02_03_Algorithms and Programming_Computer Components.pptx

Computing Concepts. Prepared by: Engr. Nathaniel M. Cabansay 1
Computing Concepts
Lessons 2 and 3:
Programming and
Hardware
Prepared by Engr. Nathaniel M.
Cabansay
Stock image by Joshua Woroniecki provided on Pixabay

Objectives
• Discuss the basic concepts and mechanism of data
structures and identify the different types of typical data
structures and their characteristics
• Identify and describe the different types of programming
languages and their characteristics
• Identify and describe the different types of markup
languages and their characteristics

Objectives
• Describe the architecture, structure, scheme and operating
principles of the processor and solve problems on processor
performance.
• List the storage hierarchy, types of buses, input/output
interfaces, device drivers, and input/output devices along
with their characteristics.

2-1: Data Structures

Data and Data Structures
• Data – information manipulated internally by a computer.
• Data Structure – way of organizing data in a computer so it
could be used effectively.

Common Data Structures
• Array – holds items of the same type [1].
• Element – an item stored in the array.
• Index – location of an element in an array. It is used to identify the
element. The index of the first element of an array is typically 0.
• Linked List / List – a data structure that decides the
arrangement of data with a pointer (reference to the
memory address of data) to the next element with the
option to pointer to the previous one [1].

3 7 12 20 38 69 143 420 1337 8080
Array
A
head B C null
Linked List
(Singly-Linked)
Index
0

• Stack – follows the Last In, First Out (LIFO) principle.
Elements are added and removed from the same end,
known as the top [2].
• Push – insert an item on top of the stack.
• Pop – remove an item from the top of the stack.
• Queue – follows the First In, First Out (FIFO) principle.
Elements are added at one end called the rear, and removed
from the other end called the front [2].
• Enqueue – insert an item into the rear of the queue.
• Dequeue – remove an item from the front of the queue.

Common Data Structures: Stack
3
Purple item – top of the stack
push(3)
3
push(7)
7
3
push(12)
7
12
pop
3
7

Common Data Structures: Queue
3
Pink item – front of the queue
enqueue(3)
3
enqueue(7) 7
3
enqueue(12) 7 12
dequeue() 12
7
Purple item – rear of the queue

• Tree – nonlinear hierarchical data structure consisting of
nodes connected by edges.
• Node – corresponds to data.
• Branch / Edge – connects a node to another.
• Root – highest-order node. Has no parent.
• Child – node branching off under a node
• Parent – original data before it begins to branch
• Sibling – has a common parent and is on the same level.
• Leaf – lowest-order node. Has no children.
• Internal node – a node that is not a leaf.
• Subtree – tree of all descendants of a node

Common Data Structures: Tree
Root
Node
Internal
Node 1
Leaf
Node 1
Leaf
Node 2
Internal
Node 2
Leaf
Node 3

• Binary Tree – a type of tree which has up to two children.
• Binary trees can be traversed in many ways [3]:
• Pre-order traversal: Root, left, right
• In-order traversal: Left, root, right
• Post-order traversal: Left, right, root
• Level order traversal: All nodes on the same level are traversed
from left to right.

Binary Tree Traversal
• Examples of binary tree traversal
• Pre-order traversal
• A, B, D, E, C, F, G
A
B
D E
C
F G

• In-order traversal
• D, B, E, A, F, C, G
A
B
D E
C
F G

• Post-order traversal
• D, E, B, F, G, C, A
A
B
D E
C
F G

• Level order traversal
• A, B, C, D, E, F, G
A
B
D E
C
F G

2-2: Algorithms and
Flowcharts

What is an Algorithm?
• Algorithm – a step-by-step way of getting something done
[4], just like computer programs or processes.

What is a Flowchart?
• Flowchart – a diagram depicting the flow and logic of a
process or system such as a computer program or an
algorithm [5]. It uses simple shapes and a set of standard
symbols to define the type of step and the sequence [5].

Why Use a Flowchart?
• A flowchart helps you outline a computer program or
process or algorithm clearly [4], [6].
• You want users or even you yourself to be able to
understand how this process works.

Symbols Used In Flowcharting
• Flowcharting uses various shapes and symbols, but the
most common ones are:
1. Terminator, represented by an oblong/oval/pill
2. Process, represented by a rectangle
3. Data or Input/Output, represented by a parallelogram.
4. Directional Flow, represented by arrows with the arrowhead
indicating the direction
5. Decision, represented by a diamond

1. Terminator
• Represented by an oval/oblong/pill shape
• Marks the start and the end of the process [6].
• It usually contains the words “Start” or “End” but may also
contain the initial conditions and the outcome of the
process.
Start End

2. Process
• Represented by a rectangle
• Marks an action or step in the process [6].
• Manual actions and automatic steps use this symbol.
Multiply
integer a by
integer b
Press any key
to continue

3. Input/Output
• Represented by a parallelogram
• Marks where a system input or a system output takes place
[6].
Input
integer
x
Print
“Hello
world”

4. Directional Flow
• Represented by an arrow
• Represent the paths a flowchart’s user takes between steps.
Dotted or dashed arrows can represent alternate paths [6].

5. Decision
• Represented by a diamond
• Represent decisions to be made, often based on a true/false
or yes/no question [6].
Is x
greater
than or
equal to 7?
Does the
input
match the
keyword?

An App You Can Use in Constructing
a Flowchart
• You can use the free and open-source web app Draw.io
Diagrams to create flowcharts.
• Link to free web app: https://app.diagrams.net/
• It is also downloadable as a desktop application on
Windows, Mac OS, or Linux here:
https://github.com/jgraph/drawio-desktop/releases/tag/v24.
7.5
. This is for when you want to work offline, or your Internet
connection isn’t as good.

Steps in Constructing a Flowchart
1. The Start Terminator. Never forget to include the Start
terminator to indicate the start of the process.
2. Define the steps in your process. If you have a process,
analyze and break it down into certain steps.
3. If there are conditionals, define at least two paths.
Some parts of the process require decisions to be made,
needing at least two different sets of actions to be taken.
4. The End Terminator. Once your process is finished, do
not forget the End terminator.

Tips in Constructing a Flowchart
• As much as possible, work in a single direction (top to
bottom, left to right) for easier readability.
• If you must break up a complex flowchart, use connector
symbols.
6. On-page connectors – link elements on the same page and can
replace long arrows on complex flowcharts. Represented by
circles.
7. Off-page connectors – link elements across different pages.
Represented by irregular pentagons.
A A
To
p. 3
Fro
m
p. 2

Flowcharts in Programming
• Computer programs can implement three basic types of
logic [7]. These can be described using flowcharts. They are:
1. Sequential Logic – simply executing instructions one after
another
2. Selection/Conditional Logic – deciding the next instructions to
follow based on certain conditions
3. Iterative Logic – repeating execution of a set of instructions
• We will deal with these types of logic in more detail in the
next lessons.

Sequential Logic Flowchart
• Sequential logic is the simplest type of logic. It simply
involves processes happening one at a time. No conditionals
or iterations will occur.
Start
Step 1
Step 2
End

Example 1
• This flowchart describes a simple “Hello world” output.
Start
End
Output
“Hello
World”

Example 2
• This flowchart describes a simple algorithm that gets two
integer inputs a and b, adds them together into a variable
called sum, and outputs sum.
Start End
Output
sum
Input
integer
a
Input
integer
b
Calculate
sum = a + b

Conditional Logic Flowchart
• Conditional logic involves a form of decision making,
depending on whether a certain condition is met or not.
Is the
condition
met?
Process A Process B
Yes
No

Example 3
• This flowchart describes an algorithm that takes an integer
age, and outputs “Minor” if age < 18 and “Adult” otherwise.
Start End
Print
“Minor
”
Input
integer
age
Is
age<18?
Print
“Adult”
Yes
No

Example 4
• This flowchart describes a process that takes two integers a
and b, and outputs the larger one of the two.
Start End
Output
a
Input
integer
a
Input
integer
b
Is
a>b?
Output
b
Yes
No

Iterative Logic Flowchart
• Iterative logic involves a set of actions being repeated
while a certain condition is still met.
Is the
condition
(still)
met?
Anything done
after
Initial status of
counter
Action to
counter
Update to new
status of counter
No
Yes

Example 5
• This flowchart describes a process that outputs the value of
a variable x five times.
Start End
Is
x 5?
≤
Set a variable
x = 1
Add 1 to the
value of x
Output
x
Yes
No

Example 6
• This flowchart describes a process that adds all inputs until
the user enters 0, after which the sum is outputted.
Start End
Is
n=0?
Set a variable
sum = 0
Add n to the
value of sum
No
Yes
Input
integer
n
Output
sum

2-3: Programming
Languages

Programming
• Computer programs are collections of text that commands
computers to perform algorithms.
• When you write a computer program, you’re in charge! You
are harnessing the computational power of your computer
and making it do what you want it to do.
• Programming languages allow users to write programs to
the computer [8].
• The apps you use everyday were made by programmers,
which you will soon be.

Programming Languages
• Programming languages come in three types according to
readability [8].
• Machine language – consists of only 0s and 1s. Can be
understood by hardware but not by humans.
• Assembly language/Low-level language – machine-centric
language executed quickly. Humans will have some difficulty
understanding this sort of language. Examples: x86 assembly, x64
assembly.
• High-level language – highly-readable languages easily
understood by humans. Must be converted to low-level languages
by either interpreters or compilers. Examples: C, C++, Python, Java,
C#, FORTRAN, COBOL

• Some high-level programming languages include:
• C – a procedural language developed by Dennis Ritchie and is
widely used for system development [1], [8]
• C++ - a superset of C developed by Bjarne Stroustrup. Suitable for
system development while also being suitable for object-oriented
programming. It is used in systems programming (including
embedded systems such as Arduino [9]), and application
programming [1], [8].
• Java – another object-oriented programming language developed
by James Gosling which can run on different hardware as long as a
Java Virtual Machine (JVM) is installed [1], [8]. Widely used in
Android [8].

• Python – an interpreted and object-oriented scripting language
developed by Guido van Rossum which is widely used in artificial
intelligence, machine learning, and data analytics [8].
• JavaScript (JS) – an object-oriented scripting language used to
write programs that run in a web browser [1], [8].
• FORTRAN – language primarily suited for developing programs
related to science and technology. This was one of the first widely-
used high level languages [1].
• COBOL – language primarily suited for developing programs
related to administrative processes [1].

• BASIC – a language frequently used by novices due to its
comparatively easy-to-understand utilization of symbols [1].
• C# – an object-oriented language developed by Microsoft for
the .NET Framework with similar syntax to Java. It is used in
applications and game development.

• Visual BASIC (VB) – another object-oriented language developed
by Microsoft which allows the creation of a program in a visual
environment that uses windows and toolboxes [1]. It is also being
used in the .NET Framework.
• Visual BASIC for Applications (VBA) – a language that allows the
creation of macros, which create a series of specific operations in
an application [1]. Commonly used in Microsoft Excel.

• High-level programming languages have two ways of being
translated into machine code [8].
• Interpreted language – translated and executed one instruction
at a time [1]. Examples: Python.
• Compiled language – translated all at once before execution
occurs [8], [1]. Examples: C, C++, C#, Java

Language Processing
• Language processors convert high-level languages into
machine code [1].
• Compiler – translates entire source programs all at once into
machine language with an executable format.
• Compiled code runs faster than interpreted code.
• Interpreter – executes programs while translating one command
at a time from the source program.
• Bugs are easier to find in interpreted code.

Markup Languages
• Markup languages are used for printing and screen
display. Text is enclosed in marks called tags, with possible
attribute information attached [1].
• The most common markup language is HyperText Markup
Language (HTML), which is commonly used to create web
pages.
• Furthermore, Cascading Style Sheets (CSS) can be used to define
the aesthetics of a webpage.

Markup Languages
• Another common markup language is Extensible Markup
Language (XML), which can be used for almost any purpose
but requires another program such as a parser since tags
have no inherent meanings in XML.

3: Computer Components

Main Units in a Computer
• The hardware functions in your computer can be divided into
five main units [1].
1. Input unit – reads data to be processed by your computer
2. Storage unit – records the data. Separated into main memory and
auxiliary storage.
3. Arithmetic and logical unit (ALU) – performs operations on data in
the storage unit or makes decisions based on the instructions of the
control unit
4. Control unit – interprets a command and gives instructions to the
other units.
5. Output unit – writes the results of the processing in a form that we
can understand.

Main Units in a Computer
• Below is a diagram showing all five major units [1].
Control
unit
Arithmetic
and Logical
Unit (ALU)
Main storage
unit
Input unit
Output
unit
Orange dashed arrows – data flow
Yellow solid arrows – control flow
CPU

Integrated Circuits
• An integrated circuit (IC) or chip packages thousands or
even millions of electrical and electronic components like
resistors, capacitors, inductors, diodes and transistors to
create a circuit that can perform a function [10].
• They commonly look like this from above:
NE555 74HC04 ATmega328P
The NE555 is a timer
integrated circuit
The 74HC04 is a logic circuit
(implements negation/NOT)
The ATmega328P is the microcontroller
used by an Arduino Uno

Classification of Integrated Circuits
[11]
Level of Integration Number of Transistors per Chip
Small Scale Integration (SSI) – logic circuits
(74xx series)
Fewer than 100
Medium Scale Integration (MSI) – basic
operations
100 to 10,000
Large Scale Integration (LSI) – early
microprocessors
10,000 to 100,000
Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) -
microprocessors handling more than 8 bits
100,000 to 1,000,000
Ultra Large Scale Integration (ULSI) – most
modern microprocessors
More than 1,000,000

The Processing Unit
• The control unit and the ALU are collectively referred to as
the Central Processing Unit (CPU) or the processor.
• Aside from the ALU and the control unit, the CPU also has
these parts [1]:
• Registers – temporary storage of data inside the CPU.
• Clock generator (or simply clock) – generates clock signals to
synchronize and control timing of operations between various
devices. It also determines the maximum speed at which other
units can operate.
• Bus – signal path for connecting various devices and registers

Registers
• Computers mainly have these types of registers [1]:
• Instruction register – stores instructions to be executed. Composed of
an instruction and an address part.
• Program counter – stores the address of the instruction to be executed
next.
• General purpose register – can be used for various purposes.
• Accumulator – stores data for computations. Is typically designated as a
general-purpose register.
• Base address register – stores beginning address of a program.
• Index register – stores index for address modification
• Flags – store information of certain statuses.
• Program Status Word – stores running status of a program.

Buses
• CPUs have three types of buses according to usage [1]:
• Address bus – for specifying the reference address to the main
memory unit
• Control bus – for giving directions to each device from the control
unit.
• Data bus – for exchange of data.

Buses
• CPUs send out signal through buses in two ways [1]:
• Serial bus – sends data in the sequence of 1 bit each
• Parallel bus – sends multiple bits at once, depending on the bus
width.
• CPUs can also have buses connected in three ways [1]:
• Internal bus – used inside the CPU
• External bus – connects CPU and external devices.
• System bus – collective term for buses directly connected from CPU to outside
• Memory bus – mainly connected to main memory
• Input/output (I/O) bus – mainly connected to input and output devices.
• Expansion bus – connects the CPU and expansion cards.

Processor Speeds
• Instruction speeds can be measured in fractions of seconds:
millisecond, microsecond, nanosecond, and even
picosecond
• The clock speed is the number of electronic pulses the clock
generator produces per second. This clock speed is
expressed in various multiples of hertz (Hz) such as GHz.

Processor Speeds
• We can also indicate processor speeds by the number of
instructions or operations per second [1]. Two common
metrics are Million Instructions Per Second (MIPS) and
Floating-Point Operations Per Second (FLOPS).
• We can also indicate the execution time of an instruction
using Cycles Per Instruction (CPI), which is the number of
clock pulses required to execute an instruction [1].

CPU Instructions
• The CPU generally follows the instruction cycle of:
1. Fetch – fetch instructions
2. Decode – decode what the instruction means
3. Execute – execute the instruction with the needed operands

Storage
• The computer uses two types of storage [1]:
• Main memory – can directly exchange data with the CPU but is
volatile (contents are lost if power is lost)
• Auxiliary storage – stores data that cannot be accommodated in
main memory and is non-volatile (contents remain even if power is
lost)

Forms of Storage
• The two forms of memory are typically implemented as
follows:
• Main memory – the Random Access Memory (RAM)
• Auxiliary storage – the Read-Only Memory (ROM) and other
storage devices, such as a drive.

Random Access Memory
• In the Random Access Memory (RAM), all read and write
functions are performed here [1].
• It is the primary memory used by your computer and is
quite fast, and tends to be decently large, typically up to 64
GB (with 8 GB being common for both desktop PCs and
mobile phones).
• It can be classified as Static RAM (SRAM) or Dynamic RAM
(DRAM).

Main Memory
• The main memory is broadly composed of three
components.
• Memory unit – contains memory cells that record data [1].
• Read/write feature – reads and writes data in the memory cells [1]
. Connects to the CPU Data Bus
• Address selection feature – interprets a specified address and
selects the appropriate memory cell [1]. Connects to the CPU
Address Bus.

Read Only Memory
• The Read Only Memory (ROM) stores the data when it is
not yet used.
• It is the secondary memory used by your computer, but it
tends to be slower than the RAM. When implemented using
drives, these tend to be larger than the RAM as well.

Read Only Memory
• ROM can be classified as [1]:
• Mask ROM – already manufactured with programs and data
• Programmable ROM – can have data written into it only once
• Erasable PROM (EPROM) – can be erased with ultraviolet (UV) light
and rewritten
• Electrically Erasable PROM / EEPROM – can be erased with
electrical signals and rewritten. Includes flash memory.

Auxiliary Storage Devices
• Auxiliary storage devices include:
• Magnetic disks – use disks with a magnetic material on its surface
and stores data by magnetic variation. Data is stored in concentric
circles referred to as tracks, which are divided into constant lengths
called sectors [1].
• Hard disk drive (HDD) – uses stacked magnetic disks called cylinders in a
firmly sealed case. These tend to be sensitive to vibrations [1]
• Floppy disk (you are most likely to know this as the Save icon) – can be
carried by covering one magnetic disk. Has a small storage capacity and is
easily affected by magnetism [1].

• Optical discs – removable media where reading and writing of
data are done via laser beams [1].
• Compact disc (CD) – can store about 700 MB of data. Uses a low-energy
infrared laser [12].
• Digital video/versatile disc (DVD) – can store about 4.7 GB of data for a
single-layer DVD, or 8.5 GB for a double-layer DVD. Uses a slightly-higher-
energy red laser [12].
• Blu-ray – can store about 25 GB of data. Uses a high-energy blue laser [12].

• Solid-state drives (SSD) – flash-memory based auxiliary storage
devices which can access data faster than HDDs [1].
• USB memory / Flash drive – small to medium-sized drives
equipping flash memory with a USB connector [1].
• SD cards / Memory card – small to medium-sized drives where
flash memory is put on a chip and inserted into a dedicated card
slot [1]. Typically used for external storage on mobile phones and
digital single-lens reflex (DSLR) cameras.

I/O
• Input devices are used for entering data into a computer
[1]. These include the mouse, keyboard, scanners, camera,
microphone, sensors and readers (e.g., barcode readers,
RFID card readers), switches, drawing tablets, and touch
screens.
• Output devices are used for showing the processing results
in a form we can understand [1]. These include the monitor,
printer, speaker, driver units (e.g., motor drivers used to
drive robots) and projector.

Other Devices
• Communication control units are used for various controls
when the computer is connected to a network [1]. The major
example of this is the Network Interface Card (NIC), which
allows the computer to connect to a network, especially the
Internet.

Interfacing Devices
• Device drivers are used to control peripheral devices connected
to input/output devices [1].
• Input/output interfaces (or I/O interfaces) are standards or
rules for connecting peripheral devices to computers [1].
• Serial interface – transfers data serially in units of bits [1]
• Parallel interface – transfers data in parallel in units of bytes or words [1].
• Analog I/O interfaces or converters – since computers use digital
signals, analog signals must be converted to digital signals and vice versa
[1].
• Analog-to-digital converter (ADC)
• Digital-to-analog converter (DAC) typically for audio output

Common Interfaces
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) is a serial interface which can
connect various peripheral devices [1]. Currently, three
generations have been created: USB 1.1, USB 2.0, and USB
3.0.
• Bluetooth – a wireless technology standard connecting
devices such as cell phones and PCs, which uses the 2.4 GHz
frequency band [1].
• High-Definition Multimedia Interface (HDMI) – transmits
audio and video as digital signals [1].

Some Connector Terminology
• Male connectors are those that protrude/have plugs. These
are intended to plug into devices and are typically found on
the ends of cables.
• Female connectors are those that recede/are ports or
sockets. These are intended to be plugged into by devices
and are typically found on the devices themselves.

USB Connector Types
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) has several common connector
types [13]:
• USB-A – the most common types of connector. USB 3.0 ports using
this type of connector are typically indicated in blue.
• USB-B – are square-shaped but larger and are more durable. These
are typically used in printers and scanners.

USB Connector Types
• Universal Serial Bus (USB) has several common connector
types [13]:
• USB-Mini – the first standard attempt to reduce the size of the USB
connector for smaller devices. These are commonly found on
webcams/cameras.
• USB Micro-B – another attempt to reduce the size of USB
connectors for smaller devices. Commonly found on small devices
like smartphones as charging and data ports.
• USB-C – a reversible USB connector used in devices of all sizes like
laptops and many modern smartphones. These can be used both
for charging and for data transfer.

Common Device Drivers
• Basic Input/Output System (BIOS) provides the standard
means of input and output in computers [1].
• Plug and Play (PnP) allows the immediate use of a
peripheral device by just connecting it to a computer [1].
• Plug and pray is sometimes used jokingly to refer to either an
unreliable PnP connection or when someone is being skeptical
about a PnP device (Plug the thing in and pray that it works).

References

References
[1] Information-Technology Promotion Agency, New FE Textbook Vol. 1: IT Fundamentals,
Tokyo, Japan: Infotech Serve, 2015. Available:
https://lightboat.lightworks.co.jp/en-promotion (accessed Nov. 25, 2024).
[2] S.J. Balo. ICT Proficiency Diagnostic Exam Reviewer, 1st
ed., Philippines. Available:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/16K6r1Niqza3ewN9DFPEZBFBwb2-nIqM3/view
(accessed Nov. 25, 2024)
[3] “Tree Traversal Techniques”. GeeksForGeeks.
https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/tree-traversals-inorder-preorder-and-postorder/
[4] E. Woo. “Eddie Woo on Play School (2 of 4: Algorithms)”, YouTube, Jan. 1, 2022.
[Online]. Available: https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=UeatzxjFT6A (accessed Nov. 26,
2024)

References
[5] “What is a flowchart.” Lucidchart. https://www.lucidchart.com/
pages/what-is-a-flowchart-tutorial (accessed Nov. 26, 2024).
[6] “26 popular flowchart symbols explained.” Figma.
https://venngage.com/blog/flowchart-symbols/ (accessed Nov. 26, 2024).
[7] F. J. Mitropulos. “Sequence, selection, and iteration – the building blocks of
programming languages.” LearnProgramming Academy.
https://learnprogramming.academy/programming/
sequence-selection-and-iteration-the-building-blocks-of-programming-languages/
[8] Test Of Practical Competency in IT. TOPCIT Essence Ver. 3 Technical Field 01 Software
Development, Daejeon, South Korea: Ministry of Science, ICT and Future Planning, 2020.
Available: https://www.topcit.or.kr/upload/edubox/essence/ess_en_01/index.html

References
[9] K. Söderby. “Getting Started with Arduino”. Arduino Docs.
https://docs.arduino.cc/learn/starting-guide/getting-started-arduino/ (accessed Nov. 26,
2024).
[10] J. Blom. “Integrated Circuits.” SparkFun. https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/
integrated-circuits/all (accessed Nov. 26, 2024)
[11] “Types of Integrated Circuits”. Geeks for Geeks. https://www.geeksforgeeks.org/
types-of-integrated-circuits/ (accessed Nov. 26, 2024)
[12] OpenStax. “Lasers”. https://phys.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/University_Physics/
University_Physics_(OpenStax)/University_Physics_III_-_Optics_and_Modern_Physics_
(OpenStax)/08%3A_Atomic_Structure/8.07%3A_Lasers (accessed Nov. 27, 2024)
[13] SFUptownMaker, BitSmashed. “Connector Basics.” SparkFun.
https://learn.sparkfun.com/tutorials/connector-basics/usb-connectors (accessed Nov. 27,
2024)

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