slavin addressed both the memory of concepts and the transfer of concepts to everyday living situations. Slavin further stated that concepts can be teamed by observation and definition and are best taught by using examples, and by comparing and contrasting those examples with non-examples. Slavin addressed formation and use of concepts, and tied concepts to words through meanings. Semantics—Meanings, (T2) Slavin (2000) did not address meanings. Syntax—Clauses, (SI) Slavin (2000) did not address clauses. Syntax—Conjunctions, (S2) Slavin (2000) had one selection regarding conjunctions that was addressed from a developmental perspective. See Table 124 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Slavin (2000), stated, For young thinkers, this [if...then statements] is often presented in the form of a promise such as, ‘If you finish all your dinner, then you can have some dessert.’ Piaget proposed that this form of expression is a major characteristic of adolescent and adult thinking” (p. 198). Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 308. 276 Table 124 Depth ofCoverage (Length of Selections) for Conjunctions for Slavin Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Slavin Descriptive - - - - - Developmental - - I - 1 Acquired - - - - - Table 125 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Voice for Slavin Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Slavin Descriptive - -• - - - Developmental - I - - 1 Acquired - - - 1 1 Table 126 Depth of Coverage (Length of Selections) for Inflection for Slavin Textbook How Addressed Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Slavin Descriptive 1 - - - 1 Developmental - - - - - Acquired - - - - - Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 309. 277 “If” is aconjunction often used by early adolescents when they consider new ideas and the perspective of others. Slavin was very clear and wrote this selection as part of his discussion of Piaget. Syntax—Grammar, (S3) Slavin (2000) did not address grammar. Lexicology—Vocabulary, (LI) Slavin (2000) did not address vocabulary. Lexicology—Effect o f Written Text, (L2) Slavin (2000) did not address the effect of written text on vocabulary or other aspects of language. Morphology—Morphological Analysis, (M) Slavin (2000) did not address morphological analysis. Phonology—Voice, (Ol) Slavin (2000) had two selections regarding voice, one addressed from a developmental perspective and one from an acquired perspective. See Table125 for information regarding the depth of selections and how each was addressed. The section was on Students with Communication Disorders (p. 420). Slavin (2000) advocated supporting the child by accepting voice problems. He went on to say that, “The lasting damage is more often psychological than phonological...” p.420. Slavin addressed the secondary problem (psychological problem) that sometimes occurs when a primary (speech) problem is not addressed. He also advocated not pointing out the problem. Phonology—Inflection, (02) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 310. 278 Slavin (2000) hadone selection on inflection addressed from an acquired perspective. See Table 126 for information regarding the depth of the selection. Slavin (2000) stated in a theory into practice section entitled Teaching Adaptive Behavior Skills it was suggested that “every student needs to .. develop language skills.” Listed below was: “Developing language skills: Understanding directions, communicating needs and wants, expressing ideas, listening attentively, and using appropriate voice modulation and inflection” (p. 412). These suggestions were not expanded upon in the text. Slavin did not address placement of stress within words or inflected meanings. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Slavin (2000) had 21 selections that were coded for quality. Of the 21 selections, 18 were coded as adequate (85.7%) and three were coded as unclear. None of the selections was coded as misinformation or best information. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Slavin (2000) had 13 selections that were coded for having a theoretical perspective. One selection was addressed from a behavioral perspective, while six were addressed cognitively and six were written from a social/environmental perspective. Table 127 identifies the sub-components and how the selections were addressed for the selections found to have a theoretical perspective. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 311. 279 Table 127 Selections Identifiedby Theoretical Framework and How Addressed for Slavin Component Sub- Component How Addressed Behavioral Cognitive Soc/Environ Total Pragmatics Descriptive - 2 - 2 Conversation,U1 Developed - I - I Acquired - - 1 I Pragmatics Descriptive - - I 1 Competence, U3 Acquired 1 I 3 5 Semantics Concepts. T1 Descriptive I 1 Syntax Grammar Descriptive I I Phonology Voice Acquired I 1 Totals I 6 6 13 Descriptive = 5; Developmental = I; Acquired = 7 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 312. 280 Summary o fSlavin’sSelections Slavin (2000) had 21 selections* 12 addressed descriptively, three developmental^ and six addressed from an acquired perspective. Slavin addressed six of the 13 sub-components. The depth of selections included no isolated items, one vignette, 2 sentences, 15 paragraphs and three sections. Figure 14 provides a summary of the number of selections under each sub-component along with how each sub-component was addressed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 313. 281 Figure 14 Summary ofSelections for Slavin S lavin Conversation Discourse Competence Concepts JS Meanings e c Clauses o g Conj o V Grammar .o co Vocab Written Morph A. Voice Inflection 0 5 10 15 Selections ;n Descriptive ■ Developmental □ Acquired i Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 314. 282 Comparison of Textbookswithin Child Development The total number of selections for child development textbooks was 303. The number of selections per textbook ranged from 23 selections to 67 selections. The average number of selections was 50.5 selections. No child development textbook addressed all 13 sub-components. The range was from four sub-components to 12 sub-components. The average number of sub components addressed was eight. Child development textbooks presented 100 selections from the descriptive perspective, 152 from the developmental perspective and 51 from the acquired perspective. The average for each was 16.7 from the descriptive perspective, 25.3 from the developmental perspective and 10 from the acquired perspective. See Table 128 for a comparison of textbooks regarding how sub-components were addressed. In the child development textbooks eight selections were coded as being unclear. This figure represents 2.6% of all of the selections. There were two selections rated as best information. This represents less than one percent of the selections. One selection was rated misinformation. The behavioral theoretical framework was found in two textbooks (Meece 2002; Berk 2000), while the cognitive and social/environmental frameworks were found in all child development textbooks. The range of selections found with a theoretical framework were four to 13 for cognitive, and four to 18 for social/environmental. Meece had the most selections where a theoretical perspective was found (30) and Lefrancois (2001) the least with eight selections. See Table 129 for a comparison of textbooks regarding theoretical framework. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 315. 283 Table 128 How ChildDevelopment Textbook Selections Were Addressed Textbook Descriptive Developmental Acquired Total Schickedanz 24 20 23 67 Meece 25 27 15 67 Berk 9 46 9 64 Santrock 22 28 I 51 Bee 8 20 j 31 Lefrancois 12 11 - 23 Totals 100 152 51 303 Table 129 Theoretical Framework by Child Development Textbook Textbook Behavioral Cognitive Soc./Env. Total Schickedanz - 9 12 21 Meece 2 10 18 30 Berk 2 11 7 20 Santrock - 7 7 14 Bee - 5 5 10 Lefrancois - 4 4 8 Totals 4 46 53 103 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 316. 284 The quality ofselections for child development textbooks ranged from no unclear or misinformation in two textbooks to one with three unclear selections and one with two unclear selections and one with misinformation. See Table 130 for a comparison of child development textbooks. The length of selections ranged from none to three isolated items, one to 14 vignettes, eight to 25 sentences, 12 to 35 paragraphs, and none to three sections. See Table 131 for a comparison of textbooks. Comparison of Textbooks within Educational Psychology The total number of selections for educational psychology textbooks was 216. The number of selections per textbook ranged from 21 selections to 51selections. The average number of selections was 30.8 selections. No educational psychology textbook addressed all 13 sub-components. The range was from three sub-components to 10 sub-components. The average number of sub-components addressed was 6.7 sub components. Educational psychology textbooks presented 90 selections from the descriptive perspective, 65 from the developmental perspective and 6 1 from the acquired perspective. The average for each was 12.8 from the descriptive perspective, 9.3 from the developmental perspective and 8.7 from the acquired perspective. See Table 132 for a comparison of textbooks regarding how sub-components were addressed. In the educational psychology textbooks nine selections were coded as being unclear. This figure represents 4.2% of all of the selections for educational psychology textbooks. There were four selections rated as best information. This represents 1.8% ofthe selections. No selections were rated misinformation. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 317. 285 Table 130 Quality ofChild Development Selections Child Development Misinformation Unclear Adequate Best Information Schickedanz I 2 64 - Meece - I 66 - Berk - 2 62 - Santrock - - 49 2 Bee - 3 28 - Lefrancois - - 23 - Totals 1 8 292 2 Table 131 Depth (Length) of Selections for Child Development Textbooks Textbook Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Section Total Schickedanz 3 3 25 35 I 67 Meece 3 8 25 31 - 67 Berk - 14 21 29 - 64 Santrock 2 9 12 25 .> 51 Bee - I 8 22 - 31 Lefrancois - 8 12 - 23 Total 8 38 99 154 4 303 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 318. 286 The behavioral theoreticalframework and the social/environmental framework were found in six of the seven textbooks, while the cognitive perspective was found in all textbooks. The range of selections found with a theoretical framework were none to four for behavioral, one to seven for cognitive, and none to 13 for social/environmental. Eggen (2001) had the most selections where a theoretical perspective was found (18) and Elliott et al. (2001) had the least with seven selections and they only addressed the cognitive perspective. See Table 133 for a comparison of textbooks. The quality of selections for educational psychology textbooks ranged from no unclear or misinformation in three textbooks to one with three unclear selections in two textbooks. See Table 134 for a comparison ofeducational psychology textbooks The length of selections ranged from none to four isolated items, none to 5 vignettes, none to 12 sentences, 14 to 33 paragraphs and three to six sections. See Table 135 for a comparison of textbooks. Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks The number of selections ranged in the child development books from Bee (2000) with 31 selections to Schickedanz et al. (2001) and Meece (2002) with 67 selections. Among the educational psychology textbooks the number of selections ranged from Slavin (2000) with 21 to Ormrod (2001) with 51 selections. See Table 136 for a comparison ofthe number of selections ofboth child development and educational psychology textbooks. Table 138, also a comparison of the number of sub-components, lists in the total column the number of sub-components addressed by each textbook and in the bottom row the number of textbooks that addressed each sub-component. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 319. 287 Table 132 How SelectionsWere Addressed for Educational Psychology Textbooks Textbook Descriptive Developmental Acquired Total Ormrod 14 25 12 51 Eggen 17 12 17 46 Elliott 15 7 4 26 Sternberg 11 5 10 26 Woolfolk 7 10 7 24 Snowman 14 3 5 22 Slavin 12 6 21 Totals 90 65 61 216 Table 133 Theoretical Framework by Educational Psychology Textbook Textbook Behavioral Cognitive Soc./Env. Total Ormrod 4 I 4 9 Eggen I 5 13 19 Elliott - 7 - 7 Sternberg 2 5 9 16 Woolfolk 2 2 4 8 Snowman I 5 7 13 Slavin 3 6 5 14 Totals 13 31 42 86 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 320. 288 Table 134 Quality ofEducational Psychology Selections Educational Psychology Misinformation Unclear Adequate Best Information Ormrod - - 51 - Eggen - 3 43 - Elliott - - 26 - Sternberg - 2 20 4 Woolfolk - - 24 - Snowman - 1 21 - Slavin - •> 18 - Totals - 9 203 4 Table 135 Depth (Length) of Selections for Educational Psychology Textbooks Textbook Item Vignette Sentence Paragraph Sectiont Total Ormrod 4 3 12 29 3 51 Eggen - 3 7 33 3 46 Elliott 1 5 3 14 3 26 Sternberg - 2 2 16 6 26 Woolfolk 2 - ■> 15 4 24 Snowman - - - 19 3 22 Slavin - 1 2 15 3 21 Total 7 14 29 141 25 216 Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 321. 289 Table 136 Number ofSelections for All Textbooks by Sub-Components Sub-Components I 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 T Schickedanz 11 6 12 2 8 I I 8 6 7 2 - 3 67 Meece 26 j 20 2 6 2 - 5 - 2 - I - 67 Berk 16 I 13 6 9 - - 9 4 - - - 6 64 Santrock 18 4 9 .> I - - 6 -* 5 1 1 - 51 Bee 20 1 9 I 31 Lefrancois 16 I 4 I 1 - 23 Ormrod 6 3 15 7 3 2 2 7 3 - - - 51 Eggen 13 19 5 - - - 3 - 2 - 1 - 46 Elliott 13 2 I 5 - - - 4 - I - - - 26 Sternberg 7 - 6 7 1 - - I 3 - - I - 26 Woolfolk 5 1 ** 5 I I I 4 .> - - - - 24 Snowman 13 - 5 4 22 Slavin 10 - 5 2 - - I - - - - 2 1 22 Totals 174 25 121 50 29 6 5 47 22 20 3 7 10 519 T = total selections. Sub-components (SC) 1. Conversation 2. Discourse 3. Communicative Competence 4. Concepts 5. Meanings 6. Clauses 7. Conjunctions numbered in table: 8. Grammar 9. Vocabulary Size t Increase 10. Effect ofwritten text on vocabulary 11. Morphological analysis 12. Change in voice 13. Inflection Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 322. 290 Table 137 Number ofSub-Components for all Textbooks by Sub-Component Sub-Components I Child Development 2 **j 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 T Schickedanz 11 6 12 I 8 I I 8 6 7 2 - 12 Meece 27 20 2 6 1 - 5 - 2 - 1 - 9 Berk 16 1 13 6 9 - - 9 4 - - - 6 8 Santrock 17 3 10 3 3 - - 6 3 5 1 1 - 10 Bee 20 1 9 I 4 Lefrancois 16 1 4 1 I - 5 Ed Psychology Ormrod 4 2 14 5 3 2 2 7 2 3 - - - 10 Eggen 13 2 19 5 - - - j - 2 - - - 6 Elliott 13 - 1 5 - - - 4 1 1 - - - 6 Sternberg 7 - 9 7 1 - - I - - - I - 6 Woolfolk 4 I 4 5 I I 1 4 3 - - - - 9 Snowman 13 - 5 4 3 Slavin to - 5 - - I - - - - 2 I 6 Totals 13 9 13 13 7 4 4 9 6 6 2 5 3 T = total selections. Sub-components (SC) numbered in table: 1. Conversation S. Grammar 2. Discourse 9. Vocabulary Size /Increase 3. Communicative Competence 10. Effect ofwritten text on vocabulary 4. Concepts 11. Morphological analysis 5. Meanings 12. Change in voice 6. Clauses 13. Inflection 7. Conjunctions Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 323. 291 Chapter Summary This chapterhas included the data obtained from the three research questions for the 13 textbooks examined. It also included summary data for each category of textbooks. Chapter five, next, will provide a discussion of the data, the conclusions, and implications, and suggestions for further study. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 324. 292 CHAPTER FIVE: DISCISSION,CONCLUSIONS, LIMITATIONS, SUGGESTIONS Introduction In the following sections each research question is addressed for each textbook. Child development textbooks are presented before educational psychology textbooks. Both categories of textbooks are presented in order of the number of selections, from most to least. For a more cohesive discussion, the components of syntax, lexicology, morphology, and phonology were grouped together and treated as foundational components of language that support a reader’s understanding of pragmatics and semantics. After the discussion of each individual textbook there is a comparison of textbooks between categories followed by conclusions, limitations, and suggestions for further research. Child Development—Schickedanz Textbook: Judith A. Schickedanz, David I. Schickedanz, Peggy D. Forsyth and G. Alfred Forsyth (2001). Understanding children and adolescents, (4thed.). New York: Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics (UI, U2, U3) In conversation Schickedanz et al. (2001) addressed persuasion and negotiation in part by discussing some of the supporting language skills, such as perspective taking and strategies for presenting information. Although this textbook addressed slang in detail and described early adolescent language used in many academic, social, and peer situations, slang was not compared to either the social or academic language. Language was primarily described with only three selections addressing the acquisition of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 325. 293 conversation skills andtwo addressing developmental aspects of conversation. This textbook also minimally addressed reasoning with two sentences, mentioned but did not elaborate on idioms and sarcasm and did not mention similes. Even with these omissions, the range and depth of topics with explanations, examples and background information were helpful to the reader in understanding the importance of language development to the early adolescent. Discourse was, likewise, presented descriptively with a list of suggestions for increasing discourse skills in writing, a discussion of proverbs, and an explanation of story telling. There was no mention of developmental skills in the area of discourse so the reader would not learn about sequences of language skills that might occur or need to be taught. Oral reports and letter writing were not mentioned, leaving the reader with limited information on the variety of changes that occur in discourse. Communicative competence was thinly covered in discussions of communication strategies, social feedback and perspectives that included besides descriptions both developmental and acquisition information. However, the textbook did not address the rules for speaking or writing, leaving the reader with descriptions of some skills but few rules for construction or application of linguistic events. The lack of awareness of the rules associated with speaking and writing (including changing registers, and using appropriate vocabulary and grammar) would be problematic for the reader, for without an understanding of the rules, competence would be difficult to obtain. Without knowledge of pragmatics the reader might not have appropriate expectations of the language that students are capable of using and understanding. Semantics (TI. T2) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 326. 294 Schickedanz described readingcomprehension as the construction of mental representations of ideas in a text. These mental representations could be either schemas or concepts. Concepts were only addressed as mental representations created by the written text. This textbook did not address the construction of concepts in other contexts or the use of concepts, such as to see relationships. The reader would have a limited knowledge of concepts with this one descriptive example, and would lack a foundation for understanding the role that concepts play in constructing meaning in other contexts. Without appropriate concepts in place, early adolescents would probably not be able to remember new vocabulary words. Multiple meanings of words and metaphors were addressed both for how they were developed and acquired. Metaphors were mentioned in one area of the text and elaborated on in another area that listed suggestions for increasing metaphorical reasoning. From these passages the reader would be aware that early adolescents are still learning the multiple meanings of words and metaphorical meanings, that early adolescents might use some figures of speech but still not understand others. Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (01, 02) The reader of this textbook will have some awareness of the building blocks of language—words and sentences—and how that knowledge is constructed, because clauses were addressed developmentally with some detail, with background information regarding their uses. The types of clauses (adverbial, noun) were not identified which might be problematic for some readers, leaving them without knowledge of when and how the changes in clause use and understanding occurs. Conjunctions were not addressed in as much detail as clauses, but the need to subordinate information was Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 327. 295 clearly stated. Becauseand was addressed developmentally and conjunctions other than and were not addressed the reader might not understand why some early adolescents do not use conjunctions correctly as they attempt to communicate with more complex sentence structures. How early adolescents acquire the skills to use and understand clauses and conjunctions was not addressed. Early adolescents’ developmental knowledge ofgrammar was acknowledged along with means by which grammar is acquired in written language but grammar was not discussed in detail (no rules were discussed) or in relation to oral language. The reader would not know the importance of the rules of grammar and their application. The construction of complex words using morphological rules (morphological analysis), an aid to vocabulary development, was not addressed which would leave the reader without an important tool to help early adolescents learn new words and their meanings. Schickedanz et al. (2001) stated that there differences exist between listening, speaking, reading, and writing vocabularies and advocated that for a child to obtain a precise meaning of a word in different contexts the child must read broadly. This textbook stressed the interplay between words and their meanings, identified the number of words early adolescents typically have in their vocabulary, and how their vocabulary increases over the years. These authors suggested that students learn new words by hearing them used in meaningful contexts, such as in conversations, discussions, and reading. Reading and writing also refine the meanings and uses of words. The authors also acknowledged the ability ofearly adolescents to learn word meanings from formal definitions. The reader of this textbook, however, would not know the kinds of words Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 328. 296 being learned byearly adolescents, but the reader would have several ideas for increasing vocabulary This textbook did not address voice change, voice problems or their impact on early adolescents. Not having this information might be problematic for teachers who are unprepared for the cracking voice and embarrassment that some early adolescents experience. Schickedanz et al. (2001) described the acquisition of inflected meanings when they addressed ambiguity at the phonological level derived from word stress. They did not address sarcasm that is often signaled by exaggerated inflection. A reader of this text might assume early adolescents understand sarcasm when they often do not. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Although Schickedanz et al. (2001) had one selection out of 67 that was coded misinformation, and two that were coded being unclear the overall quality of information was adequate. This textbook provided extended examples with background information tn most instances. The misinformation, a theory presented as fact instead of as an unproven theory, did not detract from the presented material. The unclear selections were not specific and were ambiguous in meaning. There was a preponderance of good information that was well written. The reader could learn much about early adolescent language from the many detailed selections that did not require additional background knowledge. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Most of the selections where theoretical perspectives were found examined the acquisition of pragmatic skills from a social/environmental perspective. All theoretical Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 329. 297 perspectives try toaccount for the development and acquisition of language skills. The reader in this textbook is primarily exposed to one theory where acquisition is concerned. The reader of this textbook would know how some language skills might be acquired but would not be as informed theoretically as to the developmental sequences of those skills. The reader also would not be exposed to the behavioral perspective of development or acquisition of skills, as no behavioral perspective was identified. Knowing the theoretical perspective allows the reader to make more associations with prior experience and other aspects of that theory. Conclusions Schickedanz et al. (2001) acknowledged the many ways language plays an influential part in the lives of early adolescents. Their explanations and descriptions that provided background information did not require the reader to assume information or need to make inferences. The reader of this textbook would not have a complete picture of early adolescent language, but they would be aware that linguistic changes do occur, what many of those linguistic changes would be, factors that might increase linguistic skills, and the progression of some linguistic skills. The reader would have the most difficulty in understanding the importance of concepts and morphological analysis in building vocabulary and meaning. The information presented in this textbook was adequate and there was a balance overall in the presentation of material from developmental (20 selections) and acquired perspectives (23 selections). A reader working with early adolescents needs both the developmental information that would alert the reader to a sequence of skills and acquisition information on how the early adolescent might learn linguistic skills in order Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 330. 298 to be mosteffective. Without the developmental information the reader might skip skills that are important developmentally as often one skill builds upon another, and without information on acquisition the reader probably would not know methods that have shown to be successful with early adolescents. The behavioral perspective was not addressed at all in regard to language and that might prevent the reader from understanding how it might play a role in language development. Child Development - Meece Textbook: Judith L. Meece (2002) Child andadolescent developmentfor educators, (2nded.). Boston: McGraw Hill. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics, (ill. U2, U3) In conversation Meece (2002) described problem solving skills, concrete and abstract reasoning, slang, metaphors and similes, but she did not address persuasion and negotiation, idioms, ambiguity, or sarcasm which limited the breath of language activities to which the reader was exposed. Meece discussed the creative nature of language in regard to slang, humor, and play with words. Meece displayed an attitude toward language that she hoped the reader would assume—that language was creative and could be fun. Language registers and styles were also mentioned with a few examples. Acquisition of conversation skills was only mentioned three times, which gave the reader very limited information. Related to the development ofdiscourse skills, Meece (2002) described humor, listed many different types of written discourse including poetry, essays and letters, gave examples and discussed the purpose or features of each type of discourse. Meece Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 331. 299 acknowledged that earlyadolescents add descriptors, abstract words, and sub-plots that are not used by younger children but she did not suggest any other developmental aspects of discourse skills. She did not, however, suggest how these types of discourse were acquired. A reader working with early adolescents would find it helpful to know not only the development of skills but how they are acquired. Without knowing how language skills are acquired the reader is left to either assume that it is not important because it was not included, or that these discourse skills are acquired without assistance and on their own. Meece (2002) addressed both oral and written communicative competence by giving some of the rules for conversation and writing. She mentioned vocabulary in connection with competence, and discussed changing of language registrars. This author advocated the use of reading groups specifically to help students understand and acquire empathy, but did not discuss the potential use of such groups to develop other language skills. Some of the selections were general and without detail or specifics such as the statement, “Thus language development through adolescence entails expanding communicative competence,” (p. 260), which may have little meaning for the reader who lacks background knowledge of communicative competence and might not know how the early adolescent can demonstrate such competence. Semantics (TI, T2) Meece (2002) described what the early adolescent can infer to form mental constructs and relationships (concepts), but she did not address the importance of concepts in learning, how concepts can be used, or situations which can promote their acquisition. Not knowing these things would severely limit the reader’s ability to teach Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 332. 300 vocabulary and academicmaterial. For example, concept maps give students ways to graphically represent relationships, follow story lines or processes, and arrange events. Meece (2002) called age 11 or 12 a linguistic benchmark for learning multiple meanings of words and metaphorical meanings, but she did not address how these meanings are acquired. Knowing that meanings of words are learned in context might encourage a teacher candidate to provide many contexts to support new vocabulary. Without this information the teacher candidate might ask early adolescents to memorize definitions that they would soon forget because the word’s meaning would not be associated with a context or an activity. Syntax (SI. S,2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (Ol, 02) Meece (2002) described embedded dependent clauses used by early adolescents but she did not address how they might be acquired. The information on clauses given could give the reader an indication that grammatical changes occur during early adolescence, but because clauses were not reinforced with any information about conjunctions and only general information about grammar, the reader might discount their importance. Meece (2001) mentioned in brief isolated items or table entries that “grammatical development is fairly complete” (p. 261), that the passive voice is sometimes not understood, and that the purposes and styles of writing change but she did not address how these skills were acquired. Without more explicit information about grammar the reader may not understand that sentences and paragraphs are constructed using rules of the language. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 333. 301 Meece stated thatwritten text can be used to increase vocabulary and pragmatic skills, such as empathy. The reader was given no further information about vocabulary or morphological analysis so the reader may not know how words are learned or constructed during early adolescence. Without knowledge of syntax, lexicology, and morphology the reader might incorrectly assume that the early adolescent has already mastered these aspects of language and would have no trouble understanding them. Phonology was not addressed so the reader might assume that the change of voice and inflection are not important to the early adolescent. The reader might assume that the early adolescent knows much more than they do know and not understand when they take sarcastic remarks literally. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections The selections found in Meece (2002) regarding early adolescent language were adequate. The writing was usually clear, organized so that the reader could find information and often had applications aimed at a teacher. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Meece (2001) identified the cognitive perspective ten times, mostly to describe development of language skills. The social/environmental perspective was identified 18 times, primarily in discussion of the acquisition of language skills. The reader of this text might be influenced toward the perspective that the acquisition of language skills takes place in a social context or environment, and is supported by aspects of cognitive development. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 334. 302 Conclusions Meece (2002) wasinconsistent in her coverage. Her areas of strength were her clear and detailed descriptions of slang and written discourse. The reader of this textbook will know about some kinds of conversations and discourse but will have a limited understanding of how early adolescents may reach communicative competence because ofthe limited information in the areas of syntax, lexicology and morphology and limited information on the acquisition of some language skills. Meece compared oral language to written language and stated that these language processes were the same. She did not, however, provide further background for the reader to understand the nature ofthat reciprocal relationship. The reader of this text might infer that acquisition of some language skills might occur naturally, provided opportunities to practice were available to the early adolescent. Little information was provided about the basic building blocks of language including semantics, lexicology, morphology and syntax. Without this information the reader might not have the tools to help early adolescents reach communicative competence. Child Development - Berk Textbook: Laura Berk (2000). Child development, (5thed ). Boston. Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics (U l, (72. U3) In Berk (2000) most of the selections in regard to conversation were presented developmentally. Selections often were broad, not specific, and there were few Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 335. 303 supporting examples. Berkattributed the increases in language ability during early adolescence to cognitive growth. She ascribed linguistic abilities to the early adolescent in descriptions, such as understands subtle linguistic and situational clues, uses intricate grammatical forms, comprehends metaphor and humor, and grasps word meanings from definitions. These descriptions did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, or ambiguity and mentioned, but did not discuss, irony, sarcasm and slang. Berk did describe, in terms of development reasoning, problem solving and slang. Only reasoning was addressed in terms of acquisition of skills. From this textbook the reader would have limited knowledge of the variety of conversational skills that change during early adolescence and no information on how any of the conversational skills, other than reasoning, are learned. In discourse, the reader would only know descriptively about story telling through age ten. Story telling past the age of ten was not addressed. Berk did not address proverbs, essays, letters, or rules of writing. Berk only addressed oral language so the reader would be unaware of the written discourse abilities and changes that occur in early adolescence. Without this information the reader might make assumptions regarding ability that might not be true, and believe that discourse skills are fully developed by early adolescence. In communicative competence, Berk (2000) outlined components of the social problem-solving process and in doing so briefly mentioned some of the rules for speaking, which were referred to as social norms. Berk did not address any rules for writing or mention any kinds of writing, how early adolescents might respond to different speech acts, or discuss any grammar or vocabulary necessary for communicative Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 336. 304 competence. From thebriefdescriptions given, the reader would not understand what communicative competence might include, how it might change during the early adolescent years or how competence might be acquired. For the reader this might translate into ignoring language skills in the curriculum Semantics (TI, T2) Berk did not make clear the development or acquisition of concepts among early adolescents. Most of her examples were of earlier ages, even when older students were being discussed. For the reader, not understanding the importance, use, or acquisition of concepts for early adolescents might result in failure to recognize when concepts are missing, when they need to be inserted into the curriculum, and their value in learning new academic material. Without an understanding ofa concept in which the meaning of a word can be imbedded, a new word probably will not be remembered. As concepts become clear, vocabulary can be added to work with or describe that concept. In regard to meanings. Berk stated that meanings ofwords are grasped on the basis ofdefinitions. Berk also mentioned but did not elaborate on non-literal word meanings, multiple meanings, and metaphors. With no examples and limited background information provided in the textbook, prior knowledge would be necessary to understand the author's intended meanings. Knowing what early adolescents know about meanings of words and phrases might make the difference between a successful lesson and a lesson that fails because the teacher uses words, phrases, metaphors, idioms, and similes that are unfamiliar to early adolescents. Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (01, 02) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 337. 305 Berk (2000) discussedthe development of grammar wherein she included syntax, lexicology, and morphology but for the early adolescent she only described application of the passive voice with an example. Other grammatical achievements were broadly described developmentally such as “Older children can deal with more complex relationships and are more attentive to subtle linguistic and situational clues”(383). Here, “grammatical achievements” and “subtle linguistic clues” probably would mean little to a person without background knowledge about language. Specific parts of speech, such as clauses and conjunctions; rules of syntax and morphology; types of words, such as compound words and words with affixes; and morphological analysis were not mentioned, leaving the reader with vague generalities which only imply changes rather than specifically identify those changes. Berk (2000) also addressed the size of vocabulary and stated that new words can be learned when students are given the definition of a word. Berk only identified abstract words as being added to the vocabulary. Sources in the literature review state that compound words and words with affixes are primary sources of new vocabulary during early adolescence, not abstract words. The reader ofthis textbook might believe that students need only to read the dictionary to learn new words, without an understanding that concepts should be in place before words are remembered or learned. The reader might also focus only on abstract vocabulary after reading this textbook and not pay attention to the other types of words that are also added to vocabulary during early adolescence. Regarding phonology. Berk’s example of inflected changes and syllabic stress in words was clear and detailed. In contrast her comment about sarcasm (an exaggerated Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 338. 306 voice is necessaryfor younger children to understand something sarcastic) implied that an early adolescent might understand sarcasm. Voice change was mentioned. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Most of the selections in Berk (2000) were adequate (96.9%) and the two unclear selections did not significantly detract from the other selections. Berk, however, duplicated information in 18 of the selections (28%). Such duplications did reinforce the information that she had for the reader, but may have prevented other content from being addressed. Research Question 3: TheoreticalFramework Most of the selections in which a theoretical framework could be identified were from the cognitive perspective (11 of 20 selections). Most of the selections identifying a theoretical framework were also addressed from a developmental perspective, consistent with the proportion of overall selections that were addressed developmentally. The theoretical framework was only identified in components of pragmatics and semantics. From this textbook the reader would have some knowledge of the development of language use from a cognitive perspective. The reader would have limited awareness of the impact of social/environmental influences on the pragmatics of language use. Conclusions Berk used a broad range of ages, from 11-adulthood in tables, so that it was difficult for the reader to know specifically to what age group she was referring. In a section on adolescents, she illustrated her point by giving an example using preschoolers. This broad range and mix of ages leaves the reader with confusion as to what linguistic skills early adolescents possess and what skills they are learning. To add to this confusion Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 339. 307 Berk stated thatolder children (presumably early adolescents) would have already mastered language skills, when according to the literature review many early adolescents still may not have mastered the skills she addressed, such as subtle linguistic clues. Some of the statements made by Berk (2000) were without supporting examples or background information. An author should identify specific language skills before the author can address the acquisition of those skills. Berk seldom identified specific skills in early adolescence and did not address the acquisition of specific language skills outside of reasoning and vocabulary. Berk was also particularly articulate in describing inflections that affect meanings but she did not address the acquisition of this skill. The reader of this textbook would have a very limited knowledge of changes that occur in language during early adolescence, particularly in syntax, lexicology and morphology. Without these fundamentals, the reader would be limited in knowing the building blocks of language that are necessary for communicative competence. The reader might over estimate the language skills of early adolescents, in response to overly generalized descriptions, such as “grammatical achievements.” Child Development - Berk Textbook: Laura Berk (2000). Child development, (5thed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics (UI, U2, (J3) In Berk (2000) most of the selections in regard to conversation were presented developmentally. Selections often were broad, not specific, and there were few Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 340. 308 supporting examples. Berkattributed the increases in language ability during early adolescence to cognitive growth. She ascribed linguistic abilities to the early adolescent in descriptions, such as understands subtle linguistic and situational clues, uses intricate grammatical forms, comprehends metaphor and humor, and grasps word meanings from definitions. These descriptions did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, or ambiguity and mentioned, but did not discuss, irony, sarcasm and slang. Berk did describe, in terms of development reasoning, problem solving and slang. Only reasoning was addressed in terms of acquisition of skills. From this textbook the reader would have limited knowledge of the variety of conversational skills that change during early adolescence and no information on how any of the conversational skills, other than reasoning, are learned. In discourse, the reader would only know descriptively about story telling through age ten. Story telling past the age of ten was not addressed. Berk did not address proverbs, essays, letters, or rules of writing. Berk only addressed oral language so the reader would be unaware of the written discourse abilities and changes that occur in early adolescence. Without this information the reader might make assumptions regarding ability that might not be true, and believe that discourse skills are fully developed by early adolescence. In communicative competence. Berk (2000) outlined components of the social problem-solving process and in doing so briefly mentioned some of the rules for speaking, which were referred to as social norms. Berk did not address any rules for writing or mention any kinds of writing, how early adolescents might respond to different speech acts, or discuss any grammar or vocabulary necessary for communicative Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 341. 309 competence. From thebriefdescriptions given, the reader would not understand what communicative competence might include, how it might change during the early adolescent years or how competence might be acquired. For the reader this might translate into ignoring language skills in the curriculum Semantics (TI, T2) Berk did not make clear the development or acquisition of concepts among early adolescents. Most of her examples were of earlier ages, even when older students were being discussed. For the reader, not understanding the importance, use, or acquisition of concepts for early adolescents might result in failure to recognize when concepts are missing, when they need to be inserted into the curriculum, and their value in learning new academic material. Without an understanding of a concept in which the meaning of a word can be imbedded, a new word probably will not be remembered. As concepts become clear, vocabulary can be added to work with or describe that concept. In regard to meanings, Berk stated that meanings of words are grasped on the basis of definitions. Berk also mentioned but did not elaborate on non-literal word meanings, multiple meanings, and metaphors. With no examples and limited background information provided in the textbook, prior knowledge would be necessary to understand the author's intended meanings. Knowing what early adolescents know about meanings of words and phrases might make the difference between a successful lesson and a lesson that fails because the teacher uses words, phrases, metaphors, idioms, and similes that are unfamiliar to early adolescents. Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI, 02) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 342. 310 Berk (2000) discussedthe development of grammar wherein she included syntax, lexicology, and morphology but for the early adolescent she only described application of the passive voice with an example. Other grammatical achievements were broadly described developmentally such as “Older children can deal with more complex relationships and are more attentive to subtle linguistic and situational clues”(383). Here, “grammatical achievements” and “subtle linguistic clues” probably would mean little to a person without background knowledge about language. Specific parts of speech, such as clauses and conjunctions; rules of syntax and morphology; types of words, such as compound words and words with affixes; and morphological analysis were not mentioned, leaving the reader with vague generalities which only imply changes rather than specifically identify those changes. Berk (2000) also addressed the size of vocabulary and stated that new words can be learned when students are given the definition of a word. Berk only identified abstract words as being added to the vocabulary. Sources in the literature review state that compound words and words with affixes are primary sources of new vocabulary during early adolescence, not abstract words. The reader of this textbook might believe that students need only to read the dictionary to learn new words, without an understanding that concepts should be in place before words are remembered or learned. The reader might also focus only on abstract vocabulary after reading this textbook and not pay attention to the other types of words that are also added to vocabulary during early adolescence. Regarding phonology. Berk’s example of inflected changes and syllabic stress in words was clear and detailed. In contrast her comment about sarcasm (an exaggerated Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 343. 311 voice is necessaryfor younger children to understand something sarcastic) implied that an early adolescent might understand sarcasm. Voice change was mentioned. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Most of the selections in Berk (2000) were adequate (96.9%) and the two unclear selections did not significantly detract from the other selections. Berk, however, duplicated information in 18 of the selections (28%). Such duplications did reinforce the information that she had for the reader, but may have prevented other content from being addressed. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Most of the selections in which a theoretical framework could be identified were from the cognitive perspective (II of 20 selections). Most of the selections identifying a theoretical framework were also addressed from a developmental perspective, consistent with the proportion of overall selections that were addressed developmentally. The theoretical framework was only identified in components of pragmatics and semantics. From this textbook the reader would have some knowledge of the development of language use from a cognitive perspective. The reader would have limited awareness of the impact of social/environmental influences on the pragmatics of language use. Conclusions Berk used a broad range ofages, from 11-adulthood in tables, so that it was difficult for the reader to know specifically to what age group she was referring. In a section on adolescents, she illustrated her point by giving an example using preschoolers. This broad range and mix of ages leaves the reader with confusion as to what linguistic Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 344. 312 skills early adolescentspossess and what skills they are learning. To add to this confusion Berk stated that older children (presumably early adolescents) would have already mastered language skills, when according to the literature review many early adolescents still may not have mastered the skills she addressed, such as subtle linguistic clues. Some of the statements made by Berk (2000) were without supporting examples or background information. An author should identify specific language skills before the author can address the acquisition of those skills. Berk seldom identified specific skills in early adolescence and did not address the acquisition of specific language skills outside of reasoning and vocabulary. Berk was also particularly articulate in describing inflections that affect meanings but she did not address the acquisition of this skill. The reader of this textbook would have a very limited knowledge of changes that occur in language during early adolescence, particularly in syntax, lexicology and morphology. Without these fundamentals, the reader would be limited in knowing the building blocks of language that are necessary for communicative competence. The reader might over estimate the language skills of early adolescents, in response to overly generalized descriptions, such as “grammatical achievements.” Child Development—Santrock Textbook: Santrock, J. W. (2000). Child Development. Boston: McGraw Hill. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarlyAdolescent Language Pragmatics, (Ul, U2, U3) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 345. j I j Santrock(2001) reported on the differences between report and rapport—a complete and in depth description that compared discourse and conversation, identified how each were used, by whom, and where. Santrock described the adolescent’s verbal problem solving abilities, concrete and formal reasoning abilities, and narration, and book reports. These discussions exposed the reader to a variety of early adolescent language situations and uses. Perspective was identified as an isolated skill and not addressed as a skill necessary for problem solving or negotiation. This failure to link skills for the reader made it harder for the reader to see the many places where a language skill could be applied. Santrock (2001) did not address persuasion, negotiation, proverbs, storytelling, essays, letters idioms, slang, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm. Failure to mention these topics limited the reader’s exposure to places where there are changes that occur during early adolescence. Metaphor and satire were mentioned but not discussed leaving the reader to drawing on prior knowledge to understand the author’s meaning. Santrock (2001) described the social cognitive perspective, which views children who are maladjusted as “lacking social cognitive skills to interact effectively with others” (p. 493). Santrock did not recognize language problems at the early adolescent age and so he attributed possible language problems to other causes, such as hostility. The social cognitive perspective does not use linguistic vocabulary or look at language skills in social interactions. Instead behavior is observed. The reader would miss seeing language problems or deficits and treat behaviors rather than address language skills that may be missing (such as organizing information, or reading facial expressions). Santrock also promoted social skills training while he omitted telling the reader about the verbal skills necessary in social interactions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 346. 314 Santrock did notaddress the acquisition of conversation, discourse, or communicative competence skills with the exception of reasoning and mention of social skills training. For the reader this would be problematic for the reader might assume that language skills can only be acquired through social skills training or that the language skills develop on their own. Discourse and writing skills are not usually addressed in social skills training while conversation and social customs regarding conversation are usually included. Santrock also did not include the rules for speaking or writing, vocabulary or grammar necessary for communicative competence. Semantics, (TI, T2) For Santrock (2001) concepts continued to develop from the concrete concepts of the child to the abstract concepts of the adult who can fully consider the intentions of others. Knowing one’s own mind and the mind of others appeared to be the ultimate (or only) concept to be achieved. Santrock (2001) did not address how concepts are formed or other uses of concepts beyond his one example. He also did not address multiple meanings of words or phrases and mentioned metaphors but did not discuss or describe metaphorical meanings. Without these foundations for language—concepts and meanings—the reader might try to achieve communicative competence without having a foundation or understanding of what drives communication. Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (Ol, 02) Santrock (2001) referred to grammatical rules as a body of knowledge. He associated early adolescents with “more sophisticated” syntax and grammar without defining or explaining syntax or grammar. Santrock indicated good instruction is necessary for the increase in language and cognitive skills but failed to identify how Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 347. 315 language skills areacquired. Without examples, definitions, and more explicit explanations, Santrock made it difficult for the reader to understand what changes occur in syntax, lexicology and morphology. Without this information the reader had no information on the building blocks that contribute to communicative competence. Santrock stated that vocabulary increases with the addition of more abstract words but he did not mention compound words or words with affixes that are also added, the size of the vocabulary or how words are learned. Santrock stated that students read to learn but did not indicate whether new vocabulary or complex syntax were included in what students might learn. In phonology this textbook stated that the early adolescent male’s voice changes but it did not mention inflected meanings or word stress changes that are important for language understanding in early adolescence. This textbook also stated that there is great variation in the development of language which might account for his lack of mention of specific skills for early adolescents. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections All of the selections found in Santrock (2001) were of adequate or better quality. Some selections may have required prior knowledge to understand but this was not taken into account in defining quality. The reader might have to consult other sources, such as a dictionary, to find meaning. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework The selections in Santrock (2001) that had a theoretical perspective were evenly divided between a cognitive perspective and a social environmental perspective (7 selections each). Most of these selections were descriptive (9 of 14 selections). The one selection that had to do with the acquisition of skills was written from a Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 348. 316 social/environmental perspective andwas about reasoning. The reader was given both cognitive and a social/environmental descriptive perspectives oflanguage skills. The reader would have a limited theoretical perspective of development. Conclusions Santrock (2001) did not address any linguistic rules—conversation, discourse, or grammar. All communication follows rules. Without an awareness of rules the reader might be lost in constructing communication. Although most of the selections were addressed developmentally, the textbook seldom identified specific skills to place in a continuum. Instead “increased understanding” or “continues to improve” were used. The descriptions were exceptionally broad and lacked specificity, such as, “Understanding of complex grammar forms.” (p. 328). Unless the reader is familiar with complex grammar forms the reader would need to rely on prior knowledge, something pre-service teachers might not have, to understand the intent of the author. It was difficult to read Santrock (2001) for language skills because the book did not use linguistic vocabulary, did not discuss language acquisition issues, was primarily descriptive of the behavior of early adolescents and gave few examples. Santrock (2001) stated several times that only with good instruction would a student’s cognitive skills and language improve. It is telling that only one selection, one on reasoning, was coded as addressing the acquisition oflanguage skills. Other selections might have been coded but they only stated that the teacher must provide good instruction, and the text never mentioned a strategy, technique, or action that could be identified that would increase the language skill. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 349. 317 The lack ofcitations in regard to early adolescent language might lead the reader to believe that there is very little research in the area of early adolescent language or that Santrock did not research early adolescent language. The one exception to this is the section on rapport and report which was detailed, with examples, and very clearly written. The behavioral orientation of the author might have prevented him from viewing language or using linguistic terms with school aged children, although linguistic terms were defined and used in discussing preschoolers. Santrock (2001) only made a side note to the fact that there is great variation in language development, but this one factor may also have limited him in being more specific as to what skills are developed during early adolescence. The reader of this textbook would have a limited view of the changes that occur in early adolescent language and no understanding of how early adolescent language skills are acquired. Child Development - Bee Textbook: Helen Bee (2000). The developing child, (9thed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics (JJl, U2. U3) Bee (2000) used the research of others to describe early adolescents. She examined the use of reasoning which she found depends on experience, expertise and environmental demand. Although most of the selections on reasoning were described developmentally, the reader was given some insights as to what might increase reasoning skills as well as two selections on how reasoning skills are acquired. Bee examined the content of conversations and the content of essays but failed to describe other aspects of Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 350. 318 conversation. Bee (2000)did not address persuasion, negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, sarcasm, story telling, oral reports, or proverbs. By not addressing these other aspects oflanguage where changes are known to occur the reader is given only a very limited view oflanguage—one that will not prepare a pre-service teacher to know about or be prepared for the language changes that occur in early adolescents. Communicative competency was described using a social cognition perspective that included intimacy, emotional knowledge, and mention of socially defined scripts or rules. Because no examples were given, the reader would have to have prior knowledge to understand what scripts or rules Bee (2000) was referring to. Without knowledge of the rules of communication, both written and oral, the reader would not be in a position to foster communicative competency. Semantic, (Tl, T2) Bee (2000) mentioned the importance of schemas to the early adolescent, but included little detail. The reader would not understand why Bee called schemas important to the early adolescent, would not know what concepts or schemas are, how concepts are acquired, or how they are used. Concepts are fundamental to language for without concepts words are not necessary. Concepts are needed for meaning and language and new concepts build new language. Bee (2000) did not address multiple meanings of words or metaphorical meanings. Not knowing about meanings of words and phrases might lead the reader to believe that early adolescents already know this information, or that this information is not important. Either assumption on the part of the reader would prevent the reader from Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 351. 319 recognizing when theearly adolescent does not know multiple or metaphorical meanings. Meaning is what is transmitted in communication. When metaphorical or alternative (double meanings) meanings are used by one and not understood by another, meaning is not transmitted. The reader working with early adolescents who does not know about multiple meanings might recognize when meaning is not transmitted but not know why. Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI, 02) None of these components (and their sub-components) of language were addressed at the early adolescent age. The reader would not be aware that these sub components exist from this textbook, nor would the reader be aware of the changes that take place in these aspects of language during early adolescence. Without this information it might be assumed, as Bee might have, that language is complete before this age and that no changes take place in language during early adolescence. This false assumption might lead someone to believe that early adolescents have more language skills than they actually do have. Without this information the reader has no tools with which to improve language skills Bee (2000) stated that the patterns of developmental change:” from outer to inner characteristics, from observation to inferences, from definite to qualified, and from egocentric to a general view. (p. 360)” referred to language, and in some respects they do. But these developmental patterns do not address the early adolescent's use of clauses, the use of conditional and transitional conjunctions, the addition of compound words and words with affixes to the vocabulary, the use of morphological analysis, or the understanding of inflected meanings. Identifying general developmental patterns is not enough of an explanation for a pre-service teacher who will be teaching early Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 352. 320 adolescents. Language changesneed to be identified, described by sequences in which they are learned developmentally, and associated with factors that encourage acquisition. Without this knowledge the pre-service teacher will not be prepared to understand the language of the early adolescent or be in a position to foster language growth. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Three selections of the 31selections found were coded as being unclear. This is about 10% of the selections. This number of unclear selections might impact the reader’s understanding of the selections that were offered. Research Question 2: Theoretical Framework Bee (2000) split the ten selections that were coded for theoretical framework between cognitive theoretical perspective and social/environmental perspective (five selections each). None of the selections indicating a theoretical perspective were written from the behavioral perspective. The implications for the reader are that the reader would not know how the behavioral perspective views language. Because the child development course is a foundation class that lays down fundamentals, not knowing about other theoretical perspectives (such as the behavioral perspective) might limit the reader’s understanding of early adolescent language and behavioral analysis in other courses. Conclusions The reader of Bee (2000) would be exposed to very little information about early adolescent language. The reader’s exposure is restricted to several pieces of developmental research that reflect the use of language in conversation in early adolescence. Bee mentioned discourse and concepts but did not address other sub Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 353. 321 components or areasof language. The reader would not know the breadth of language usages for the early adolescent, what changes occur in semantics, syntax, lexicology, morphology, or phonology, or how language skills in these areas are acquired. This lack of information would be problematic for a pre-service teacher that would eventually work with early adolescents unless the fundamentals of early adolescent language were addressed in another course. There were only 31 selections in all and three were very vague and unclear. This is 10% of the selections, an amount that would leave the reader with even less information than clearly written material with examples. Because of this and the lack of sub-components addressed, this is not a desirable textbook for learning about early adolescent language. Child Development - Letfancois Textbook: Guy Lefrancois (2001). O fchildren, (9th ed.). Toronto, Ontario: Wadsworth. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics (UI, U2, U3) Lefrancois (2001) gave an example of humor, described, social cognition, mentioned one aspect of social competence, and discussed aspects of perspective taking. Lefrancois did not address negotiation, persuasion, problem solving, slang, idioms, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, sarcasm, proverbs, essays, letters or story telling (beyond the example of humor), what the early adolescent needed to know about grammar, vocabulary, or the rules of speaking or writing. Developmental sequences were lacking as well as explanations for the acquisition of skills. Because Lefrancois addressed so few Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 354. issues of languageuse, the reader would be unable to identify any linguistic skills at the early adolescent age from the briefdescriptions and incomplete information given. Semantics (TI, T2) Lefrancois (2001) discussed concepts when he related objects and events in terms of their common properties, but did not identify these related properties as concepts. He did not address the formation or use of concepts. In addition, he did not address multiple meanings of words and phrases or metaphorical meanings. The reader of this textbook would be unaware of the formation and use of concepts, the multiple meanings and metaphorical meanings of words, and the importance of these linguistic skills for the early adolescent. Without knowledge of concepts, the reader would lack the understanding that communicative competence is based on exchanges of meaning that come from shared views of concepts. Syntax (SI. S2. S3). Lexicology (LI. L2). Morphology (M). and Phonology (OI. 02) Lefrancois (2001) addressed the boy's voice change. He did not address clauses, conjunctions, grammar, vocabulary size or increase, the effect of written text on language, or inflection of voice. The reader would be unaware of the basics of language (words, morphemes, rules for making sentences or essays) or how they affect the early adolescent’s use of language. The reader would not know if or how the early adolescent learns new words and sentence structures. Without knowledge of language and its structure teaching anything having to with language could be problematic for a pre- service who works with early adolescents. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 355. All of the23 selections in the textbook by Lefrancois (2001) were coded as adequate. His selections, however, seldom mentioned language. Instead he focused on social cognition, social competence, or behaviors. These other terms that described linguistic activity did not lower the quality rating but did require the researcher to infer linguistic skills. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Lefrancois only had eight selections in which the theoretical framework could be identified. The selections were split between cognitive and social/environmental (four selections each). Seven of the eight selections were addressed descriptively. Most significant is that the only place the theoretical framework could be identified was in conversation (pragmatics. Lfl), although the textbook had selections in five of the sub component areas. The reader would have limited exposure to theoretical perspectives, not only because there were few (eight) selections where theoretical frameworks could be identified, but because theoretical framework was only found in one sub-component. Conclusions The reader of this textbook would have insufficient background knowledge in language to be aware of the role that language plays in the life of an early adolescent. Acquisition of skills was not addressed in any of the selections, so the reader would not know how early adolescents learn language skills. Conversation was the only sub component that was addressed with more than four selections and most of these selections were either the results of research or descriptions of abnormal behaviors. Lefrancois did acknowledge the wide variations in abilities at the early adolescent age. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 356. 324 This textbook wouldnot give the pre-service teacher the information necessary to either recognize or address the linguistic needs of early adolescents. Educational Psychology - Ormrod Textbook: Jeanne Ellis Ormrod (2000). Educationalpsychology, developing learners, (3rded.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent language Pragmatics (JJl, U2, U3) In conversation Ormrod (2000) described reasoning, perspective taking, problem solving, and slang; did not address persuasion, or negotiation, idioms, sarcasm, ambiguity or metaphors. The reader was given descriptive knowledge of some of the language changes that take place in early adolescents. The reader was not exposed to how conversational skills are acquired. Ormrod (2000) described written discourse, proverbs, research papers, and argumentative essays. The use of storytelling, oral reports, letters or rules for writing were not addresses. The reader was not given information on the acquisition of discourse skills. Ormrod (2000) addressed communicative competence in terms of social conventions, empathy, and some of the rules for speaking. Ormrod did not address how early adolescents use or respond to different types of speech acts, rules for writing, or the knowledge of grammar or vocabulary needed for communicative competence. The Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 357. 325 reader would havea limited view of the extent of communicative competence but would have some suggestions for acquisition of competency Semantics (TI. T2) In two sections Ormrod (2000) addressed the construction and use of concepts. She also addressed misconceptions. She mentioned drawing inferences, inferred meanings of words and multiple meanings ofwords. The reader would have an understanding of how concepts are formed, used, and connected to word meanings. The reader would not know about the uses of metaphorical meanings in language. The reader might assume that early adolescents understand language when they do not, and this could lead to misunderstandings, frustrations, and miscommunications. Syntax (SI, S2. S3), Lexicology (LI. L2), Morphology (kf). Phonology (Ol, 02) Ormrod (2000) only mentioned dependent clauses, but described and compared use of the conjunctions but and although. The reader would understand that some early adolescents do not understand the difference between using but and although, but the reader would not know about other conjunctions and that they too might cause the early adolescent problems in understanding the communication of others, especially adults. Grammar was discussed in terms of acquisition and development for both written and oral language. Ormrod mentioned analyzing speech in terms of its component parts, (nouns, verbs, adjectives), but she did not address morphological analysis. The reader would know that early adolescents are still learning language and that they might not understand the syntactic uses or meanings of some words in oral and written language. The reader would not have the benefit of morphological analysis to determine meanings of new words. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 358. 326 Ormrod described thesize of the vocabulary and that vocabulary might be learned by inferred meanings from the context in which words are heard or read. The reader, however, would not know the kinds of words that might be added to the vocabulary. Ormrod addressed that written text can influence vocabulary acquisition and other aspects of language. She did not expand upon how language learning might occur beyond formal instruction although she did state that peer interactions are important for learning in general. Both voice change and inflected meanings were not addressed and these might cause someone working with early adolescents some problems, particularly if they use sarcasm. The reader would have some ideas for increasing and supporting linguistic knowledge. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections All of Ormrod’s (2000) 51 selections (100%) were coded as adequate. Ormrod was organized and well written and organized, which made it easy to find information. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Although Ormrod did not have many selections that could be identified as having a theoretical perspective (nine selections), those that were identified addressed a broad range of sub-components and three theoretical perspectives: behavioral, cognitive and social/environmental. This would give the reader some exposure to different theoretical perspectives (nine selections), but only for a few skills considering the total number of selections (51selections). What was most interesting was that a large number of the selections were written from an acquired perspective (six of the nine selections) and these were found in either the behavioral perspective or the social/environmental. Most of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 359. 327 behavioral theory andacquired perspective selections stated that the teacher needed to reinforce the language skills before they would be learned. Most of the social/environmental theory and acquired perspective selections required social interaction with peers or an activity in the environment for the language skills to be learned or practiced. Conclusions Ormrod (2000) made the reader aware that language continues to develop throughout adolescence and informed the reader of a few ofthe developmental changes. Because Ormrod did not address language acquisition skills for either conversation or discourse, the reader would know little about how the early adolescent learns these language skills. All of social interaction falls under these two categories from negotiating time for a date to writing an essay for social studies. Without information on the acquisition of these skills the reader probably would not see opportunities where language skills could be learned outside ofthe formal grammar class. Clauses were only mentioned and the use of two conjunctions was addressed with some detail so the reader would know that some changes do occur but would not know the extent ofthe changes that take place in syntax and lexicology. The reader would not know about morphological analysis as a means of identifying meaning in an unfamiliar word. Because of the many sub-components discussed and the theoretical perspectives presented, the reader would have an overview that was not complete but was comprehensive enough to provide some foundation for further study and information. The most encouraging features of this textbook were that language was addressed at the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 360. 328 early adolescent ageand that language was not isolated but permeated other topics in the text. Educational Psychology - Eggen Textbook: Paul Eggen and Don Kauchak (2001). Educationalpsychology windows on classrooms, (5thed ). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescents Pragmatics (U I. U2, U3) In conversation Eggen and Kauchak (2001) described persuasion, social skills, gender differences in participation, and perspective taking but did not mention negotiation, idioms, slang, metaphors, similes, ambiguity, or sarcasm. In discourse they described writing letters and essays with some developmental information but they did not mention proverbs, storytelling, or oral reports. Acquisition of oral skills and discourse skills were not addressed. In communicative competence they did not address the rules of speaking or writing or what the early adolescent needs to know about grammar or vocabulary. The reader will not be aware of very many applications of language where changes occur in early adolescence. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) described few areas of change related to early adolescents and limited their discussion to the formal academic setting while social and peer interactions were ignored. Social skills were not described in linguistic terms and the authors did not elaborate on the content of the social skills classes. Since there are numerous social skill curriculums, and some teach more linguistic skills than others, the reader would be unaware of the ways that social skills might be related to language development for early adolescents. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 361. 329 Semantics (TI, T2) Eggenand Kauchak (2001) briefly addressed the formation (through experience) and use of concepts (in problem solving) and tied concepts to language through reading and interactions with others. The reader will leam some basic information but may have difficulty applying the information due to limited discussion and few examples. The brief references to concepts and schemas did not stress the importance of concepts in learning new vocabulary and developing interconnections between topics and ideas. Eggen and Kauchak (2001) did not address multiple meanings or metaphorical meanings. For the reader, not knowing what the early adolescent does not understand yet, and is in the process of learning might be problematic for the reader might assume comprehension of word and phrase meanings that the early adolescent does not have. This is particularly true in regard to metaphorical meanings and sarcasm. Semantics was not addressed developmentally so the reader will not know either the capability or the prerequisite skills early adolescents may have. Syntax (SI, S2. S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), and Phonology (OI, 02) Under Syntax (S3, Grammar), Eggen and Kauchak (2001) addressed acquisition of strategies for improving students’ written compositions. Under phonology (OI, Voice), the authors described the child who talks differently. This textbook did not address clauses, conjunctions, grammar, vocabulary size, how words are learned, morphological analysis, the change in voice, or inflected meanings. Without these building blocks of language the reader might not understand how a teacher would help students rephrase thoughts more concisely; or break apart unknown words to find meaning; or learn to speak or write about situational, conditional, or transitional topics. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 362. 330 Research Question 2:Quality o fLanguage Selections Three of46 selections or 6.5% were coded as unclear. Unclear selections make it difficult for the reader to follow the authors’ thinking and often require the reader to make inferences that may lead to incorrect interpretations. To infer meaning requires background information that the reader of an introductory textbook might not have. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework Theoretical perspectives were found in five of seven sub-components addressed in Eggen and Kauchak (2001) giving the reader theoretical perspectives on several different topics. Of the 18 selections that were coded for theoretical framework, 13 came from the social/environmental framework and of these nine were about language acquisition. From these selections the reader might infer that the environment is the primary way in which language skills are acquired, which is true in most cases. Behavioral and cognitive theories also describe the acquisition of language skills but with the exception of one selection these perspectives were not presented in this textbook. The remaining five selections were from the cognitive perspective split between descriptive (two selections), developmental (two selections) and acquired (one selection in grammar), with no selections written from the behavioral perspective. Ifthe reader missed the one selection on grammar acquisition, the reader might get the impression that the social/environmental perspective offered the only way in which language was acquired. Conclusions The reader of this textbook would be aware of very few of the changes that occur in language in early adolescence. Although the textbook lists four important points for understanding language development it did not give the reader the information necessary Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 363. J J I tounderstand language changes at the early adolescent level. The textbook did not use linguistic vocabulary or inform the reader of developmental sequences in language in early adolescence. Specific examples of how language skills are learned, particularly in regard to syntax, morphology, and lexicology were not included. A lack of knowledge about language would greatly hinder a teacher who wanted to teach a topic to early adolescents that included new concepts, new vocabulary, and required expression of ideas, either orally or written. Educational Psychology - Elliott Textbook: Stephen N. Elliott, Thomas R_ Kratochwill, Joan Littlefield Cook, and John F Travers (2000). Educationalpsychology: effective teaching, effective learning, (3rded.). Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics (Ul. U2. U3) Elliott et al. (2000) described early adolescents as being able to accurately express relationships and cause and effect, write essays, use more appropriate language and communicate more effectively than younger children. Elliott et ai. did not address persuasion, negotiation, slang, metaphors, similes, idioms, ambiguity, sarcasm, proverbs, story telling, oral reports, letters or the rules used in conversation or discourse. So few situations were described where the language of early adolescents changes that the reader would have little knowledge of the types of discourse and conversation used, the developmental changes in language, or how pragmatic skills are acquired. Since these authors did not mention any language changes beyond the age of ten, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 364. reader of thistextbook would be unaware of any specific changes or know what to look for regarding early adolescent language. The broad descriptions of early adolescents contained no specific descriptive, developmental or acquisition information regarding language. Semantics (TI, T2) Elliott et al. (2000) addressed acquisition and use of concepts but did not, link word meanings and concepts. Instead, they associated concepts only with thinking, reasoning, and perceiving relationships. Without making an explicit tie to language, concepts may be perceived to be separate from and not necessary for vocabulary development. Elliott et al. (2000) did not address multiple meanings or metaphorical meanings although they did mentioned but did not define figurative language. Without knowing about meanings the reader may expect early adolescents to know more metaphorical and multiple meanings than they actually do know. This might become problematic for teachers if they set goals and created activities beyond the language capabilities of their students. Syntax (SI, S2. S3), Lexicology (LI. L2). Morphology (ki), and Phonology (OI, 02) Elliott et al. (2000) described the early adolescent as having a good sense of grammar, using complex language, and mastering dictionary skills. These broad statements might be interpreted in a number of ways depending on the background knowledge of the reader. The reader of this textbook might assume that with a “good sense of grammar” all situationaL, transitional and conditional conjunctions would be Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 365. fully understood. Thatwould be a mistake because the early adolescent often confuses the use of even but and although. The reader might assume because the early adolescent might be able to speak using complex language with clauses that writing skills would be equal, or the reader might not have prior knowledge that speaking skills precede writing skills sometimes by several years. Mastery of dictionary skills might mean to one reader that the early adolescent is able to look up a word in the dictionary, to another reader it might mean that the early adolescent would understand the use of affixes and how they change the part of speech of a word. In addition, Elliott et al. did not address clauses, conjunctions, vocabulary, effect of the written text, morphological analysis, voice or inflection. Without these building blocks the reader will not have knowledge of the parts of language that are necessary to create competent writing and speaking. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections All of the selections in Elliott et al. (2000) were coded as adequate. These authors took great care to make clear what was stated, although fewer broad statements and more examples would have been helpful to the reader. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework The authors of this textbook were consistent in their use of the cognitive perspective as their only theoretical framework. By getting only one theoretical perspective, the reader would not see that other perspectives also have merit and are better at explaining some aspects of language acquisition and development than others. Because this is a foundational course that is expected to give fundamentals that are used in other courses, the lack of information regarding other theories of language Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 366. 334 development might beproblematic when a pre-service teacher is expected to know about behaviorism or the social/environmental perspective in another course. In addition, the selections were presented from only a descriptive or developmental perspective. Both the behavioral and social/environmental theoretical perspectives also describe how language develops and how language skills are acquired, but the reader of this text will not know about acquisition. In addition the cognitive theoretical perspective was only associated with descriptions and development of language skills. This gave the reader no theoretical perspective associated with the acquisition of language skills. The reader would have difficulty recognizing how language skills are acquired and probably would not recognize situations that might foster language development. Conclusions. These authors view language “as unimportant in adapting to various environments, especially the classroom” (p. 66). This view might explain the lack of attention to language, and the lack of detail when language was mentioned. Formation of concepts was the only skill that was addressed from an acquisition perspective. The information in Elliott et al. (2000) would not give a pre-service teacher an understanding of changes in, the developmental progression of or the acquisition of skills in early adolescent language. EducationalPsychology - Sternberg Textbook: Robert J. Sternberg and Wendy M. Williams (2002). Educationalpsychology. Boston: Allyn & Bacon Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 367. j j 5 ResearchQuestion I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics. (Ul. U2. CJ3) Sternberg and Williams (2002) described perspective taking, reciprocal teaching, reasoning, and problem solving but did not describe persuasion, negotiation, slang, idioms, sarcasm, or ambiguity. With this information the reader was given a limited view of the language use of early adolescents. Sternberg and Williams mentioned the social context of language but when social rules were mentioned they were not tied to language or the rules of speaking or writing, leaving the reader to infer meaning. The authors did not address discourse (proverbs, story telling, essays, and oral reports) that further limited the reader’s knowledge of linguistic situations. With few linguistic situations under consideration the authors probably saw no purpose for discussing changing language registrars, how early adolescents use or respond to speech acts or what the early adolescent needs to know about grammar and vocabulary in regard to competence. The reader of this textbook would be exposed to few situations where the early adolescent uses language, and therefore would not be aware of the places where language changes occur during this stage of development. Language changes beyond the age of ten were not discussed, perhaps leading the reader to believe that by age ten language development was complete. Reasoning was addressed in depth but reasoning was not tied to the language (vocabulary and syntax) necessary for reasoning, such as conditional conjunctions. Semantics, (Tl, T2) Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 368. V 336 Sternberg and Williams(2002) described concept formation and use but failed to tie language to concepts. The reader might think that concepts are not necessary to learn new vocabulary and that concepts are separate from word meanings. Metaphorical expressions were mentioned but not elaborated on or defined leaving the reader to draw on prior knowledge to create meaning. The reader might believe that the meanings of words and phrases are already in place because they were not addressed. This might lead the reader to assume that the early adolescent knows and understands more than they do. Syntax (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (hi). Phonology (OI, 02) Grammar was only referred to as a body of knowledge. Sternberg and Williams (2002) did not address clauses, conjunctions, rules for syntax or morphology (grammar), vocabulary, morphological analysis, voice changes, or inflection. From this textbook the reader would not learn about the changes that occur in the language of the early adolescent in syntax, lexicology, morphology or phonology. The reader probably would not have the background necessary to recognize the developmental levels of early adolescent language, or even be aware of what activities foster language acquisition. Where a speech problem was detected these authors suggested that the teacher call the problem to the attention of the student. Broad advice, such as this, without examples or clarifying information can create problems for a teacher who might apply the advice indiscriminately. The reader might point out a voice problem (change in voice) that the early adolescent is already acutely aware of, can do nothing about, and is embarrassed by it, only to increase the embarrassment. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 369. j j 7 Thetwo selections (7.4% of the selections) rated as unclear were somewhat offset by four selections that were rated as best information. There was evidence that in some areas of language, such as reasoning, Sternberg and Williams (2002) had extensive research knowledge, but that in other areas of language such as syntax, lexicology, morphology and phonology—areas they did not address—they had very little background knowledge. Research Question 3: TheoreticalFramework Of the 16 selections where a theoretical perspective could be identified, Sternberg and Williams (2002) gave the reader some exposure to each of the perspectives, two were from the behavioral perspective, five from the cognitive perspective and nine from a social/environmental perspective. There were more theoretical selections (eight) from an acquired perspective than a developmental perspective (three), giving the reader more information about how and in what manner language is acquired and less information on how developmental sequences might be viewed. Conclusions Reasoning was a preoccupation in Sternberg and Williams’ (2002) textbook, and almost every topic was tied to reasoning and Sternberg’s research on student reasoning abilities. But even reasoning was not addressed linguistically. Stenberg and Williams often used broad, vague statements when referring to language, such as “more elaborate sentences” that called for the reader to infer meaning. This textbook stated that children’s language differs little from adult’s language, which might be interpreted by a reader that there is little growth or change left to occur, so little that one working with early adolescents does not need to think about or be concerned with any language changes. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 370. 338 With this implication,the reader might assume language need not be taught except for the formal rules. Unfortunately, Sternberg and Williams appear not to be familiar with current language research. Educational Psychology - Woolfolk Textbook: Anita Woolfolk (2001). Educationalpsychology, (8thed ). Boston: Allyn and Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics. (U l. U2. U3) In conversation Woolfolk (2001) described reasoning, sarcasm, negotiation, and perspective taking. In discourse she discussed story structure. In communicative competence she mentioned but did not discuss or define social conventions and the intentions of others. Woolfolk (2001) did not address persuasion, slang, idioms, or ambiguity, proverbs, oral reports, essays, letters, story-telling, the rules of speaking or writing, or vocabulary and grammar that contribute to communicative competence. With only nine selections in the three sub-components of pragmatics and four of those just descriptive of language, the reader is given few opportunities to know where language is used in early adolescence, what developmental changes take place (three selections), and how these skills are acquired (two selections). The impact of language changes on the early adolescent would not be possible to understand with so little space given to language. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 371. 339 Semantics, (TI, T2) Woolfolk(2001) addressed development of schema and described a concept attainment model. The reader would have an understanding of what concepts are, how they develop over time and how they can be used. However, concepts were not tied to language and the reader would have to infer a connection between words and concepts. Woolfolk (2001) did not address multiple meanings of words or describe metaphors but she mentioned metaphor. The reader also might assume, because multiple meanings of words were not mentioned, that the early adolescent knows more meanings for words and phrases than they actually do know. Syntax, (SI, S2, S3), Lexicology (LI, L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI, 02) Woolfolk (2001) mentioned complex grammatical structures, extra clauses, syntax as word order, and conjunctions but she did not mention the kinds or uses of clauses or conjunctions that early adolescents use, or the rules of syntax or morphology She did describe the use of passive voice with some detail. Woolfolk described the size of vocabulary, and how word meanings might be learned. She did not address the effect of written text on vocabulary development, voice change, or the relationship of inflection and meaning. Because Woolfolk (2001) mentioned many linguistic items but usually did not describe with detail, define, or give examples, the reader needed to rely on prior knowledge, something a pre-service teacher might not have, to understand the author’s intent. Words without the rules, is like having building blocks but no glue to assemble them. The reader ofthis textbook would have limited exposure to a number of linguistic skills. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 372. 340 Because ail ofWoolfolk’s (2000) 24 selections were coded adequate, the reader would find information on early adolescent language clearly written. The reader would also find that there were few selections for each of the sub-components and the selections did not contain a lot of detail. Research Question 3: Theoretical Framework The reader would have a weak balance of theoretical frameworks with two selections from the behavioral perspective, two from the cognitive perspective, and four from the social/environmental perspective. With only eight selections identified for theoretical framework, it is difficult to say that the reader is really getting very much exposure to theoretical perspectives of language. However, six of the eight selections were from an acquired perspective, which might give the reader some different ideas about how language is learned. Conclusions Because Woolfolk (2001) tried to cover all ages at the same time it was difficult for the reader to know which examples she intended to be used for a particular age group. By not addressing language past age 11, Woolfolk made it appear that all language development is complete by this age and that no further language learning takes place. A reader of this textbook would have a glimpse of many changes that take place, but not have the depth to understand the impact ofthose changes, how those language skills are acquired in early adolescence or know many of the developmental sequences of language skills. The reader would be very limited in knowledge of early adolescent language. In Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 373. 341 addition, Woolfolk emphasizedthe impact of adults on language learning, something that might be more appropriate for preschoolers than early adolescents. Woolfolk (2000) had 24totaI selections and addressed nine sub-components. Four sub-components had just one selection each. One selection is usually not enough to address both development and acquisition. Overall, Woolfolk did have a balance of selections between developmental progressions (seven selections) and the acquisition of language (10 selections), but she only addressed both development and acquisition of skills in four sub-components (conversation, competence, concepts, and grammar). In these four sub-components the reader might recognize both a developmental sequence and how a language skill might be acquired. Because there are many skills in each sub component, it is obvious that Woolfolk did not address many skills. In the other nine sub-components the reader would not have access to either developmental sequences, acquisition of skills or both, and have just a description of a skill. This would severely limit the reader’s ability to recognize the sequence of language skills and to foster language development in early adolescents with more than a very few skills. Educational Psychology - Snowman Textbook: Jack Snowman and Robert Biehler (2000). Psychology applied to teaching, (9thed ). Boston: Allyn & Bacon. Research Question I: Sub-Components o fEarly Adolescent Language Pragmatics. (Ul. U2, U3) Snowman and Biehler (2000) described the register shift, reciprocal teaching and conflict management. They mentioned reasoning, sarcasm, metaphor, and allegory, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 374. 342 stating that theyare usually lost on the concrete stage thinkers. They did not address slang, idioms, ambiguity, persuasion, or negotiation, oral reports, essays, story telling and proverbs rules of speaking or writing or the grammar or vocabulary necessary for communicative competence. The reader may not understand “face-to-face interactions” and “interpersonal skills” to be language skills. Although Snowman and Biehler described some conversational situations, few were related developmentally and only one was addressed from a skill acquisition perspective. The reader would have a limited view of the extent of pragmatic skills and no information on how pragmatic skills are acquired other than reciprocal teaching. Semantics, (Tl, T2) Snowman and Biehler (2000) used research to describe how concepts might be developed in classrooms and linked language to concepts by attributing discussions and other language activities to the formation and clarification of concepts. They emphasized procedural tasks. The reader of this text might have enough knowledge to assist early adolescents in the formation and use of concepts. Meanings of words and phrases were omitted. The reader would not know that early adolescents do not always understand multiple meanings of words or metaphorical meanings and might assume that they know more than they do. By assuming that early adolescents understand multiple meanings or metaphors when they do not might lead to frustration on the part of both the student and the teacher. Syntax (SI. S2, S3), Lexicology (LI. L2), Morphology (M), Phonology (OI. 02) Without knowing what skills early adolescents use in pragmatics it is hard to make a case for describing the building blocks that support existing and new skills. This Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 375. 343 might be mosteasily seen in discourse where no skills were addressed. When writing an essay (discourse), students sometimes need to use syntax and words that are not always used in social communication that is oral. Snowman and Biehler (2000) did not mention any discourse skills so they had no reason to support those skills with syntax or vocabulary Because syntax, lexicology, morphology and phonology were not addressed, the reader might assume that they are not important and can be ignored or that they are already in place and assume that the early adolescent has more skills than they actually do. Research Question 2: Quality o fLanguage Selections The one selection coded unclear represented only 4.5% of the selections and did not detract significantly from the overall quality of the selections. Research Question 3: TheoreticalFramework The 13 selections where a theoretical perspective could be identified were divided between frameworks; behavioral with one selection, cognitive with five selections, and social/environmental with seven. The reader would at least be exposed to different perspectives. The cognitive and social/environmental theoretical perspectives were also associated with selections that were descriptive, developmental, and about language acquisition. Such balance would give the reader a broader view of the theoretical perspectives. The behavioral perspective was only associated with the acquisition of skills so the reader might have a more limited view ofthis theoretical perspective. Conclusions Snowman and Biehler (2000) described few conversational and no discourse situations did not address any rules necessary for constructing words, sentences or essays Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 376. 344 and did notaddress any of the building blocks (syntax, lexicology, morphology, phonology) that are the supporting language skills for communicative competence. These authors appear to be concerned with some aspects of conversation, but prefer to call language anything but language. The reader of this textbook would have a very limited knowledge of linguistic skills and the capability of early adolescents, few developmental sequences and one suggestion to teach a language skill other than concepts. A Comparison of Child Development and Educational Psychology Textbooks Most noticeably the child development textbooks had more to say about early adolescent language than educational psychology textbooks. They covered more components, and sub-components. They had more total selections and more selections where the theoretical frameworks were found than educational psychology textbooks. In contrast the educational psychology textbooks had more selections about concepts than did the child development textbooks and addressed concepts more completely. They also gave broader coverage to the different theoretical perspectives. All textbooks addressed some selections using the cognitive theoretical perspective. Most of the educational psychology textbooks (six of seven) had selections from a behavioral perspective, whereas the child development textbooks did not (only two of the six textbooks). Conclusions and Implications for Teacher Candidates Teacher candidates would significantly lack information about early adolescent language with any of the textbooks examined in this research study. None of the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 377. 345 textbooks covered thesub-components of language with the depth and quality needed by teachers of early adolescents. All of the textbooks would need to be supplemented with information on early adolescent language development before teacher candidates could understand the developmental sequences of language development. Most of the textbooks would have to be supplemented with linguistic vocabulary; connections between thinking, talking, writing and reading; and acknowledged differences in structures of language (such as those necessary for conditional and positional statements), and uses of language (academic and social), before teacher candidates would have a scaffolding that would support further information on tanguage. Most Complete Textbook While no criteria for adequacy were established at the outset of this study, review of the selected texts did reveal great diversity in breadth and depth of coverage for early adolescent language. For a text to be able to fully contribute to building background knowledge for teacher candidates, a textbook would need to address each sub-component of language in some manner. Ofthe textbooks examined in this study, no text met that criteria. The textbook with the most complete coverage, however, was Schickedanz, et al (2001), with attention to 12 of 13 subcomponents. Child Developmen—Schickedanz. The textbook that covered the sub-components of language most completely was Schickedanz et al (2001). The teacher candidate using this textbook would probably be able to recognize that oral language in the classroom can promote friendships, joint discovery, and increase vocabulary when students hear words in context. The teacher candidate would probably see writing as a form of discourse, whereby students might practice subordination of ideas using clauses, conjunctions, and Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 378. 346 rules of grammarand reading as a source of knowledge as well as a place where meanings of new words and multiple meanings of words might be inferred. The teacher candidate would also probably know written form and content are influenced by the literature the early adolescents read. In contrast, the teacher candidate would have a poor idea of what concepts are, the relationship between concepts and language, or that concepts precede language and promote learning. This textbook would leave the teacher unknowing about the kinds of words (compound and with affixes) and parts (affixes and roots) of words early adolescent learn during this period of life. Not knowing these aspects of language would leave the teacher candidate unfamiliar with knowledge necessary for taking words apart (morphological analysis) to discover meaning. This textbook only touched on phonological ambiguity and sarcasm. Without this information the teacher candidate may use inflections that the student may not understand. In addition, communicative competence was thinly covered through discussions of communication strategies, social feedback, and perspectives. The teacher candidate would not know how students change language registers when addressing different people. The teacher candidate would not know about the early adolescents’ persuasion and negotiation skills, or the idioms that they learn during this time. Without this knowledge the teacher candidate might expect more or less from the students than what they are capable of understanding and doing. While this textbook did not mention the change in voice, this is one of the less important parts of language as it is not an issue for girls and usually affects only a few boys whose voice changes rapidly. Once the change occurs and the boy adjusts to the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 379. 347 new voice italso is no longer a problem for anyone. For a teacher, this would be something that they could learn on the job. It would not make dramatic changes in how they teach or behave towards the students, but knowledge of the profound embarrassment it causes some boys would lead to an understanding when this did occur in their classroom. Other Worthwhile Textbooks If criteria for textbook adequacy had been identified for attention to early adolescent language from both a developmental and an acquired perspective through age 14 and addressed at least one sub-component of each of the components pragmatics, semantics, and syntax addressed, then the following two textbooks, in addition to Schickedanz (2001), would meet this criteria. Child Development—Meece. Meece’s strength was concepts. The teacher candidate would be aware of the connection between talking and writing. This classroom would be concept based with oral language as important as the writing aspects of language. The weaknesses would be a lack of knowledge of the building blocks of language, morphological analysis, grammar, conjunctions, and clauses. Without this aspect, part of the strength of her writing would be missing. There were still items missing in every component of language, but teacher candidates with background from this text would have some fundamentals to start with. Educational Psychology—Ormrod. This textbook addressed listening comprehension, and the need for teacher to match their language to the ability and understanding of their students. This textbook discussed discourse along with the mechanics of language: grammar, clauses conjunctions and vocabulary. Formal writing Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 380. 348 was important. Theteacher candidate would be missing word meanings, conversation, and communicative competence. A teacher candidate using this textbook might have a variety of formal language activities, but would be unaware of the conversational and journaling aspects of language development. If the criteria for being an adequate textbook in regard to early adolescent language rested on other less specific and more general characteristics, several other textbooks would qualify. If only a developmental approach was desired Berk’s (2000) textbook might be considered. If a briefexposure of a number of sub-components were desired, then Woolfblk’s (2000) textbook might be considered. If reasoning was most important, then Sternberg’s (2001) textbook might be considered. If some knowledge of both oral and written language were desired, then Santrock’s textbook might be considered. Child Development—Berk. This textbook did not address adequately any oral aspects of language and therefore the teacher candidate using this textbook would not be aware of the importance of oral language or communicative competence. Meanings of words, vocabulary size and inflection were addressed, so a teacher candidate might concentrate on these aspects of language. This textbook attributed abstract reasoning to increased vocabulary, and stated that children get meanings from definitions. The syntactic and semantic aspects were severely neglected. A teacher candidate using this textbook might feel that having students read a dictionary would be all that was necessary for language learning. Without the oral language being developed students will not meet their full potential in literacy. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 381. 349 Educational Psychology—Woolfolk. Woolfblkhad four sections on concepts that were tied to content material. This textbook also addressed the size of vocabulary. A teacher candidate might ask the same question that Woolfolk asks “What remains for he school-age child to accomplish?” (... “since by about age 5, most children have mastered the basics of their native language” p. 53). A teacher candidate would have an understanding of concepts and schemas but not of what to do with them with language. The language of the early adolescent may be misunderstood or not tolerated by the teacher, the mechanics (use of grammar, clauses, and conjunctions, morphological analysis) would be neglected. Neither conversation nor discourse were adequately covered, so the teacher candidate might feel that ditto sheets on concepts are all that is necessary Educational Psychology—Sternberg. Stemberg discussed cognitive development and language in relationship with thinking, problem solving and concepts. This textbook discussed language development only in relation to children to age 10. A teacher candidate using this textbook would know about reciprocal teaching associated with reading comprehension, and logic associated reasoning, but would be missing knowledge of the syntax and morphology and lexicology of language. In addition, conversation, discourse, and communicative competence were ignored. Consequently, a teacher candidate using this textbook would be unaware of social language development. They would not know about strategies or rules necessary for conversation or discourse or understand the elements of competence. Child Development—Santrock. This textbook emphasized the difference between report talk and rapport talk as well as book reports and conversational skills, but it did not adequately address competency. This textbook omits the basis for language, Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 382. 350 and understanding oflanguage: meanings, clauses, conjunctions, grammar and morphological analysis. Santrock looks only at the end use of language, but is not concerned with competency. A teacher candidate using this textbook might try to have students write essay and give reports without providing support or instruction. A teacher candidate might expect students to have acquired all language skills necessary for writing at an adult level in elementary school and thus assume that any writing or language skills would be at an adult level. Textbooks That Should Not Be Used The remaining textbooks would not be considered as adequate accofding to any of the criteria stated above and, consequently are not recommended for use according to the analysis of this research study: Child development - Lefrancois (2001) and Bee (2000) Educational psychology - Eggen, (2001), Elliott, (2001), Slavin, (2000), and Snowman, (2000). The textbooks identified above do the education profession a disservice by either implying or stating that language is essentially complete before early adolescence. The qualifying words used to extend a few language skills into and beyond early adolescence (almost finished, except for refinements, lesser vocabulary) are never defined or elaborated with examples. These textbooks offer little or no research on language acquisition that includes all of the early adolescent years. By omission, language might be assumed to be unimportant in learning and teaching, not something the teacher candidate needs to be aware of, and that the language of students is already at the adult level and completely developed. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 383. 351 If any ofthese assumptions are not reversed somewhere in teacher education programs, a teacher candidate may make erroneous assumptions about the language of early adolescent students. These teachers could have unrealistic language expectations, not understand the value of literacy and oral language activities, and might use language that is not understood by students. Learning and language are intertwined and without appropriate language learning is severely limited. Limitations Limitations of this study include the selection of textbooks, the criteria for evaluation, the author's style, and the potential biases of the researcher and errors. Textbook Selection The textbooks chosen for content analysis may not represent a cross section of aii textbooks currently available for use in the classroom. Textbook publishers that published only one or two textbooks for child development or educational psychology courses were not considered. Only textbooks issued by major publishing houses were selected. The five publishers chosen by this researcher produce over 80% of the titles of textbooks for child development and educational psychology courses. As previously noted, textbooks are only one source of information available to teacher candidates in educational psychology and child development courses. The textbook author may supplement the textbook with information from a compact disc, Internet sites, materials for the instructor, as well as suggested articles and books. Although these supplementary sources and materials may have information on early adolescent language, they were not considered in this content analysis of the textbooks. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 384. 352 Criteriafo r Evaluation Informationon early adolescent language will be evaluated for the theoretical point of view taken by the author, the component(s) of language considered, the quantity of information give, and the quality of information given. The author’s theoretical perspective may not be explicitly stated and may be subject to misinterpretation. An author may use a different vocabulary to discuss language than the components defined in this report. In this case some of an author’s meaning may become lost or misinterpreted if the author’s words are compared with a textbook that uses a different vocabulary to describe language. Some authors may be more succinct than others. A comparison of quantity of text devoted to a subject may not be relevant as to whether the subject was covered completely. The quality of the textbooks was compared to facts uncovered by this researcher as the standard. Authors may have used their own research, unpublished research, or research not uncovered by this researcher to provide a different view of language. Author's Style In the context analysis, only language at the early adolescent age was considered. Potentially this constitutes a limitation on the part of the researcher, because the author of the textbook may feel that language for another age may be applicable to early adolescence. Unless the textbook explicitly stated that a language description for a younger or older age applies to early adolescents, it was assumed that the description was only for the age group in the section in which it appeared. The author’s style of writing may not have communicated all that the author knows about early adolescent language. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 385. 353 The author mayalso not have arranged information on language so that it is easily accessible to the reader. The Biases o fthe Researcher The researcher may have been biased, may not have grasped the intent of the author, and may have missed the intent ofthe textbook in regard to early adolescent language. The author’s style of writing or the organization of the textbook may have contributed to the researcher missing items by imbedding language in issues that were not language oriented. For example, sections on classroom management in the educational psychology textbooks may have tried to express the author’s concern for oral language, and this researcher may not have interpreted the author’s intent properly or adequately. Errors The researcher may have missed sections or mentions of language that were not identified in the index, table of contents or chapter summaries. All discussions of early adolescent language that were found were considered and evaluated. A conscious effort was made to carefully evaluate presentations of language information that did not refer to the components of language, such as soda! skills. Further, those comments of authors which were made about language but not assigned to an age group, (i.e., early adolescence), were assumed to apply to early adolescents only if the comments were developmentally appropriate for early adolescents. If comments on language occurred in a chapter that covered only a particular age group, for example early childhood, it was assumed that the comments about language were only for the age group covered in the chapter. Errors also may have occurred when a section was not read, for instance, the Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 386. 354 chapters on infancyin the child development textbooks. If these chapters discussed early adolescent language by comparing it to the infant’s language, these sections were not read and these references may have been missed if they were present. Suggestions for Future Research Research that would extend the knowledge about early adolescent language in the teacher preparation courses might come from three sources: Textbooks for methods courses, professors’ and teachers’ attitudes toward language, teacher candidate’s knowledge, and observation of actual classroom teaching. Methods Textbooks A study, similar to this study, which would analyze the content of methods textbooks, would extend the information discovered in this study. It is in methods textbooks that content material is learned along with how teacher candidates can most effectively present the material to students. Methods textbooks may be one place that teacher candidates may extend their knowledge about the language of their students. For example, knowledge of the content of textbooks from courses such as “Teaching Middle School Students”, course work that is designed specifically to address the needs of middle school teachers, might also add to the information of what we know about how teachers learn about early adolescent language. Textbooks that are intended for methods ofteaching literacy may address early adolescent language, however, the breadth and scope of these textbooks is unknown to this researcher at this time. Attitudes TowardLanguage Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 387. 355 How might theknowledge and attitudes of teachers, including college professors, influence what they teach? A study might be made of the attitudes and knowledge about early adolescent language among those professors who conduct courses for teacher candidates, as well as teachers who actually work with early adolescents. Teacher Candidates' Knowledge It is unknown what prior knowledge teacher candidates may have about linguistics, literacy, reading, writing, oral language, concepts and schemas, thinking, syntax, or other aspects of early adolescent language and how that knowledge may influence their teaming in teacher preparation courses. A survey of this knowledge and level of skills could be source of information for professors to know where to begin in instructing teacher candidates about early adolescent language. Classroom Practices Broader questions, such as “What do teachers know about early adolescent language?” or “How does a teacher’s attitudes toward and knowledge of early adolescent language impact their interactions with early adolescents in the classroom?” might be answered by surveys of teachers, followed by in-depth interviews and classroom observations. An associated question, “What are school districts doing about teachers’ lack of knowledge about early adolescent language development?” might also be worth investigating, especially as it might be associated with student achievement in the middle grades. In Conclusion It is hoped that this study will prompt more interest and awareness regarding the importance of teacher candidates’ background knowledge of early adolescent language Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 388. 356 and the needfor greater attention to its inclusion in teacher preparation course work. When teachers recognize the language development of their students, seek professional assistance for those that they cannot help, and help those that they can, then there may be fewer misinterpretations of students’ actions. Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
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- 409. Reproducedwithpermissionofthecopyrightowner.Furtherreproductionprohibitedwithoutpermission. Appendix A Data Slieel Titleof Textbook: Theoretical Framework Manner of Writing Sub- Component Length / Depth Quality of Information Comments Author: Chapter Title: Heading: Pages: beginning, end. E = environmental / Social F = behavioral G = cognitive N = innate 1 Description 2 Developmental 3 Acquired 0= phonology M=morphology L = lexicology T= semantics S= syntax U= pragmatics 1= isolated V = vignette R = sentence P ^paragraph W = section X = mis-info. Y = poor A = adequate B = very good exceptional Page, Paragraph Selection Page, Paragraph Next selection Page, Paragraph Next selection 377
- 410. 378 Appendix B List ofTopics Examined in Textbooks Adolescents Ambiguity Assessment Book Reading Bound Morphemes Cause and Effect Child Development Classes Classification Clauses Cognition Cognitive Abilities Cognitive Development Cognitive Processes Communication Comprehension Concept Formation Concrete Operational Thought Conformity Conjunctions Constructivism Conversation Cooperative Learning Correlational Statements Creative Thinking Crowd Cultural Competence Dating Decoding Skills Development Dialectical Thinking Discourse Development Discourse Knowledge Elaboration Empathy Expository Writing Expressive Style Facial Expressions Feedback Formal Operational Thought Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 411. 3 7 9 Frameof Reference Games Gestures Grammar Grammatical Morphemes Graphemes High School Horizontal Decalage Imaginative writing Imitation Idioms Indirect Feedback Information Processing Intentions, Understanding Interests, Writing About Interpretive writing Intersubjectivity Intrapersonal Intelligence Invented Spelling and Words Irregular Forms Joint Attention, Discovery Jokes Junior High School Knowledge Acquisition Language Acquisition Language Based Play Language Comprehension Language Development Learning Level of Development Lexical Ambiguity Linguistic Intelligence Listening Literacy Locative Expressions Masking Emotions Metacognition Metacommunication Metalinguistic awareness Middle Schools Mnemonics Moral Development Morphemes Morphological rules Narrative Writing Needs-Pro-social Reasoning Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 412. Oral Language Development PastTense Peer Collaboration Peer Interactions Peer Teaching, Tutoring Perceived Competence Perceptually Based Thinking Personal Narrative, Story Telling Phonemes Phonological Development, Awareness Phonology Piaget Play Polarized Thinking Popular Status Practical Thinking Pragmatics Problem Model Strategy Pro-Social Behaviors Proverbs Questions Reading Reading Comprehension Reasoning Reciprocal Teaching Reflective Writing Retelling Riddles Rhymes Root Words Sarcasm Schema School Age Children Script Knowledge Scripts Self Disclosure Self-Regulation SelfTalk Semantic Meanings Shared Meanings Slang Social Behavior Social Cognition Social Information Processing Socialization Social Learning Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.
- 413. 381 Social Perspective Social Referencing SocialSkills Social Theory of Language Sounds Speech Comprehension Speech Perception Spelling Story Syntactic ambiguity Syntax Thinking Under Extended Words Unique Grammatical Structures Verbal Ability Verbs Vocabulary Development, Size Voicing Vygotsky Word Comprehension Word Learning, Meaning Word Recognition Skills Word Stress Word Writing Written Language Development Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further reproduction prohibited without permission.