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This document summarizes what is known about the resilience and restoration of tropical old-growth grasslands. It describes that tropical grasslands and savannas cover around 20% of the global land surface and lists many examples from around the world. It defines old-growth grasslands as ancient ecosystems characterized by high species richness, intact disturbance regimes, underground storage organs, and fire adaptations. However, many tropical old-growth grasslands are threatened by agricultural conversion, reforestation efforts, and other land use changes. Grasslands have shown resilience to natural disturbances like fire through adaptive traits, but are less resilient to novel human-driven disturbances.

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What do we know about tropical old-growth grassland resilience and restoration? Elise Buisson Avignon University, IMBE, CNRS, IRD, AMU (France) elise.buisson@imbe.fr
What do we know about tropical old-growth grassland resilience and restoration? Co-authors: Soizig Le Stradic, Fernando A. O. Silveira, Alessandra Fidelis, Gerhard E. Overbeck, Giselda Durigan, G. Wilson Fernandes, Julia-Maria Hermann, William J. Bond, Gregory Mahy, Swanni T. Alvarado, Nicholas P. Zaloumis, Joseph W. Veldman Elise Buisson Avignon University, IMBE, CNRS, IRD, AMU (France) elise.buisson@imbe.fr
Grasslands and savannas Introduction
Grasslands = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Savannas = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Grasslands and savannas Hill & Hanan 2010 Parr et al. 2014 Introduction
Grasslands = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Tree cover is less than 10%. Savannas = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Tree cover up to 80%. Grasslands and savannas Hill & Hanan 2010 Parr et al. 2014 Introduction
Grassy ecosystems cover around 52 million km², ca. 40% of the global land surface on Earth Grasslands and savannas White et al. 2000; Gibson 2009 NESCent Grasslands Working Group, unpublished Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas NESCent Grasslands Working Group, unpublished Parr et al. 2014, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 20% of the global land surface on Earth Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Savanna in Hwange NP, Zimbabwe Savanna in Kruger NP, RSA Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Savanna in Hwange NP, Zimbabwe Savanna in Kruger NP, RSA Katanga copper belt grasslands, Congo Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Savanna in Hwange NP, Zimbabwe Savanna in Kruger NP, RSA Rocky grasslands and Tapia savannas in Ibity NP, Madagascar Katanga copper belt grasslands, Congo Introduction
Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Savanna in French Guyana Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Cerrado savanna in Brazil Savanna in French Guyana Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Cerrado savanna in Brazil Savanna in French Guyana Campo rupestre grasslands in Serra do Cipó, Brazil Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
JayashreeRatnametal.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B2016 Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Broadleaf Dipterocarp savanna in Thailand & Cambodia Introduction
JayashreeRatnametal.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B2016 Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Broadleaf Dipterocarp savanna in Thailand & Cambodia Mixed broadleaf savanna in Yuanjiang Valley, China Introduction
JayashreeRatnametal.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B2016 Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Broadleaf Dipterocarp savanna in Thailand & Cambodia Pine savannah (Pinus kesiya) on Mt Ugo, The Philippines Mixed broadleaf savanna in Yuanjiang Valley, China Introduction
Grasslands & savannas of Australia Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Longleaf pine savanna in southern USA Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Longleaf pine savanna in southern USA Coastal grasslands, Maputaland, RSA Highland grasslands, RSA Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Longleaf pine savanna in southern USA Pampa grasslands in southern Brazil Campo sulino grasslands in southern Brazil Coastal grasslands, Maputaland, RSA Highland grasslands, RSA Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas There are also recently formed, anthropogenic grasslands Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
Tropical grasslands and savannas native savanna detrimental to their conservation - have for long been wrongly misinterpreted as the result of deforestation - hard to distinguish at first sight Introduction
Old-growth concept Old-growth concept
Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth concept Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by
Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by 1. composition - high herbaceous species richness - high endemism - unique species compositions Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth concept
Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by 2. intact disturbance regimes Old-growth concept Old-growth concept
3. Underground storage organs, high below-ground C storage Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by Old-growth concept
4. Fire adaptations • Resprouting from underground buds • Fire-stimulated flowering / germination • Fire-insulated bark Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by Old-growth concept
Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept rainfall rainfall Ground water recharge
Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept rainfall rainfall evapotranspiration rain interception evapotranspiration rain interception Ground water recharge
Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept GroundwaterGroundwater rainfall rainfall rain interception evapotranspiration rain interception transpiration transpirati slide: G. Durigan evapotranspiration Ground water recharge
Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept Ground waterGround water rainfall rainfall rain interception evapotranspiration rain interception transpiration transpirati slide: G. Durigan / M. Bustamente Water resources Headwaters of important hydrological basins = water supply for millions of people: 1. Araguaia- Tocantins 2. São Francisco 3. Paraná 1 – 78% 2 – 50% 3 – 48% evapotranspiration Ground water recharge
Savanna Ecosystem services Old-growth concept - Underground trees - Underground storage organs C storage C storage Forest C storage
Savanna Ecosystem services Old-growth concept Social diversity Cerrado: 38 indigenous societies Quilombolas – communities of descendants of former African slaves. Traditional rural communities slide: G. Durigan / M.Bustamente Ecotourism
↗ due to - forest clearing - planted pasture for raising cattle = secondary / anthropogenic grasslands, often species poor Tropical grasslands and savannas Old-growth concept
↗ anthropogenic grasslands White et al. 2000; Veldman et al. 2015; Bond 2016 ↘ native & old-growth grasslands due to afforestation, agricultural expansion, desertification, mining, urbanization and other changes in land-cover or have been degraded by changes in fire regimes, exotic species introduction, fertilization, drainage, liming, overgrazing, etc. Tropical grasslands and savannas Old-growth concept
↗ anthropogenic grasslands White et al. 2000; Veldman et al. 2015; Bond 2016 ↘ native & old-growth grasslands due to afforestation, agricultural expansion, desertification, mining, urbanization and other changes in land-cover or have been degraded by changes in fire regimes, exotic species introduction, fertilization, drainage, liming, overgrazing, etc. Tropical grasslands and savannas Threats
Past agricultural conversion Foley et al. 2011 Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
Past agricultural conversion Foley et al. 2011 Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
Data: 3rd National Inventory of GHG, MCTI Recent agricultural conversion slide: M. Bustamente Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
Future agricultural conversion Old-growth grasslands are potentially threatened Threats
Reforestation vs. Afforestation Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
IPCC – intergovernmental panel on climate change Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation
Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation
Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation Afforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that has been without forest for much longer.
Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation Afforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that has been without forest for much longer. “The important point, however, is that if both actions are treated equivalently in terms of accounting, their precise distinction is not important for the implementation of the [Kyoto] Protocol.”
Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation Afforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that has been without forest for much longer. “The important point, however, is that if both actions are treated equivalently in terms of accounting, their precise distinction is not important for the implementation of the [Kyoto] Protocol.” Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions via afforestation is dangerous for non-forest ecosystems !!
Trenches dug for a tree plantation activity in a savanna, originally dominated by open grassland and few trees. Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Landscape overview of large-scale Wattle plantations on montane grasslands of the Shola- grassland complex, India. Threats
Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Threats
Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Threats campo sujo grassland, Cerrado
Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Tree planting in Vereda (wet grasslands of the Cerrado) Threats campo sujo grassland, Cerrado
Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Tree planting in Vereda (wet grasslands of the Cerrado) Threats campo sujo grassland, Cerrado
Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Eucalyptus logs lay on the side of the dirt road on the Plantar property. They are ready to be burned for charcoal and transformed into pig iron used in the manufacturing of automobile steel. Photo credit: Brendan Borrell by Brendan Borrell on 13 April 2015 Threats
Tropical grasslands Resilience
Tropical grasslands Resilience sensu Hodgson et al. 2015: resistance and recovery to disturbances
McIntyre and Hobbs 1999 Endogenous disturbances = disturbances to which the system has been exposed repeatedly through evolutionary time and which, with appropriate regimes, maintain biodiversity Tropical grasslands Resilience sensu Hodgson et al. 2015: resistance and recovery to disturbances
McIntyre and Hobbs 1999 Endogenous disturbances Exogenous disturbances = novel disturbances that are recent in origin, and frequently result from changes in human activities. Tropical grasslands = disturbances to which the system has been exposed repeatedly through evolutionary time and which, with appropriate regimes, maintain biodiversity sensu Hodgson et al. 2015: resistance and recovery to disturbances Resilience
Tropical grasslands Cerrado Resilience to fire
Tropical grasslands Cerrado 2017 2013 2018 2009 Resilience to fire
Tropical grasslands Cerrado Resilience to fire 2017 lightning-generated natural fire regimes selected for adaptive response in plants (Coutinho 1976)
Tropical grasslands Cerrado Resilience to fire 2017 lightning-generated natural fire regimes selected for adaptive response in plants (Coutinho 1976) the flowering of most herbaceous and suffruticouse (geoxyle) species of Cerrado depends quantitatively or qualitatively on fire
Tropical grasslands Cerrado fire may have been an important evolutionary factor in Cerrado some 10 million years ago Resilience to fire 2009
Tropical grasslands Cerrado fire may have been an important evolutionary factor in Cerrado some 10 million years ago Resilience to fire 2009 (H) A branch of the geoxylic suffrutex or ‘‘underground tree’’, Andira humilis (I) Thick corky bark, Andira cordata (scale bars 10 cm)
Tropical grasslands Cerrado Campo arenoso after fire (Brazil) Resilience to fire 2018
Tropical grasslands Cerrado Campo arenoso after fire (Brazil) Resilience to fire 2018 Campos arenosos (campo rupestre grasslands) Time since last fire
Tropical grasslands adaptive traits such as thick, corky or spongy bark and well-developed underground storage organs Bond & Keeley 2005, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 Resilience to fire
plants show responses that enable them to persist or thrive in the face of recurrent fires. Tropical grasslands Bond & Keeley 2005, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 Resilience to fire
to grazing These traits also allow plants to resprout after being grazed on. Tropical grasslands Bond & Keeley 2005, Fidelis et al. 2014, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 Ozotocerus bezoarticus Resilience
Tropical grasslands Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa to grazingResilience
Tropical grasslands Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa Charles-Dominique et al. 2016 Potential factors responsible for the rise of savannas. to grazingResilience
Tropical grasslands Intensive cattle grazing in Cerrado, “improved” pastures vs. Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa to grazingResilience
Tropical grasslands Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa to grazingResilience Kolbek & Alves 2008 vs.
Tropical grasslands vs. to grazingResilience
Tropical grasslands to grazingResilience vs. moderate/extensive cattle grazing where, when, how
low-intensity domestic livestock grazing can help maintaining open and diverse grasslands where fire management is forbidden or restricted Tropical grasslands to grazingResilience
to exogenous disturbances - drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime Tropical grasslands Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 Resilience
- drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime - afforestation - tree invasion Zaloumis & Bond 2011, Harrington 2011 Abreu & Durigan 2011, Parr et al. 2012 Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 Tropical grasslands to exogenous disturbancesResilience
- drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime - afforestation - tree invasion - invasive plant colonization Gorgone-Barbosa et al., Pivello et al. 1999, Barbosa et al. 2010 Zaloumis & Bond 2011, Harrington 2011 Abreu & Durigan 2011, Parr et al. 2012 Tropical grasslands Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
- drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime - afforestation - tree invasion - invasive plant colonization depends on - the intensity - the duration  the quality and quantity of the internal species pool Gorgone-Barbosa et al., Pivello et al. 1999, Barbosa et al. 2010 of the disturbance sensu Fattorini & Halle 2004 Zaloumis & Bond 2011, Harrington 2011 Abreu & Durigan 2011, Parr et al. 2012 Tropical grasslands Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
after afforestation, no way back? Zaloumis & Bond 2011 Tropical grasslands forbs Restoration 4 to 17 yrs after tree clearing
- agriculture - mining Tropical grasslands Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
- agriculture - mining Tropical grasslands Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 old-growth highland grassland, South Africa secondary grassland after cultivation Zaloumis 2013 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
- agriculture - mining Tropical grasslands Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 old-growth highland grassland, South Africa secondary grassland after cultivation campo pedregoso, campo rupestre grassland, Brazil secondary grassland after quarrying Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
Tropical grasslands Restoration
109 articles - tropical forest Tropical grasslands Restoration
109 articles - tropical forest Tropical grasslands Restoration 14 articles 8 relevant - tropical grassland - subtropical grassland - savanna
Tropical/subtropical forests 51% Temperate / boreal forests 18% Savannas and grasslands 13% Wetlands (coastal and continental) 10% Mediterranean, drylands and deserts 6% Mountains 2% Representativeness of different biomes among abstracts accepted for SER2017 (presentations invited for symposia, contributed oral presentations and posters). Only abstracts providing information about specific ecoregions were considered (n=627). Tropical grasslands SER2017 by biomes Restoration
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Tropical grasslands Restoration
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion Tropical grasslands Restoration
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Tropical grasslands Restoration
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Tropical grasslands Restoration except in particular cases where - USOs and bud bank have been destroyed by the disturbance (agriculture, mining) - the seed bank is saturated with invasive species
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Tropical grasslands Restoration
Tropical grasslands Pilon et al. 2017 old-growth grasslands degraded areas + soil transfer old-growth wet Cerrado grasslands, Brazil Restoration degraded areas topsoil collection Result of soil transfer on degraded areas
Tropical grasslands old-growth copper grassland, Congo Le Stradic et al. 2015 Restoration
Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo
Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015  loss of plant community structure old-growth copper grassland, Congo
Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015  loss of plant community structure old-growth copper grassland, Congo  conserve some target species  loss of all deep-rooted species  100% weed cover
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing, soil transfer Tropical grasslands Restoration
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing, soil transfer - low quantity or quality Tropical grasslands Restoration
Tropical grasslands Le Stradic et al. 2014 degraded areas + hay transfer old-growth grasslands, campos rupestres, Brazil Restoration
Tropical grasslands Dayrell et al. 2016 Restoration old-growth grasslands, campos rupestres, Brazil
Tropical grasslands degraded areas + hay transfer old-growth grasslands Restoration Pilon et al. 2017 old-growth wet Cerrado grasslands, Brazil hay gathering result of hay transfer on degraded areas
Tropical grasslands Sampaio et al. 2015 Restoration
Tropical grasslands 0% native plant cover  100% exotic plant cover 40% native plant cover 20% exotic plant cover Restoration Sampaio et al. 2015
Tropical grasslands 0% native plant cover  100% exotic plant cover 40% native plant cover 20% exotic plant cover 25 tree species 7 grass species Restoration Sampaio et al. 2015
Tropical grasslands Restoration ~90 woody species
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing, , soil transfer - low quantity or quality - extremely difficult to uproot and transfer USOs Tropical grasslands Restoration
Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo Turf transfer
Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo Turf transfer  loss of plant community structure
Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo Turf transfer  conserve most target species  loss of some deep-rooted species  high weed cover  loss of plant community structure
Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing - low quantity or quality - extremely difficult to uproot and transfer USOs - extremely slow growth Tropical grasslands Restoration
Tropical grasslands Restoration Le Stradic 2012 Turfs old-growth campo rupestre grasslands (Brazil) transferred to degraded area
Tropical grasslands Le Stradic 2012 Restoration Turfs old-growth campo rupestre grasslands (Brazil) transferred to degraded area
Tropical grasslands Conclusion
Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030. old-growth savannas natural wetlands native grasslands
Tropical grasslands Conclusion “There are some places where restoration is far more challenging than others” K. Suding
Tropical grasslands Conclusion “There are some places where restoration is far more challenging than others” K. Suding Bond & Parr 2010, Overbeck et al. 2013, 2015, Parr et al. 2014, Silveira et al. 2016 under valued and under studied
Tropical grasslands Conclusion “There are some places where restoration is far more challenging than others” K. Suding Bond & Parr 2010, Overbeck et al. 2013, 2015, Parr et al. 2014, Silveira et al. 2016 under valued and under studied  real challenge  way more studies needed
Co-authors: Soizig Le Stradic, Fernando A. O. Silveira, Alessandra Fidelis, Gerhard E. Overbeck, Giselda Durigan, G. Wilson Fernandes, Julia-Maria Hermann, William J. Bond, Gregory Mahy, Swanni T. Alvarado, Nicholas P. Zaloumis, Joseph W. Veldman Elise Buisson Avignon University, IMBE, CNRS, IRD, AMU (France) elise.buisson@imbe.fr Thank you for your attention ! What do we know about tropical old-growth grassland resilience and restoration? Special thanks to Natashi A. Lima Pilon, Jayashree Ratnam, Mercedes Bustamante, Colin Osborne, and the COP21 working group on grassy ecosystems

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08.40hs - 09.20hs - What do we know about

  • 1. What do we know about tropical old-growth grassland resilience and restoration? Elise Buisson Avignon University, IMBE, CNRS, IRD, AMU (France) elise.buisson@imbe.fr
  • 2. What do we know about tropical old-growth grassland resilience and restoration? Co-authors: Soizig Le Stradic, Fernando A. O. Silveira, Alessandra Fidelis, Gerhard E. Overbeck, Giselda Durigan, G. Wilson Fernandes, Julia-Maria Hermann, William J. Bond, Gregory Mahy, Swanni T. Alvarado, Nicholas P. Zaloumis, Joseph W. Veldman Elise Buisson Avignon University, IMBE, CNRS, IRD, AMU (France) elise.buisson@imbe.fr
  • 4. Grasslands = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Savannas = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Grasslands and savannas Hill & Hanan 2010 Parr et al. 2014 Introduction
  • 5. Grasslands = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Tree cover is less than 10%. Savannas = lands with continuous herbaceous cover Tree cover up to 80%. Grasslands and savannas Hill & Hanan 2010 Parr et al. 2014 Introduction
  • 6. Grassy ecosystems cover around 52 million km², ca. 40% of the global land surface on Earth Grasslands and savannas White et al. 2000; Gibson 2009 NESCent Grasslands Working Group, unpublished Introduction
  • 7. Tropical grasslands and savannas NESCent Grasslands Working Group, unpublished Parr et al. 2014, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 20% of the global land surface on Earth Introduction
  • 8. Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Introduction
  • 9. Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Savanna in Hwange NP, Zimbabwe Savanna in Kruger NP, RSA Introduction
  • 10. Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Savanna in Hwange NP, Zimbabwe Savanna in Kruger NP, RSA Katanga copper belt grasslands, Congo Introduction
  • 11. Tropical grasslands and savannas Savanna in Tanzania Savanna in Hwange NP, Zimbabwe Savanna in Kruger NP, RSA Rocky grasslands and Tapia savannas in Ibity NP, Madagascar Katanga copper belt grasslands, Congo Introduction
  • 12. Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 13. Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Savanna in French Guyana Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 14. Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Cerrado savanna in Brazil Savanna in French Guyana Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 15. Savanna in eastern lowland Bolivia Cerrado savanna in Brazil Savanna in French Guyana Campo rupestre grasslands in Serra do Cipó, Brazil Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 16. Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 17. Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 18. JayashreeRatnametal.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B2016 Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Broadleaf Dipterocarp savanna in Thailand & Cambodia Introduction
  • 19. JayashreeRatnametal.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B2016 Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Broadleaf Dipterocarp savanna in Thailand & Cambodia Mixed broadleaf savanna in Yuanjiang Valley, China Introduction
  • 20. JayashreeRatnametal.Phil.Trans.R.Soc.B2016 Shola grasslands in western ghats, India Grasslands supporting Blackbuck Antilope cervicapra (native to the Indian subcontinent) … and Great Indian Bustard Ardeotis nigriceps Tropical grasslands and savannas Broadleaf Dipterocarp savanna in Thailand & Cambodia Pine savannah (Pinus kesiya) on Mt Ugo, The Philippines Mixed broadleaf savanna in Yuanjiang Valley, China Introduction
  • 21. Grasslands & savannas of Australia Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 22. Longleaf pine savanna in southern USA Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 23. Longleaf pine savanna in southern USA Coastal grasslands, Maputaland, RSA Highland grasslands, RSA Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 24. Longleaf pine savanna in southern USA Pampa grasslands in southern Brazil Campo sulino grasslands in southern Brazil Coastal grasslands, Maputaland, RSA Highland grasslands, RSA Tropical grasslands and savannas Introduction
  • 25. Tropical grasslands and savannas There are also recently formed, anthropogenic grasslands Introduction
  • 26. Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
  • 27. Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
  • 28. Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
  • 29. Tropical grasslands and savannas anthropogenic forest-derived savanna native savanna Introduction
  • 30. Tropical grasslands and savannas native savanna detrimental to their conservation - have for long been wrongly misinterpreted as the result of deforestation - hard to distinguish at first sight Introduction
  • 32. Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth concept Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by
  • 33. Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by 1. composition - high herbaceous species richness - high endemism - unique species compositions Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth concept
  • 34. Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by 2. intact disturbance regimes Old-growth concept Old-growth concept
  • 35. 3. Underground storage organs, high below-ground C storage Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by Old-growth concept
  • 36. 4. Fire adaptations • Resprouting from underground buds • Fire-stimulated flowering / germination • Fire-insulated bark Old-growth concept Veldman et al. 2015 Old-growth grasslands are ancient ecosystems characterized by Old-growth concept
  • 37. Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept rainfall rainfall Ground water recharge
  • 38. Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept rainfall rainfall evapotranspiration rain interception evapotranspiration rain interception Ground water recharge
  • 39. Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept GroundwaterGroundwater rainfall rainfall rain interception evapotranspiration rain interception transpiration transpirati slide: G. Durigan evapotranspiration Ground water recharge
  • 40. Savanna Forest Ecosystem services Old-growth concept Ground waterGround water rainfall rainfall rain interception evapotranspiration rain interception transpiration transpirati slide: G. Durigan / M. Bustamente Water resources Headwaters of important hydrological basins = water supply for millions of people: 1. Araguaia- Tocantins 2. São Francisco 3. Paraná 1 – 78% 2 – 50% 3 – 48% evapotranspiration Ground water recharge
  • 41. Savanna Ecosystem services Old-growth concept - Underground trees - Underground storage organs C storage C storage Forest C storage
  • 42. Savanna Ecosystem services Old-growth concept Social diversity Cerrado: 38 indigenous societies Quilombolas – communities of descendants of former African slaves. Traditional rural communities slide: G. Durigan / M.Bustamente Ecotourism
  • 43. ↗ due to - forest clearing - planted pasture for raising cattle = secondary / anthropogenic grasslands, often species poor Tropical grasslands and savannas Old-growth concept
  • 44. ↗ anthropogenic grasslands White et al. 2000; Veldman et al. 2015; Bond 2016 ↘ native & old-growth grasslands due to afforestation, agricultural expansion, desertification, mining, urbanization and other changes in land-cover or have been degraded by changes in fire regimes, exotic species introduction, fertilization, drainage, liming, overgrazing, etc. Tropical grasslands and savannas Old-growth concept
  • 45. ↗ anthropogenic grasslands White et al. 2000; Veldman et al. 2015; Bond 2016 ↘ native & old-growth grasslands due to afforestation, agricultural expansion, desertification, mining, urbanization and other changes in land-cover or have been degraded by changes in fire regimes, exotic species introduction, fertilization, drainage, liming, overgrazing, etc. Tropical grasslands and savannas Threats
  • 46. Past agricultural conversion Foley et al. 2011 Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
  • 47. Past agricultural conversion Foley et al. 2011 Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
  • 48. Data: 3rd National Inventory of GHG, MCTI Recent agricultural conversion slide: M. Bustamente Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
  • 49. Future agricultural conversion Old-growth grasslands are potentially threatened Threats
  • 50. Reforestation vs. Afforestation Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats
  • 51. IPCC – intergovernmental panel on climate change Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation
  • 52. Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation
  • 53. Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation Afforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that has been without forest for much longer.
  • 54. Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation Afforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that has been without forest for much longer. “The important point, however, is that if both actions are treated equivalently in terms of accounting, their precise distinction is not important for the implementation of the [Kyoto] Protocol.”
  • 55. Reforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that had recent tree cover Old-growth grasslands are threatened Threats Reforestation vs. Afforestation Afforestation refers to establishment of forest on land that has been without forest for much longer. “The important point, however, is that if both actions are treated equivalently in terms of accounting, their precise distinction is not important for the implementation of the [Kyoto] Protocol.” Mitigation of greenhouse gas emissions via afforestation is dangerous for non-forest ecosystems !!
  • 56. Trenches dug for a tree plantation activity in a savanna, originally dominated by open grassland and few trees. Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Landscape overview of large-scale Wattle plantations on montane grasslands of the Shola- grassland complex, India. Threats
  • 57. Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Threats
  • 58. Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Threats campo sujo grassland, Cerrado
  • 59. Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Tree planting in Vereda (wet grasslands of the Cerrado) Threats campo sujo grassland, Cerrado
  • 60. Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Tree planting in Vereda (wet grasslands of the Cerrado) Threats campo sujo grassland, Cerrado
  • 61. Old-growth grasslands are highly threatened Eucalyptus logs lay on the side of the dirt road on the Plantar property. They are ready to be burned for charcoal and transformed into pig iron used in the manufacturing of automobile steel. Photo credit: Brendan Borrell by Brendan Borrell on 13 April 2015 Threats
  • 63. Tropical grasslands Resilience sensu Hodgson et al. 2015: resistance and recovery to disturbances
  • 64. McIntyre and Hobbs 1999 Endogenous disturbances = disturbances to which the system has been exposed repeatedly through evolutionary time and which, with appropriate regimes, maintain biodiversity Tropical grasslands Resilience sensu Hodgson et al. 2015: resistance and recovery to disturbances
  • 65. McIntyre and Hobbs 1999 Endogenous disturbances Exogenous disturbances = novel disturbances that are recent in origin, and frequently result from changes in human activities. Tropical grasslands = disturbances to which the system has been exposed repeatedly through evolutionary time and which, with appropriate regimes, maintain biodiversity sensu Hodgson et al. 2015: resistance and recovery to disturbances Resilience
  • 68. Tropical grasslands Cerrado Resilience to fire 2017 lightning-generated natural fire regimes selected for adaptive response in plants (Coutinho 1976)
  • 69. Tropical grasslands Cerrado Resilience to fire 2017 lightning-generated natural fire regimes selected for adaptive response in plants (Coutinho 1976) the flowering of most herbaceous and suffruticouse (geoxyle) species of Cerrado depends quantitatively or qualitatively on fire
  • 70. Tropical grasslands Cerrado fire may have been an important evolutionary factor in Cerrado some 10 million years ago Resilience to fire 2009
  • 71. Tropical grasslands Cerrado fire may have been an important evolutionary factor in Cerrado some 10 million years ago Resilience to fire 2009 (H) A branch of the geoxylic suffrutex or ‘‘underground tree’’, Andira humilis (I) Thick corky bark, Andira cordata (scale bars 10 cm)
  • 72. Tropical grasslands Cerrado Campo arenoso after fire (Brazil) Resilience to fire 2018
  • 73. Tropical grasslands Cerrado Campo arenoso after fire (Brazil) Resilience to fire 2018 Campos arenosos (campo rupestre grasslands) Time since last fire
  • 74. Tropical grasslands adaptive traits such as thick, corky or spongy bark and well-developed underground storage organs Bond & Keeley 2005, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 Resilience to fire
  • 75. plants show responses that enable them to persist or thrive in the face of recurrent fires. Tropical grasslands Bond & Keeley 2005, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 Resilience to fire
  • 76. to grazing These traits also allow plants to resprout after being grazed on. Tropical grasslands Bond & Keeley 2005, Fidelis et al. 2014, Veldman et al. 2015, Bond 2016 Ozotocerus bezoarticus Resilience
  • 77. Tropical grasslands Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa to grazingResilience
  • 78. Tropical grasslands Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa Charles-Dominique et al. 2016 Potential factors responsible for the rise of savannas. to grazingResilience
  • 79. Tropical grasslands Intensive cattle grazing in Cerrado, “improved” pastures vs. Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa to grazingResilience
  • 80. Tropical grasslands Pleistocene megafauna, wildlife fauna in Africa to grazingResilience Kolbek & Alves 2008 vs.
  • 83. low-intensity domestic livestock grazing can help maintaining open and diverse grasslands where fire management is forbidden or restricted Tropical grasslands to grazingResilience
  • 84. to exogenous disturbances - drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime Tropical grasslands Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 Resilience
  • 85. - drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime - afforestation - tree invasion Zaloumis & Bond 2011, Harrington 2011 Abreu & Durigan 2011, Parr et al. 2012 Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 Tropical grasslands to exogenous disturbancesResilience
  • 86. - drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime - afforestation - tree invasion - invasive plant colonization Gorgone-Barbosa et al., Pivello et al. 1999, Barbosa et al. 2010 Zaloumis & Bond 2011, Harrington 2011 Abreu & Durigan 2011, Parr et al. 2012 Tropical grasslands Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
  • 87. - drastic changes to the endogenous disturbance regime - afforestation - tree invasion - invasive plant colonization depends on - the intensity - the duration  the quality and quantity of the internal species pool Gorgone-Barbosa et al., Pivello et al. 1999, Barbosa et al. 2010 of the disturbance sensu Fattorini & Halle 2004 Zaloumis & Bond 2011, Harrington 2011 Abreu & Durigan 2011, Parr et al. 2012 Tropical grasslands Uys et al. 2004, Fidelis et al. 2012, 2013, Veldman et al. 2013 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
  • 88. after afforestation, no way back? Zaloumis & Bond 2011 Tropical grasslands forbs Restoration 4 to 17 yrs after tree clearing
  • 89. - agriculture - mining Tropical grasslands Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
  • 90. - agriculture - mining Tropical grasslands Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 old-growth highland grassland, South Africa secondary grassland after cultivation Zaloumis 2013 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
  • 91. - agriculture - mining Tropical grasslands Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 old-growth highland grassland, South Africa secondary grassland after cultivation campo pedregoso, campo rupestre grassland, Brazil secondary grassland after quarrying Zaloumis 2013 Le Stradic 2012 to exogenous disturbancesResilience
  • 93. 109 articles - tropical forest Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 94. 109 articles - tropical forest Tropical grasslands Restoration 14 articles 8 relevant - tropical grassland - subtropical grassland - savanna
  • 95. Tropical/subtropical forests 51% Temperate / boreal forests 18% Savannas and grasslands 13% Wetlands (coastal and continental) 10% Mediterranean, drylands and deserts 6% Mountains 2% Representativeness of different biomes among abstracts accepted for SER2017 (presentations invited for symposia, contributed oral presentations and posters). Only abstracts providing information about specific ecoregions were considered (n=627). Tropical grasslands SER2017 by biomes Restoration
  • 96. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 97. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 98. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 99. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Tropical grasslands Restoration except in particular cases where - USOs and bud bank have been destroyed by the disturbance (agriculture, mining) - the seed bank is saturated with invasive species
  • 100. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 101. Tropical grasslands Pilon et al. 2017 old-growth grasslands degraded areas + soil transfer old-growth wet Cerrado grasslands, Brazil Restoration degraded areas topsoil collection Result of soil transfer on degraded areas
  • 102. Tropical grasslands old-growth copper grassland, Congo Le Stradic et al. 2015 Restoration
  • 103. Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo
  • 104. Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015  loss of plant community structure old-growth copper grassland, Congo
  • 105. Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015  loss of plant community structure old-growth copper grassland, Congo  conserve some target species  loss of all deep-rooted species  100% weed cover
  • 106. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing, soil transfer Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 107. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing, soil transfer - low quantity or quality Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 108. Tropical grasslands Le Stradic et al. 2014 degraded areas + hay transfer old-growth grasslands, campos rupestres, Brazil Restoration
  • 109. Tropical grasslands Dayrell et al. 2016 Restoration old-growth grasslands, campos rupestres, Brazil
  • 110. Tropical grasslands degraded areas + hay transfer old-growth grasslands Restoration Pilon et al. 2017 old-growth wet Cerrado grasslands, Brazil hay gathering result of hay transfer on degraded areas
  • 111. Tropical grasslands Sampaio et al. 2015 Restoration
  • 112. Tropical grasslands 0% native plant cover  100% exotic plant cover 40% native plant cover 20% exotic plant cover Restoration Sampaio et al. 2015
  • 113. Tropical grasslands 0% native plant cover  100% exotic plant cover 40% native plant cover 20% exotic plant cover 25 tree species 7 grass species Restoration Sampaio et al. 2015
  • 115. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing, , soil transfer - low quantity or quality - extremely difficult to uproot and transfer USOs Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 116. Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo Turf transfer
  • 117. Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo Turf transfer  loss of plant community structure
  • 118. Tropical grasslands high [Cu] lower [Cu] Restoration Le Stradic et al. 2015 old-growth copper grassland, Congo Turf transfer  conserve most target species  loss of some deep-rooted species  high weed cover  loss of plant community structure
  • 119. Restoration techniques Temperate grasslands Tropical grasslands Site preparation = topsoil work common  plowing, harrowing, soil inversion, soil transfer, etc. minor changes in soil structure  hamper natural regeneration from USOs & bud banks Plant introduction local native plants: hay transfer, seed sowing - low quantity or quality - extremely difficult to uproot and transfer USOs - extremely slow growth Tropical grasslands Restoration
  • 120. Tropical grasslands Restoration Le Stradic 2012 Turfs old-growth campo rupestre grasslands (Brazil) transferred to degraded area
  • 121. Tropical grasslands Le Stradic 2012 Restoration Turfs old-growth campo rupestre grasslands (Brazil) transferred to degraded area
  • 123. Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
  • 124. Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
  • 125. Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
  • 126. Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030.
  • 127. Tropical grasslands Conclusion is a global effort to bring 150 million hectares of the world’s deforested and degraded land into restoration by 2020, and 350 million hectares by 2030. old-growth savannas natural wetlands native grasslands
  • 128. Tropical grasslands Conclusion “There are some places where restoration is far more challenging than others” K. Suding
  • 129. Tropical grasslands Conclusion “There are some places where restoration is far more challenging than others” K. Suding Bond & Parr 2010, Overbeck et al. 2013, 2015, Parr et al. 2014, Silveira et al. 2016 under valued and under studied
  • 130. Tropical grasslands Conclusion “There are some places where restoration is far more challenging than others” K. Suding Bond & Parr 2010, Overbeck et al. 2013, 2015, Parr et al. 2014, Silveira et al. 2016 under valued and under studied  real challenge  way more studies needed
  • 131. Co-authors: Soizig Le Stradic, Fernando A. O. Silveira, Alessandra Fidelis, Gerhard E. Overbeck, Giselda Durigan, G. Wilson Fernandes, Julia-Maria Hermann, William J. Bond, Gregory Mahy, Swanni T. Alvarado, Nicholas P. Zaloumis, Joseph W. Veldman Elise Buisson Avignon University, IMBE, CNRS, IRD, AMU (France) elise.buisson@imbe.fr Thank you for your attention ! What do we know about tropical old-growth grassland resilience and restoration? Special thanks to Natashi A. Lima Pilon, Jayashree Ratnam, Mercedes Bustamante, Colin Osborne, and the COP21 working group on grassy ecosystems

Editor's Notes

  1. World Bank Targets African savannas FAO targets grasslands but not forests due to misperception of low biodiversity and C in grasslands relative to forest (this is a false assumption – Searchinger et al. 2015 Nature Climate Change