Gender Pay Inequality Master Thesis Presented to the Faculty of The College of Professional Studies Department of Leadership and Human Resource Management National University In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements For the Degree of Master of Arts in Human Resource Management By Dominique W December 2019 Copyright All rights reserved. This dissertation or any segment thereof may not be used or replicated without the written consent of the publisher, except for the use of brief quotations in literature reviews and academic papers. © 2019 by Dominique W All Rights Reserved Acknowledgement I would like to thank the almighty God for giving me the energy and intellect to explore this study subject. I would also like to express my gratitude to my professors and my family for making the completion of this study possible. ii Abstract Equality is integral since it ensures workers are recognized for their input rather than being part of a majority group in the workplace setting. Although gender, ethnicity, sexual orientation, and nationality are aspects that propagate discrimination, the implementation of affirmative action and related policies promote equal opportunities for all. The fight for gender equality has prompted many scholars to explore national and international dynamics pertaining to the subject. This research addresses the question why do female employees who have similar credentials earn relatively lower wages than their male counterparts? The current study strives to reveal different components that contribute to the notable pay gap. Different data based on qualitative, and quantitative research is used to examine factors contributing to the pay gap, exploring effective solutions to the predicament, and determining the feasibility of current stratagems. Principally, the current study is based on survey findings. Keywords: gender, pay disparity, sexual orientation, discrimination, and equality. Chapter 1 - Introduction In the contemporary setting, researchers have determined that payment inequality is still a looming problem facing female workers. Scholars argue to what extent, but in doing so, they are missing the idea that such a problem should be non-existent in the current age (Amanatullah & Morris, 2010). The emphasis should be on the fact that female workers are entitled to equal compensation as their male counterparts (Labaton, 2014). The far-reaching ramification of the pay disparity has prompted researchers to explore the issue in depth (McElhaney & Smith, 2017). Universal gender gap records suggest that it will take about eight years for effective harmonization of remuneration to occur (Bekhouche et al., 2014). In the study conducted by Bekhouche et al., (2014), over a hundred countries were surveyed, America was rated sixty-fifth in the list on issues concerning gender payment inequality. Though nations like Israel and Italy do provide equal chan ...

1. Gender Pay Inequality
Master Thesis
Presented to the Faculty of
The College of Professional Studies
Department of Leadership and Human Resource Management
National University
In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements
For the Degree of
Master of Arts in Human Resource Management

2. By
Dominique W
December 2019
Copyright
All rights reserved. This dissertation or any segment thereof
may not be used or replicated without the written consent of the
publisher, except for the use of brief quotations in literature
reviews and academic papers.
© 2019
by Dominique W
All Rights Reserved
Acknowledgement

3. I would like to thank the almighty God for giving me the
energy and intellect to explore this study subject. I would also
like to express my gratitude to my professors and my family for
making the completion of this study possible.
ii
Abstract
Equality is integral since it ensures workers are recognized for
their input rather than being part of a majority group in the
workplace setting. Although gender, ethnicity, sexual
orientation, and nationality are aspects that propagate
discrimination, the implementation of affirmative action and
related policies promote equal opportunities for all. The fight
for gender equality has prompted many scholars to explore
national and international dynamics pertaining to the subject.
This research addresses the question why do female employees
who have similar credentials earn relatively lower wages than
their male counterparts? The current study strives to reveal
different components that contribute to the notable pay gap.
Different data based on qualitative, and quantitative research is
used to examine factors contributing to the pay gap, exploring
effective solutions to the predicament, and determining the

4. feasibility of current stratagems. Principally, the current study
is based on survey findings.
Keywords: gender, pay disparity, sexual orientation,
discrimination, and equality.
Chapter 1 - Introduction
In the contemporary setting, researchers have determined that
payment inequality is still a looming problem facing female
workers. Scholars argue to what extent, but in doing so, they are
missing the idea that such a problem should be non-existent in
the current age (Amanatullah & Morris, 2010). The emphasis
should be on the fact that female workers are entitled to equal
compensation as their male counterparts (Labaton, 2014). The
far-reaching ramification of the pay disparity has prompted
researchers to explore the issue in depth (McElhaney & Smith,
2017). Universal gender gap records suggest that it will take
about eight years for effective harmonization of remuneration to
occur (Bekhouche et al., 2014). In the study conducted by
Bekhouche et al., (2014), over a hundred countries were
surveyed, America was rated sixty-fifth in the list on issues
concerning gender payment inequality. Though nations like
Israel and Italy do provide equal chances for females, they were
the bottom-ranked nations in matters concerning gender
payment inequalities (Saul, 2003). Female workers in Italy are
given forty-eight percent of male's income for completing the
same task. On the other hand, female employees in Israel are
paid a mere forty-seven percent of the men's salary (Bekhouche

5. et al., 2014). Principally, the data denotes that despite the
significant strides made to consolidate the rights of both male
and female subsets of the populace, pay disparities along gender
lines are still common. Furthermore, university enrollment has
been improved, therefore, nothing should justify gender
payment inequality in the contemporary business setup
(Carnevale et al., 2014). The current study explores the issue of
income inequality and proposes solutions to the crisis.
Background Information
The United States has had a relatively constant gender payment
gap until the early 1980s when the constriction in the gap was
noted. The shift can be attributed to the continuous rise in
enrollment of women in STEM disciplines, enhanced matching,
and a positive selection process (Estrin, Stephen, & Vujic,
2014, p.5; Avitzur, 2016). Hughes (2002) has attributed the
narrowing pay gap to the shift in trends pertaining to university
attendance. Nonetheless, current interventions have proved
futile since the problem remains widespread (Hughes, 2002).
The global economic forum details that female workers in
America are paid less as compared to their male counterparts.
The trend is consistent with the findings presented for the
United Kingdom and Europe (U.S Bureau of Labor Statistics,
2014). Stephen, Estrin, and Vujic (2014) assert that the
"college-high school gender payment gap" has remained at forty
percent over the last three decades. Comment by Author: There
is no referenc list item that staratw with Estrin
Double check this link at OWL Purdue
Earning disparities between men and women stem from a myriad
of factors. According to Auster (1989), the pay gap stems from
segregation on the basis of gender. In modern-day human
resource settings, discrimination has been demonstrated in the
hiring, firing, job allocation, and promoting processes (Meara,
Pastore, & Webster, 2020). The failure to accord women equal
opportunities as their female counterparts results in career
stagnation for women (Petrzelka, 2005). Mandel and

6. Semnyonov (2005) assert that the gender pay gap correlates
with structural features of the labor market, particularly, with
the regulations of the market.
Although contemporary activists advocating for gender equality
have postulated that becoming a mother does not hinder the
productivity of female workers, motherhood has been used by
conservative human resource managers to justify gender
payment inequality (Aly, 2017). The misguided frameworks
adopted by discriminatory human resource departments explain
why male employees receive higher pay than their female
counterparts for doing similar tasks (illy Comment by Author:
Looks like major typo here. Probably supposed to be Nelson &
Lorence (1988)
& Lorence, 1988). Stone (2007) argues that since tasks are
always structured around gender norms and most nations
demonstrate patriarchy, the male gender is at an advantage
(Stone, 2007). The polarity of opinion regarding factors that
propagate the gender pay gap extends to encompass stances
such as childbearing and differences in personality.
Principally, justifying the payment gap between sexes by the
unique attributes of the female gender is irrational since not all
women choose to be mothers (Aly, 2017). Gender payment
inequalities vary across age brackets as demystified by the fact
that the gap is more significant between older employees than
new entrants. Aly (2017), in her findings, contents that female
workers aged twenty to twenty-four get about ninety-six percent
of the salary received by their male counterparts. As female
employees get older, and since their career development is
dwarfed, their median wage increases at a slower rate as
compared to the males’ median wage. By the age of sixty-four,
female workers receive a seventy-four percent salary of the
male's average salary (Aly, 2017). According to the Universal
Development Report (2012), the reasons why female workers
get fewer wages than their male counterparts stem from
differences in job characteristics and work. The data elicits
questions because it clearly shows gender payment inequalities.

7. Besides, if female workers are qualified for the same job as
their male counterparts, then it is only rational that they get
equal pay.
According to Labaton (2014), the gender pay gap is also
propagated by misguiged or mythiological claims that women
are just in occupations that pay poorly. The assertion implies
that if women are moved to better occupations, the gender pay
gap is bound to be eliminated. However, the statemement is
fallacious since the Labaton (2014), has determined that the
gender pay gap is even wider in fields where remuneration is
high. For instance, female workers in financial spealist
positions earn 66 percent of their male counterpart salaries and
female doctors 71 percent of the salaries received by male
doctors. Furthermore, female lawyers are paid about 82 percent
of the payment received by their male counterparts in the field.
Even in fields that are dominated by women; education and
social works, men, especially white males, are paid
considerably more than their female counterparts (Labaton,
2014).
Waxman (2018), further expores the mythiology surrounding the
gender pay gap by exploring the argument that women are not
entitled to higher pays because they work to earn “pin money.”
“Pin money” is a historical term that meant money that women
earn or is set aside by married men to allow women to buy
“hairpins” and enjoy simple pleasures. The kinds of jobs that
women took to earn “pin money” include taking sewing lessons
and arranging flowers for wedding ceremonies. Waxman (2018)
argues that even if the concept of “pin money” represented the
choices of some women in the twenthieth century, the notion
cannot hold in the contemporary setting. The volume of women
who are either breadwinners or co-breadwinners in today’s
society has soared. In the statistical sense, 49.4% of all families
in the United States that have kids under the age or 18 years
have a breadwinner mother. Even in married couples, women
who contribute about 40% to the household earming is 36.3%.
In this regard, women have responsibilities that have

8. necessitated earning extra money.
Waxman (2018) posits that the notion that women earn lower
salaries because they do not negotiate is misguided. The idea
dates back to 1910, and the idea is centered around the notion
that it would be illogical to give women a salary raise, if they
are not asking for it (Babcock & Laschever, 2009). The reality
of the matter, according to Waxman (2018), women are
penalized for negotiating for a raise. Also, according to
empirical studies cited by Waxman (2018), women who still
negotiate for salary increase do not get compensated as their
male counterparts. A study conducted by the Harvard University
and Carnegie Mellon University found that women were
penalized more than their male counterparts for initiating
negotiations (Waxman, 2018). Although other myths invoke the
biological difference between men and women to justify the
gender pay gap, some studies have been refuted and challenged
by scholars that have proved the the performance of an
employee is not dependent on gender (Labaton, 2014). In this
accord, there is not justificable reason as to why women who
are equally qualified and trained should receive lower pay just
because they are women.
Problem Statement
Polacheck (2004), in her research regarding the issues of gender
pay inequality, suggested that despite the development in the
community concerning rights and social equality, female
employees still earn lesser pay no matter how qualified and
hardworking they become at their workplaces. The study also
elucidated that in almost every big corporation, men always get
paid more money compared to women for the same kind of task.
Waxman (2018) demonstrates that the gender pay inequality is
based on concepts that were developed in the 20th century. For
instance, while some women choose to arrange flowers in
weddings and take sewing lessons to earn “pin money,” women
are increasingly becoming breadwinners or co-breadwinners in
today’s society. The change in the trend denotes that the general
household income is also affected by how much women earn

9. (Bishu & Alkadry, 2017). Also, the assumption that women do
not negotiate for salary incrementments is false because women
are penalized for inititating salary negotiations, and those who
start negotiations do not even receive equal remuneration to
their male counterparts (Amanatullah & Morris, 2010). The
myths do not justify the prevalence of pay inequality on the
basis of gender difference.
Individuals trying to downplay the extent of the gender pay
inequality posit that women voluntarily choose a poor paying
position by walking into stereotypic female professions and
generally seeking lower-paying jobs. However, according to
Labaton (2014), women are not being paid less because they
choose to work in low paying jobs. Women that work in
medicine, law, and finance still receive relatively low pay as
compared to their male counterparts (Labaton, 2014). In light
of the fact that the pay discrepancy between men and women is
demoralizing to women and may ultimately reduce their
productivity in the workplace setting, there is a need to ensure
the problem is alleviated (Carnevale & Smith, 2014). Therefore,
this study establishes the causes of gender pay inequality
between women and men in the modern age, and explore the
solutions that organizations could adopt to tackle the problem
(Ridgeway, 1997). Typically, the study will seek to answer the
question Where is the problem? Why is it a problem? What are
the solutions to the issues?
Purpose of the Study
The notion that women and men are treated differently in the
workplace demotivates employees and often proves to be
counterproductive. Differences in payments are a result of work
segregation, adherence to archaic stereotypes about gender
roles, and unequal advocacy for payment harmonization
(Auster, 1989). Although the subject of pay disparities has been
extensively explored by empirical researchers, the subject in the
modern context where women are equally as educated and
experienced as their male counterparts, affirmative action is
implemented in the workplace, and diversity on the basis of

10. gender is encouraged has been minimally explored (Humm,
2014). In this regard, this study strives to determine factors that
orchestrate gender payment gaps in the contemporary setting
and provide informed and feasible recommendations to alleviate
the problem. Furthermore, the study focuses on shifts in the
gender pay gaps, the efficiency, and the futility of current
strategies in constricting the gender pay gap.
Significance of the Study
The results of the current study can be extrapolated to inform
human resource decisions as a means to promote conformity to
the stipulations of affirmative actions. Furthermore, the gender
pay gap is not only counterproductive but also demoralizing to
female employees (Charlesworth & Macdonald, 2014).
Therefore, implementing the recommendation that will be
conveyed in this dissertation will be crucial in ensuring both
male and female employees are afforded equal treatment. The
study will also contribute to the vast body of research taking
into account the fact that society has edged closer to attaining
gender equality. Therefore, determining factors that are
contributing to the prevalence of gender pay gap in the current
age is vital in ensuring current trends on the issue are better
understood.
Limitations of the Study
In the course of the completion of the current study, a myriad of
limitations are bound to occur. The most vital challenge is the
issue of access since some journal articles must be purchased
from online libraries. Furthermore, getting reliable data from
companies about their employees’ pay structures was a
formidable task that threatened the scope of the current study.
The other impediment to the study is the fact that the data will
be obtained from already completed surveys rather than relying
on primary data.

11. References Comment by Author: Not sure what happened to
the formatting when you got to this page. Line spacing is set to
double space, which is correct, but there is an additional 8 ponts
being inserted at the end of each paragraph. This will need to
be fixed for HRM 670.
Aly, Y. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Causes, Consequences,
and Remedies. Comment by Author: Insufficiently referenced.
No publication source, or journal name, or URL. Review OWL
Purdue regarding basic rules for reference entries.
Also, title of article, only two words should be capitalized: The
and Causes:
The gender wage gap: Causes, consequences, and remedies.
Here is the recommended citation at the article itself (except
that :
Aly, Yaveline. (2017). The Gender Wage Gap: Causes,
Consequences, and Remedies. In BSU Honors Program Theses
and Projects. Item 243. Available at:
https://vc.bridgew.edu/honors_proj/243
Amanatullah, E. T., & Morris, M. W. (2010). Negotiating
gender roles: Gender differences in assertive negotiating are
mediated by women's fear of backlash and attenuated when
negotiating on behalf of others — Journal of Personality and
Social Psychology, 98(2), 256. Comment by Author: A period
after the article title. No dash here in APA format. Comment by
Author: The title of the journal is correctly formatted both
capital letters and italic. The volume number is also to be in
italic.
Auster, E. R. (1989). Task characteristics as a bridge between
macro-and micro-level research on salary inequality between

12. men and women. Academy of Management Review, 14(2), 173-
193.
Avitzur, O. (2016). In Practice: Gender Salary Inequality Worst
in Neurology: What Can Be Done to Remedy the Matter?.
Neurology Today, 16(22), 17-18.
Babcock, L., & Laschever, S. (2009). Women don't ask
negotiation and the gender divide. Princton NJ: Princeton
University Press. Comment by Author: Correctly formatted
Bishu, S. G., & Alkadry, M. G. (2017). A systematic review of
the gender pay gap and factors that predict it. Administration &
Society, 49(1), 65-104. Comment by Author: Here you have
correctly formatted the volume number.
Carnevale, A. P., & Smith, N. (2014). Gender discrimination is
at the heart of the wage gap. Time Magazine. Retrieved from
https://time.com/105292/gender-wage-gap/. Comment by
Author: Missing volume # etc. Check out this link to OWL
Purdue, which happens to provide a reference sample using
Time Magazine.
https://owl.purdue.edu/owl/research_and_citation/apa_style/apa
_formatting_and_style_guide/reference_list_articles_in_periodi
cals.html
Charlesworth, S., & Macdonald, F. (2014). Australia's gender
pay equity legislation: how new, how different, what
prospects?. Cambridge Journal of Economics, 39(2), 421-440.
Comment by Author: Italic
Erosa, A., Fuster, L., & Restuccia, D. Human Capital, and the
Gender Gap in Wages.
Hughes, C. (2002). Critical concepts in feminist theory and
research. Sage.
Humm, M. (2014). Feminisms: a reader. Routledge.
Labaton, V. (2014). Five myths about the gender pay gap. The
Washington Post, 25.
Mandel, H., & Semyonov, M. (2005). Family policies, wage
structures, and gender gaps: Sources of earnings inequality in
20 countries. American sociological review, 70(6), 949-967.

13. McElhaney, K., & Smith, G. (2017). Eliminating the Pay Gap:
An Exploration of Gender Equality, Equal Pay, and A Company
that Is Leading the Way. The Berkeley-Haas Case Series.
University of California, Berkeley. Haas School of Business.
Meara, K., Pastore, F., & Webster, A. (2020). The gender pay
gap in the USA: a matching study. Journal of Population
Economics, 33(1), 271-305.
Nelson, J. I., & Lorence, J. (1988). Metropolitan earnings
inequality and service sector employment. Social Forces, 67(2),
492-511.
O'Reilly, J., Smith, M., Deakin, S., & Burchell, B. (2015).
Equal pay as a moving target: International perspectives on
forty-years of addressing the gender pay gap. Cambridge
Journal of Economics, 39(2), 299-317.
Petrzelka, P. (2005). "They make how much?" Investigating
faculty salaries to examine gender inequalities. Teaching
Sociology, 33(4), 380-388.
Plickert, G., & Sterling, J. (2017). Gender Still Matters: Effects
of Workplace Discrimination on Employment Schedules of
Young Professionals. Laws, 6(4), 28.
Polachek, S. W. (2004). How the human capital model explains
why the gender wage gap narrowed.
Ridgeway, C. L. (1997). Interaction and the conservation of
gender inequality: Considering employment. American
Sociological Review, 218-235.
Saul, J. M. (2003). Feminism: Issues and arguments.
Stone, A. (2007). An introduction to feminist philosophy.
Johanneshov : MTM.
Waxman, O. B. (2018). 5 of modern history's most persistent
myths about the gender wage gap. Times. Retrieved from
https://time.com/5230911/equal-pay-day-2018-wage-gap-
myths/.
COMMENT ON REFERENCE/CITATIONS
References are alphabetical as required, and utilize hanging
indent as required.
Erosa, O’Reilly, Plickert and Polacheck are 4 references not

14. cited in the text of Chapter 1.
If they are also not going to be cited in Chapters 2, 3 and 4,
then either (a) text of chapter 1 needs some rewriting to include
these 4 references, OR (b) these 4 references should be removed
from thereference list completely since they are not cited at all.
General rule for APA Reference list: All references must be
cited at least ONE time in your essay.
9
Unit 2 HCM640 DB Assignment due Tuesday 1.14.20
A SWOT analysis is used to assist those involved in the
strategic planning process in compiling information pertinent to
formulating the rest of a strategic plan. Although the
information garnered from such an analysis can help to
formulate strategies, the SWOT analysis itself does not always
render concrete answers. For example, something found in the
SWOT analysis might not fit neatly into one of the categories,
but instead can be placed in several depending on which
perspective you are looking at the characteristic from.
Assume that you are asked to complete a SWOT analysis for a
fictional, large, physician cardiology practice. You are having a
hard time fitting all of the characteristics into the SWOT
analysis categories. After careful deliberation, you complete the
analysis and submit it for review to the practice manager.
· Give 2 to 3 examples for each of the SWOT categories for
your cardiology practice SWOT analysis. Why did you select
these categories for specific services?
· What advice would you give them on analyzing the results of
the SWOT analysis?
· Does the SWOT relate to strategic assessment? How?