During Islam's Golden Age, many intellectual, economic, and political achievements were made. Important advances included the development of algebra and other mathematical concepts, the establishment of early forms of banking and credit, and the spread of knowledge through the widespread adoption of paper which facilitated trade and communication. Politically, rulers were known as caliphs and established Islamic empires and systems of governance. Intellectually, advances were made in fields like mathematics, medicine, and science through the work of scholars. Overall, it was a period of great prosperity and advancement across many domains.