ClosePrint RubricHLSS Assignment Rubric 500-600 LevelA

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HLSS Assignment Rubric 500-600 Level
Activity: Thesis Proposal - Week 3
Course: HLSS699 A002 Summer 2022
Name: Gussie Bellinger
Criteria
Exemplary
20 points
Accomplished
17 points
Developing
15 points
Beginning
13 points
Synthesis of Knowledge
Foundation of Knowledge
Application of Knowledge
Student exhibits a defined
and clear understanding of

the assignment. Thesis is
clearly defined and well-
constructed to help guide
the reader throughout the
assignment. Student builds
upon the thesis of the
assignment with well-
documented and
exceptional supporting
facts, figures, and/or
statements.
Establishes a good
comprehension of topic and
in the building of the thesis.
Student demonstrates an
effective presentation of
thesis, with most support
statements helping to

support the key focus of
assignment.
Student exhibits a basic
understanding of the
intended assignment, but
the thesis is not fully
supported throughout the
assignment. While thesis
helps to guide the
development of the
assignment, the reader may
have some difficulty in
seeing linkages between
thoughts. While student has
included a few supporting
facts and statements, this
has limited the quality of
the assignment.

Exhibits a limited
assignment. Reader is
unable to follow the logic
used for the thesis and
development of key
themes. Introduction of
thesis is not evident, and
reader must look deeper to
discover the focus of the
writer. Student’s writing is
weak in the inclusion of
supporting facts or
statements.
Student demonstrates
proficient command of the
subject matter in the
assignment. Assignment

shows an impressive level of
depth of student’s ability to
relate course content to
practical examples and
applications. Student
provides comprehensive
analysis of details, facts, and
concepts in a logical
sequence.
Student exhibits above
average usage of subject
matter in assignment.
Student provides above
average ability in relating
course content in examples
given. Details and facts
presented provide an
adequate presentation of

student’s current level of
subject matter knowledge.
The assignment reveals that
the student has a general,
fundamental understanding
of the course material.
Whereas, there are areas of
some concerning in the
linkages provided between
facts and supporting
statements. Student
generally explains concepts,
but only meets the
minimum requirements in
this area.
Student tries to explain
some concepts, but
overlooks critical details.

Assignment appears vague
or incomplete in various
segments. Student presents
concepts in isolation, and
does not perceive to have a
logical sequencing of ideas.
Student demonstrates a
higher-level of critical
thinking necessary for
graduate level work. Learner
provides a strategic
approach in presenting
examples of problem solving
or critical thinking, while
drawing logical conclusions
that are not immediately
obvious. Student provides
well-supported ideas and

reflection with a variety of
current and/or worldviews
in the assignment. Student
presents a genuine
Student exhibits a good
command of critical thinking
skills in the presentation of
material and supporting
statements. Assignment
demonstrates the student’s
above average use of
relating concepts by using a
variety of factors. Overall,
student provides adequate
conclusions, with 2 or fewer
errors.
Student takes a common,
conventional approach in

guiding the reader through
various linkages and
connections presented in
assignment. However,
student presents a limited
perspective on key concepts
throughout assignment.
Student appears to have
problems applying
information in a problem-
solving manner.
Student demonstrates
beginning understanding of
key concepts, but overlooks
critical details. Learner is
unable to apply information
in a problem-solving
fashion. Student presents

confusing statements and
facts in assignment. No
evidence or little semblance
of critical thinking skills.
8/10/22, 4:28 PM
Page 1 of 3
Organization of
Ideas/Format
Writing and Research Skill
intellectual development of
ideas throughout
assignment.
Student thoroughly
understands and excels in
explaining all major points.
An original, unique, and/or
imaginative approach to

overall ideas, concepts, and
findings is presented.
Overall format of
assignment includes an
appropriate introduction (or
abstract), well- developed
paragraphs, and conclusion.
Finished assignment
demonstrates student’s
ability to plan and organize
research in a logical
sequence.
Student explains the
majority of points and
concepts in the assignment.
Learner demonstrates a
good skill level in formatting
and organizing material in

assignment. Student
presents an above average
level of preparedness, with
few formatting errors.
Learner applies some points
and concepts incorrectly.
Student uses a variety of
formatting styles, with some
inconsistencies throughout
the paper. Assignment does
not have a continuous
pattern of logical
sequencing.
Assignment reveals
formatting errors and a lack
of organization. Student
presents an incomplete
attempt to provide linkages

or explanation of key terms.
Student demonstrates an
excellent command of
grammar, as well as
presents research in a clear
and concise writing style.
The work represents a
thorough, extensive
understanding of word
usage. Student excels in the
selection and development
of a well- planned research
assignment. Assignment is
error-free and reflects
student’s ability to prepare
graduate-level writing for
possible publication in a
peer-reviewed (refereed)

journal. Student provides
sophisticated synthesis of
complex body of
information in the
preparation of assignment.
Research provided by
student contributes
significantly to the
development of the overall
thesis. Student incorporates
more than the minimum
quality references in the
development of the overall
thesis. Student incorporates
a variety of research
resources and methodology
in the preparation of
assignment.

Student provides an
effective display of good
writing and grammar.
Assignment reflects
student’s ability to select
appropriate word usage and
presents an above-average
presentation of a given
topic or issue. Assignment
appears to be well-written
with no more than three-
five errors. Student provides
a good final product that
covers the above-minimal
requirements. Student
achieves an above average
synthesis of research, but
interpretation may be

narrow in scope and
description within
assignment. Assignment
contains the minimum
resources and presents an
average overview of key
concepts.
Assignment reflects basic
writing and grammar, but
with more than 5 errors.
Key terms and concepts are
somewhat vague and not
completely explained
by student. Student uses a
basic vocabulary in
assignment. Student’s
writing ability is average,
but demonstrates a basic

subject matter. Assignment
provides a basic, but
borderline perspective of
student’s research abilities.
Student has incorporated
fewer source than required
by the assignment and does
not attempt to cover key
elements of assignment.
Topics, concepts, and ideas
are not coherently
discussed or expressed in
assignments. Student’s
writing style is weak and
needs improvement, along
with numerous proofreading
errors. Assignment lacks

clarity, consistency, and
correctness. Student fails to
provide an adequate
synthesis of research
collected for assignment.
The lack of appropriate
references or source
materials demonstrates the
student’s need for
additional help or training in
this area. Student needs to
review and revise
assignment.
8/10/22, 4:28 PM
Page 2 of 3
Total
Overall Score
Exemplary Accomplished Developing Beginning

8/10/22, 4:28 PM
Page 3 of 3
1
Transportation Security Proposal
A Master Thesis
Submitted to the Faculty
of
American Public University
by
In Partial Fulfillment of the
Requirements for the Degree
of
Master of Arts
November 2022
American Public University
Charles Town, WV
Abstract
To maintain social and economic equilibrium, day-to-day
operations must make use of other modes of transportation, such
as buses, trains, and ferries. These intricate and interconnected
transit systems need to make use of the proper technology to
avoid disruptions in their operations, which would be
detrimental to the inhabitants, users, data, and assets they serve.
At every stage of the journey, the passengers, the crew, the
equipment, and the cargo all need to be safeguarded and
protected. This is because of the very complicated and
frequently vast landscapes. Transportation routes, such as those
found in airports and seaports, need to be routinely examined to

verify that they are not only free of obstructions but also that
they are operating as smoothly as possible. In addition to the
risks posed by other dangers and vulnerabilities, the potential
for terrorist attacks is an inherent risk at these transportation
facilities; as a result, they require the necessary measures to
protect what is most important. In addition to issues regarding
the environment and the structure, maintaining the integrity of
information technology systems is a consistent focus. In each of
these situations, a comprehensive and well-thought-out security
solution is necessary, even though the particular needs may
vary.
Transportation Security Proposal
Introduction
One of the organizations that have successfully ensured the
safety of the nation's transportation system is the Transportation
Security Administration (TSA). The transportation business is
unique in that it has an impact not only on the specifics of daily
living but also on the state of the economy as a whole. When it
comes to providing transportation services in a fast and
effective manner, the dependability and safety of the
organizations providing those services are quite necessary. The
transportation industry faces a wide range of issues that get
more complex as the market matures. These challenges are
exacerbated by the large number of people who use transit
stations and the high value of the items that are transported on
ships and ferries. Transportation Security in the United States
employs a variety of strategies to defend the country, some of
which may be covert while others may be obvious to the general
public. These strategies are implemented in varying degrees

depending on the severity of the threats. This division makes
use of tactics such as canine-team airport searches and
randomized data collecting and analysis to accomplish its goals.
In addition, it works in conjunction with the United States
Federal Air Marshals and checks passenger manifests to watch
lists. According to Palmer (2020), the Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) uses a variety of screening measures to
ensure the safety of American citizens. These screening
methods might range from the use of technology to direct
questioning of potential terrorists. Both a photo identification
and a passport are required to verify a passenger's identity. The
passenger will be allowed to continue on their journey once the
facial recognition process has been finished. In addition, the
TSA makes use of very advanced imaging technology, which
has been linked to elements that increase the risk of cancer as
well as privacy violations. A thorough search of the passenger's
person is performed to look for any metals or explosives.
Another technique that needs the suspect to step aside to ensure
their safety throughout the threat detection process is the use of
pat-down searches. Travelers are required to adhere to the
procedures and justifications established by the TSA for their
safety. This assures that the process of checking passengers for
security at the airport will go without a hitch. Because
travelers’ shoes will be examined during security checks, they
should put on footwear that is simple to take off. When
travelling with liquids, such as gels, lotions, and sprays, you are
required to carry each item separately, and the total weight of
all liquids in a single bag cannot exceed 3.4 ounces. At this
point, passengers must put away all electronic devices,
including cell phones, laptops, tablets, and so on. However, the
administrative division must contend with several obstacles to
guarantee the citizens of the area are kept secure regardless of
the mode of transportation they choose—driving, flying, sailing,
or using the train.
Protecting customers and employees, cutting down on crime and
vandalism in transportation corridors, promptly settling liability

claims, reacting to crises, and ensuring compliance with privacy
regulations and local ordinances are the principal challenges.
Operators may be able to avoid these obstacles if they invest in
a scalable enterprise video management system that supports
both mobile and fixed video monitoring under one roof and with
the same user interface. Now, operators can keep tabs on all of
their assets as well as the locations of those assets. A
management system that incorporates well-known data
components such as GPS data (speed, location, and direction)
and vehicle data alarms and parameters (such as bus number,
operator I.D., impact, hard brake, and door open/closed)
provides drivers with a comprehensive view of what is
occurring on board. In addition, a management system that
incorporates well-known data components such as GPS data
(speed, location, and direction) provides drivers with a
comprehensive view of what is occurring on board. Because the
future is equally as vital as the present in all investments and
collaborations, it is essential to make certain that solutions
incorporate A.I. that is both transformative and adaptive, cloud
storage, and remote services that can be accessed on demand.
Because of the constant flow of traffic, the transportation sector
is one of a kind. There are a great number of routes you can
take to get from point A to point B, regardless of the mode of
transportation you choose (metro, bus, train, or aeroplane). In
addition, because there are several teams accountable for the
safety of operations, it may be difficult to prove who was
responsible for what and when it was done. Any failure might
potentially have catastrophic repercussions for the safety and
security of the system. A malfunction can present itself in a
variety of ways, including a fault with the software, a physical
defect, or a failure to maintain a safe and secure environment.
The problem is not a lack of technical data; rather, the problem
is a lack of correct, up-to-date physical data. On the physical
side, our continuous reliance on manual, paper-based, and
outmoded procedures puts us at an increased danger of a safety
and security catastrophe. This puts the transportation business

at an increased risk.
A further key obstacle faced by the transportation industry is
the prevalence of one-of-a-kind analogue video recording
equipment, systems, and software. Even if they have access to
intellectual property, the flexibility, growth capacity, and
integration potential of proprietary solutions are limited. Buses
and light rail are classic examples of proprietary systems that
need employees to swap hard drives from cars manually. These
systems also require frequent maintenance. Only if there is no
video proof will a camera or recorder be considered to be
broken. In light of the abundance of data that is currently
accessible, linking video to events that are produced by CAN
bus and MIB systems is more significant than it has ever been.
The best solution should provide support for increasing
automation and integration, with highlighted data and events
being promptly offloaded through 5G/4G and the system and
device status being accessible in real-time.
Purpose Statement
In this essay, we will look at the various types of criminal
activity that are related to transportation infrastructure. It
examines the outcomes of the investigation and pinpoints
important approaches to make the transportation system more
secure. When talking about the safety of transportation in the
United States, it is necessary to analyze the role that the
economy plays, the problems that currently exist, and the
potential solutions. The Transportation Security Administration
(TSA) was established by the government of the United States
to strengthen safety measures at airports, seaports, and train
stations. The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) can
be thought of as a nation's first line of defence due to the
responsibilities that it performs. When compared to other law
enforcement officers, they stand out because they work together
and exchange information to strengthen national security. The
provision of security by the TSA, which in turn results in the
creation of jobs and the attraction of investment, is one factor
that contributes to the economic development of a nation.

Despite this, the transportation security system in the United
States still has several significant flaws that need to be
corrected, leaving it susceptible to Attack.
Research Question
The following research questions have emerged
1. What are the possible security threats that exist in the
transportation sector
2. What measures have been put by the relevant administrations
to address the security concerns
Literature Review
Transport Security
The Transportation Security Administration (TSA), which was
established after the attacks of September 11, 2001, is
responsible for the development of various transportation
security technologies. The Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) was established to improve the security
of the country's transportation infrastructure and to ensure that
people and goods can move freely throughout the country
(Homeland Security, 2021). In less than a year, the
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) took over
responsibility for airport security on a national scale and
deployed government officers to examine all passengers and
luggage on commercial airlines. At this time, the Transportation
Security Administration (TSA) conducts screenings on all
arriving, departing, and remaining visitors to the United States.
This is accomplished through the utilization of Secure Flight.
These programs make use of the most cutting-edge technologies
available to stay one step ahead of the ever-evolving dangers. In
addition, the most cutting-edge technology is used to conduct
security checks on every shipment, irrespective of its
dimensions, method of transport, or country of origin
(Homeland Security, 2021).
In order to protect the country's transportation infrastructure,
the United States adopts a risk-based and layered strategy for

transportation security. The Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) is continuously working to improve the
level of transportation security by utilizing a variety of its
resources, including its technologies, processes, staff, and
intelligence. The Transportation Security Administration (TSA)
is responsible for operating many checkpoints, which all
contribute to the enhancement of the overall safety of the
American transportation system. In addition to this, there are
components of its security that are both visible and invisible to
the general public. There are also canine teams that randomly
search airports, federal air marshals, federal flight deck
officers, and intelligence gathering and analytic teams.
Passenger names are checked against watch lists (Homeland
Security, 2021). As a result, the Transportation Security
Administration (TSA), which is dedicated to system evolution,
improves the transportation security system. The general
populace, as well as the passengers, in particular, will be safer
as a result of this.
Current Challenges in Transport Security
Physical passenger Protection
For decades, airports have been the primary topic of
conversation on issues about security. There have been a large
number of cases in which airport systems have been vulnerable
to control by terrorists (Gillen & Morrison, 2015). In addition
to this, there are indications that a great deal of aircraft was
taken by force throughout the 1970s (Slack & Rodrigue, 2020).
In addition, terrorists have taken advantage of the absence of
protection to hijack aeroplanes to gain publicity and extract
ransom (Slack & Rodrigue, 2020). In addition, theft is one of
the major problems that has been hurting all kinds of freight
facilities. Theft problems are especially dangerous i n settings
where expensive commodities are being handled (Slack &
Rodrigue, 2020). In certain locations, such as the docks, the
local labour unions have been given the impression of being
under the authority of organized crime. With time, access to
freight terminals has been more restricted, and the deployment

of security officers has contributed, at least to some extent, to
the prevention of theft. As a solution to this issue, multiple
precautions against potential danger have been put into place.
For instance, the airline industry and a global regulatory agency
created methods for examining both people and their luggage.
The number of instances of hijacking has dropped, which
indicates that these methods are working well. On the other
hand, terrorist organizations started using new strategies, such
as hiding explosives in unattended baggage (Gillen & Morrison,
2015).
Concerns about national security have had a significant impact
on the aviation industry in a variety of ways, including the
raising of prices, delaying of flights, and other types of
inconveniences. Additionally, as a direct consequence of the
COVID-19 pandemic, a new component of passenger
transportation security known as epidemiological security has
emerged (Slack & Rodrigue, 2020). This has proven to be
particularly disastrous for modes of transportation that have a
high passenger density, such as train travel, air travel, and
cruise ships (Sivak & Flannagan, 2004). It is quite evident that
many locations, like airports, ports, and terminals, among
others, need to beef up their security procedures. By doing so,
both the tourists and their goods will be protected from harm
and kept safe from theft.
Protection During Transportation
The freight sector has long recognized the need for security as a
primary priority. Illegal immigration, dodging of customs
charges, drug trafficking, the use of vessels that do not meet
safety standards, and piracy are some of the most important
challenges (Gillen & Morrison, 2015). The process of securing
freight transit is undergoing a steady transformation that
emphasizes developing a plan that is more extensive and
complicated per global supply networks (Friedrich & Balster,
2013). It is exceedingly difficult for a variety of different
reasons to find a solution to the problem of insufficient security
in the maritime industry. These include the difficulty of

detection, the wide diversity of commodities transported on
board, the scale of the global shipping fleet, and the sheer
number of ports across the world (Slack & Rodrigue, 2020). In
addition to this, the vulnerabilities of ports are susceptible to
attack from both land and ocean (Arway, 2013).
Cyberattacks
Chief executive officers in the transportation sector are the most
likely to face cyber threats. Hackers have extra access points
since fleet telematics systems are being used increasingly
frequently to monitor the location, condition, and status of
physical assets. Despite the fact that breaching a private
network exposes sensitive customer information, the greatest
concern for companies in the transportation industry is the
possibility that cybercriminals will cause actual damage to a
truck or its expensive cargo. This is the case even though the
breaching of a private network will reveal this information.
Cybercriminals can take control of the digital dashboard of a
truck that is hauling fresh food and change the temperature
measurement that is displayed there so that it is accurate even
when the cooling systems are turned off. The result is rotten
food worth thousands of dollars, which the driver might not see
until he or she stops to make a delivery. However, the driver
could be unaware of the situation until this point. Automation,
network technology, and electronic sensors are all heavily
utilized in the train business as well. Power distribution,
communications, train track signalling, and positive train
control all necessitate the utilization of these technological
advancements. Products and commodities that are very popular
Rail companies may be particularly vulnerable to cyberattacks
launched by political actors because of the greater possibility
that supply chain disruptions may occur.
Advanced Technology
It is anticipated that the introduction of novel technologies such
as semi- and fully-automated cars, as well as the utilization of
sensors connected to the Internet of Things, would increase the
cyber security concerns associated with transportation. In

addition to reducing the risk of cyberattacks, the technology in
question can also make driving more secure and help alleviate
the current driver shortage. Companies, on the other hand, face
the risk of slipping behind their competitors and missing out on
big opportunities if they choose to ignore these advancements or
fail to adapt to them. As operative technology progresses,
operators of critical infrastructure must ensure that new
architecture is not installed until it can be regulated and
protected. This must be done before the new architecture can be
implemented. As businesses grow and become more
technologically advanced, they will make themselves more
vulnerable to cyberattacks. Security can be compromised by
efforts such as updating obsolete computer systems.
Lack of Drivers
The American Trucking Association predicts that by the year
2022, there will be almost 100,000 fewer truck drivers operating
on the nation's roadways. The primary factors contributing to
the ongoing labour shortage are the retirement of older workers,
the difficulty of replacing vacant positions with new hires, and
the increased delivery demand that is a direct result of the
growth of e-commerce. It is estimated that truck drivers in the
United States reach the age of 56 on average. Younger folks
have difficulties accepting the long, alone, inactive hours that
are a part of the trucking lifestyle, even though incomes are
rising and signing bonuses are being offered to new drivers.
Furthermore, an older workforce is associated with a higher
prevalence of health conditions as well as a larger consumption
of employee benefits, all of which contribute to a rise in these
expenses for firms. Because there is a lack of drivers, senior
drivers are under increased pressure to make additional trips
and spend more time behind the wheel each day to meet
delivery deadlines. This contributes to increased levels of driver
tiredness and the risk of being involved in an accident.
Destroyed Infrastructure
Ground transportation in the United States will continue to have
issues, and there will be more people using the roads and rails

as a result of the ageing and, in some places, decaying
infrastructure in the country. Even short delays can result in
significant financial losses for the proprietors and operators of
rail and transportation businesses. According to Dwyer, in 2014,
there was a total of 6.9 billion vehicle hours worth of road
delays created as a result of traffic congestion in 470 urban
areas (2018). Because of these delays, the United States was
forced to throw away 3.1 billion gallons of fuel, which resulted
in a total cost of 160 billion dollars. According to projections
made by the ASCE, the total amount of time lost due to delays
will increase by 20% by the year 2020, reaching 8.3 billion
hours. Poorly maintained roads increase the likelihood of
vehicle damage, which results in the need for either more
frequent maintenance or more expensive repairs. This is in
addition to higher fuel prices and delivery delays. In addition to
this, it is highly unlikely that things will get better any time
soon. According to projections provided by the ASCE
infrastructure research, the investment shortfall will amount to
$1.1 trillion between now and 2025 and an additional $3.2
trillion between 2026 and 2040.
Moreover, the price of gasoline has a significant impact on the
profit margins of businesses involved in the transportation
industry. A decrease in the price of oil leads to a decrease in the
price of gasoline, which puts more money in the pockets of
drivers. Because of the terrible inconsistency of oil prices, the
trucking, rail, and aviation businesses are forced to contend
with unpredictable price swings, which have a
disproportionately negative impact on each industry. When
gasoline prices are low, a greater number of shippers choose to
deliver products via truck rather than rail because trucks are
typically faster than rail (Dwyer, 2018). When oil prices are
higher and freight trains offer a greater value than gas-guzzling
tractor-trailers, railways may see an increase in business. This
is because freight trains use far less fuel than tractor -trailers. In
addition to shifts in the cost of oil, factors such as international
trade conflicts and political unrest can impact shipping volumes

and disrupt supply networks around the world. According to
research conducted by Fitch Ratings, the transportation industry
in the United States may be impacted by taxes on steel and
aluminium as well as levies placed on automobiles. If auto
tariffs dramatically increased the cost of buying a vehicle, it is
possible that they would have the effect of taxing drivers by
increasing the cost of driving and, as a result, reducing demand
(Dwyer,2018).
Strategies to Improve the Safety Of The Transport System
The Transportation Security Administration has been the subject
of a wealth of writing. These resources talk about the strategies
that the TSA uses to increase security, the security standards
that they have developed, the effects that those strategies have,
and some suggested solutions for making those strategies more
effective. Among the strategies that are used include the
application of various forms of technology, the study of human
behaviour, and the employment of other animals, such as dogs.
Every traveller is required to behave by the procedures that
have been outlined by the TSA. A nation will experience both
positive and negative effects as a result of the TSA. The
implementation of TSA has led to a variety of positive
outcomes, including the generation of new job possibilities, the
decline in the dependency rates of a nation, the growth of the
economy of that nation, and many more. On the other hand, it
has led to an increased risk of cancer as well as invasions of
privacy.
Using Technology in Improving the Safety
Technology plays an increasingly important role in the
operation of our transportation and logistics networks, from the
high-tech traffic signals and speed limits that are being
implemented in our smart cities to the robots and sensors that
make "just in time" delivery possible in the modern era.
Because of this, transportation networks must continue thei r
digitization efforts and incorporate cutting-edge tools and
analytics to raise their level of efficiency. The very same
technologies that make it possible for people and commodities

to move around also cause problems that need to be understood
and managed as population concentrations continue to rise.
Cybersecurity concerns must first be identified, then
anticipated, and then avoided if at all possible (Bouhdada,
2019).
It is difficult to modernize the transportation company because,
like many other businesses, it relies on established techniques
and systems that have never been forced to consider
cybersecurity. This makes the process tough. As a result of this
lack of awareness, industry professionals have an immediate
obligation to take action and create industry standards for new
large- and small-scale solutions (Bouhdada, 2019). The
increased possibility of something unfavourable taking place as
a result of increased connectedness.
There are numerous examples of the impact that technology is
having on transportation and logistics, such as the following:
haulage fleets can increase their fuel efficiency by using real -
time telematics and GPS data; ports are digitizing processes to
streamline the flow of goods, and Alibaba and Amazon are
pushing shipping companies to adopt Internet of Things (IoT)
technologies to provide more visibility into their cargoes.
Several governments are already investigating the possibility of
installing infrastructure along railroad tracks to provide 5G
internet connectivity to train passengers and on-board systems
while the passengers are travelling to and from work
(Bouhdada, 2019). All of these interconnected technologies hold
a great deal of potential, but at the same time, they present
serious safety concerns. Systems that were once protected from
network attacks are now vulnerable to internet-related dangers,
and potential attackers are persistent in their search for
vulnerabilities to exploit across any attack surface that is
accessible to them.
Transport Security of America Strategies
Accelerating the screening and searching processes to cut down
on wait times is one of the numerous ways that the
Transportation Security Administration (TSA) works to ensure

the nation's safety (Narh, 2021). In addition, the Transportation
Security Administration (TSA) established the Screening
Partnership Program (SPP), under which the TSA awards
contracts to qualify organizations and people to assist with
screening and search activities. For the purpose of screening
passengers, the Transportation Security Administration has
access to the most advanced technological equipment. In 2017,
electronic devices that were larger than a typical mobile phone
were required to be thrown into a bin before being x-rayed to
identify any contraband materials or items. (Fischer& Walters
2019). These technologies and machines have an efficiency of
up to 99 per cent and produce flawless results. In addition to
screening passengers, they also directly question them about
whether or not they appear suspicious based on their behaviour
or appearance. Since the terrorist attacks of September 11,
2001, the United States has been protected against potential
dangers by the Transportation Security Administration's (TSA)
aviation security measures, which are regarded as the toughest
in the world.
The first thing that happens as you get through airport security
is an identification check. Airport personnel check passengers'
identification cards before they proceed through the security
checkpoints. After the member of the staff has verified your
identity, you will proceed to the TSA agents, who will scan both
your boarding pass and your I.D., as well as perform a face
recognition check to guarantee that you are the legitimate owner
of the I.D. After that, you will proceed to the security
checkpoint, where both you and your belongings will be
subjected to screenings. TSO is committed to utilizing what is
widely regarded as one of the safest ways available. In addition,
TSA agents will execute pat-down searches on passengers who
have the appearance of being suspicious or who have violated
security laws. Some of these justifications include the usage of
bulky jewellery, the donning of a coat, or the donning of a
sweater. If the TSA has reasonable grounds to suspect that you
are acting suspiciously, you will be subjected to a pat-down

search, which may be uncomfortable for you (U.S. Department
of Homeland Security).
In addition, the transportation industry is anticipated to
confront many issues in the not-too-distant future which may
result in a shift in the priorities of the Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) to handle the security issue (Kim et al.,
2017). He examined earlier studies, discovered significant
factors that can cause changes, constructed multi-driver
scenarios, categorized the scenarios, identified techniques for
constructing transportation, and, as a final step, established
essential strategies for addressing the security issue. Because
fewer people in the United States are taking advantage of the
nation's rail network, the federal government has increased
spending on highways and airports.
Behaviour Detection
This technique is utilized frequently by the TSA to identify
individuals whose behaviour raises questions. According to
Holmes (2011), the face is the single most reliable indicator of
whether or not a person is telling the truth when they are being
interviewed. This is because of the ongoing interaction that
takes place between the neural viewpoint of the face and the
brain. Since the relevant neurons and facial muscles move
involuntarily in response to emotional states, the face can
portray either the truth or a lie (Hill & Craig, 2002). Officials at
the TSA can tell the difference between voluntary expressions
and those that are involuntary, which enables them to spot lies
(Ekman, 2009). According to Holmes (2011), a standard
polygraph machine can also be used to detect dishonesty by
applying infrared technology, remote sensors, and other
approaches. This can be done using a variety of different
methods. These sensors measure physiological reactions like
temperature, respiration, and heart rate, which can be used to
determine with a high degree of accuracy whether something is
genuine or not. The neuroscientific technique also incorporates
neuroimaging to examine and decode subjective experiences
(Davatzikos, 2005). This method yields trustworthy data that

can be put to use in studies investigating the intricate
relationship that exists between the mind and the brain (Holmes,
2011).
Program Implementation
The mission and purpose of the TSA, which is to strengthen
security, are reflected in the programs that they offer.
According to Tarpey (2016), the Foreign Airport Assessment
Program (FAAP) provides the Transportation Security
Administration with the ability to conduct inspections at
international airports, as well as U.S. air carriers and
international air carriers that provide services that are
comparable to those provided in the U.S. This agency evaluates
the effectiveness of the safety precautions taken at national
airports and by air carriers by referring to both its regulations
and those that have been imposed by the United Nations.
According to Tarpey (2016), in 2016, the Transportation
Security Administration carried out 1,665 carrier inspections
and 139 assessments at airports (2013). In addition, the TSA
offers training on developing capacity that addresses the flaws
identified by the FAAP, as well as a comprehensive risk
analysis that includes information regarding threats as well as
information regarding flights. The Transportation Security
Administration (TSA) is responsible for providing training in
capacity building and concentrating on security training, cargo
inspections, crisis management, and preventative safety
measures. Tarpey (2016) suggests that the Transportation
Security Administration (TSA) carry out this training by
utilizing its Aviation Security Sustainable International
Standards Team Program.
Methods and Procedures for Screening
The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) uses a
variety of screening techniques on passengers to bolster the
country's overall security. For full-body imaging, they use a
technology called advanced imaging technology (AIT), which
can detect metallic dangers like bombs and other types of
weapons (Palmer, 2020). The potential for cancer-causing X-

rays and invasions of passenger privacy were two of the issues
that led to the development of the millimetre advanced imaging
technology (AIT) by the TSA. The passengers' privacy is
maintained because the screen is seen in a different room, and
the millimetre AIT does not produce graphic images of the
passengers (Palmer, 2020).
Some of the Security Measures Employed by the TSA
By using technology
By utilizing cutting-edge technology, the Transportation
Security Administration (TSA) was able to expedite the
screening process for carry-on luggage. The Transportation
Security Administration uses dual-energy, multi-view x-ray
scanners to inspect baggage. These scanners display non-
intrusive views of the interiors of the bags (Liang et al., 2018).
This renders any potentially dangerous objects or equipment
visible, enabling them to be isolated and investigated in greater
detail. The Transportation Security Administration (TSA) has
introduced newly built and improved scanners. They can scan,
analyze, and utilize the characteristics of a particular item to
determine whether or not a material contains any potentially
illegal compounds. The TSA is working to improve the
capability of its automatic detection systems so that they can
identify contraband items like firearms. This can be
accomplished with the help of a swift algorithm that is accurate
enough to do away with any misconceptions and quick enough
to guarantee much shorter lines of people waiting their turn.
The scanner contains several x-ray detectors, which allow for
the generation of images from a variety of perspectives. X-ray
technology is a major contributor to the success of the
Transportation Security Administration (TSA). Moreover, the
Transportation Security Administration has implemented
cutting-edge imaging technology (AIT). Jackson (2015) This
technical advancement includes gadgets that image the entirety
of the human body and screen passengers for metallic and
nonmetallic dangers such as bombs and weapons. Any object
that can be considered illegal that was photographed on the

person will be shown on the screen (U.S. Department of
Homeland Security).
The backscatter AIT was utilized in the past, but it has since
been superseded by the millimetre AIT, which is still used
today. Backscatter put the safety of the passengers in jeopardy
by compromising their right to privacy and putting them at risk
for a variety of possible health problems. Before it was put out
of use permanently, it had only been in use for three years.
Because millimetre AIT makes use of radio waves, it can
perform the same function as backscatter while not
compromising the user's privacy or causing any risks to their
health.
Need for Safety in the Transportation System
It is necessary to make a significant increase in the amount of
work devoted to awareness campaigns and education to assist
personnel at all levels of the transportation company, from track
engineers to senior executives, in understanding the threat that
is posed by cybersecurity. When discussing effective security
measures, it is essential to take into account not just the people
involved but also the processes and the technology. In order to
address this issue, training programs that are not a part of a
one-time induction procedure need to be designed, and key
performance indicators for the employees need to include more
frequent performance monitoring.
In addition to this, it is of the utmost importance that the idea of
"security by design" be broadly accepted. When implementing
new strategies, it is imperative to conduct risk assessments and
implement mitigation strategies at each stage of the design
pipeline. In order to accomplish this, it is necessary to take into
account how new systems interact with existing ones. It was not
until researchers discovered flaws in systems used in the real
world that the practice of preventing in-vehicle telematics from
connecting with control systems became a widespread practice.
The industry as a whole needs to enhance its ability to foresee
and plan for risks of this nature, and it also needs to
acknowledge that potential flaws can be introduced at any point

along the supply chain. Only then can a new solution be
developed. To address these problems, a greater number of
companies should hire professionals to carry out audits that are
vendor-independent when the system is still in the design phase.
The goal of these audits is to detect and address any cyber
security vulnerabilities. After networks and solutions have been
established, security by design also needs frequent security
audits and penetration tests. Even though the transportation
industry has particular issues, long-term system support
strategies must be prepared ahead.
The good news is that there are benefits to codifying best
practices, which is especially encouraging when considering
how significant transportation is. Communication channels that
are already in place between asset owners and intelligence and
security services are ideally suited for close coordination of
cybersecurity measures. It is possible to increase awareness and
give warnings about potential threats to digital security using
the same mechanisms that are used to communicate information
about threats presented by international terrorists, for example.
Establishing worldwide organizations that can assist industries
in directing their activities and fighting for changes to existing
channels should be a priority for the industry as soon as it is
practically possible to do so.
In order to overcome many of the difficulties that are now
facing the international transportation business, there needs to
be more collaboration between governments, operators, and
security specialists. As additional systems are brought online
and as hostile actors develop their toolkits, we can be confident
that the number of assaults in the industry will increase. This is
something that we can look forward to. Unavoidably, more
security flaws will be found in extensively implemented
systems, which will lead to a rise in the number of online
attacks that are carried out with the assistance of automated
software.
Together, we can reduce the likelihood of security incidents by
bringing attention to the problems associated with

cybersecurity, improving the quality of conversations that take
place regarding these issues, and implementing training
programs that raise the level of cyber security awareness among
key personnel and operators. Because of this, transportation and
logistics companies will be able to keep implementing
innovative digital solutions to improve the productivity of their
field workers safely.
Theoretical Framework
The theoretical framework covers the gaps that the literature
will cover. Also, the section discusses the crime pattern theory
as the theory that will be used. Lastly, the paper will state a
statement of hypotheses to be tested.
Since we know little about transportation and logistics, authors
frequently write about them. Logistics in transportation refers
to the management of the systems that transport people and
goods. Logistics is the study of how objects are moved from one
point to another, including how they are packaged, moved, and
stored. Transportation is a key component of the supply chain
since it enables the movement of goods, people, information,
and even services via water, land, air, and digital networks. The
goal of transportation security is to reduce risk during the
transit phase of the supply chain. Additionally, the essay will
discuss cybersecurity from the perspective of security.
Frequently, the first line of defence for transportation systems
is cybersecurity. Modern technology has made it easier for
hackers to identify weaknesses that were previously unknown.
These cybercriminals are attempting to acquire access to
sensitive data that might be used to carry out terrorist activities
(Fan et al., 2018). A virus that spread after servers were
compromised cost roughly $10 billion. The literature review
will also consider the relationship between passenger safety and
overall transportation safety. To flee, individuals such as
refugees can hijack aeroplanes. At airports, individuals are
anxious about their physical safety (Taylor et al., 2020).
Screening methods are an effective method for addressing these

problems. Thanks to screening, terrorists now have a new way
to conceal explosives in their bags. In 1985, a plane crashed in
India. This is an excellent illustration. The published works will
also provide information on various forms of safety measures. A
company's security system comprises the measures used to
protect its assets against theft, fraud, sabotage, and other forms
of harm. Thefts and acts of violence occur more frequently
outside of protected zones, according to the data. Since the
transportation company cannot guarantee a safe parking lot for
its drivers, it is in their best interests to identify and utilize safe
parking sites (Joewono & Kubota, 2018). In the long run,
dealing with cargo theft will be more expensive than paying a
nominal fee at packing stations. Consequently, the textual
contents will describe how scanners operate as a security
precaution. As part of the security protocol for vehicle
transportation, scanners must be utilized. A scanner may swiftly
detect potentially dangerous objects outside. Consequently,
security measures can be adopted to eliminate the threats
permanently (Dvorak et al., 2018). Guards at entry points can
detect danger if they are equipped with the proper equipment. In
the event that the cargo is stolen, the passengers are protected
by a license reader and an automatic under-vehicle inspection
system. Even while it is always a good idea to be prepared for
the worst, occasionally, the issue is a fallen tree on the road. It
is essential to maintain vigilance, recognize anything out of the
ordinary, and know how to respond correctly.
Crime pattern theory is the criminology notion most similar to
how public transit operates. Below is an illustration of feedback
in criminal pattern theory.
This theory is based on three fundamental concepts: nodes,
paths, and edges. A node is a place where people carry out their
primary activities and spend the majority of their time, such as
at school, work, or in their free time (Newton & Ceccato, 2015).
Around these activity nodes, users are supposed to establish
"consciousness spaces" or familiar settings. Nodes are the stops,

stations, and points in a transportation system where separate
lines meet. Paths are the frequent routes people take between
"nodes" following criminal pattern theory. These are the travel
routes utilized by travellers. On a bus, train, or tram, they are
the features of transit settings that occur throughout
transportation excursions. The final component of the crime
pattern theory is the concept of edges, which are unknown
regions to individuals. Consider the edges of the public
transportation system to represent the transportation
environment's limits, where one environment ends, and another
begins (Newton & Ceccato, 2015). From the perspective of the
entire voyage, however, these margins may become less
apparent, particularly when walking.
Around these nodes, pathways, and edges arises a concept
applicable to both lawbreakers and law-abiding individuals. To
explain crime at nodes, according to the crime pattern theory,
criminals would engage in activities within or near their
awareness space. Transportation hubs can play a significant role
in a person's daily life; therefore, it stands to reason that they
could also serve as meeting places for potential criminals and
their victims. This makes me question if the offender's activity
spaces consist just of transportation hubs and the surrounding
area or whether they also include transportation routes. Outside
of the context of transportation, movement between nodes is
typically straightforward, with the possible exception of natural
obstacles such as rivers. These routes are typically travelled on
foot or by car. On a transportation network, a victim's options
are primarily limited by the network's configuration and a set of
predefined routes (Zhang et al., 2022; Shiri et al., 2020;
Twumasi et al., 2019). In other words, the activity space of a
criminal may extend from nodes to routes, stops, and stations to
buses and trains. Consequently, the transit system may be an
indication of greater awareness, making it simpler to commit
crimes in more locations (Oliveira et al., 2019; Barabino et al.,
2020).
Utilizing the concept that best illustrates how theft might occur

in road transportation, we gathered data on transportation
security challenges. Given that road transport is the most
common means of transporting people and goods, the concept
appeared reasonable. It was determined that driving is the least
expensive way of transportation.
Research Design/ Findings/Results/Discussion
This research project's objective is to investigate potential
threats to transportation security and develop measures to make
transportation safer. The information was drawn from books and
publications that provided extensive coverage on transportation
security. In addition to seaports and airports, surveys are used
to collect data in other sites, such as ports and cities. For data
collection, both open and closed questionnaires are utilized.
There are additional ways to acquire information. A specific
transportation company gave statistics and dealer feedback for
this concept. There will be an examination of the data to
discover whether there are any feasible explanations for the
method in which replies were obtained. The findings are then
analyzed to address the research questions.
Model of Transportation Network Growth
The model of network dynamics that is being examined in this
section brings together all of the relevant agents and describes
how they interact to reproduce the expansion and contraction of
road networks. This part of the discussion will continue in the
next section. The model that has been offered for expanding the
transportation network has significant flaws since it is unable to
represent the complexity of the transportation system that is
present over an entire region. This presents several challenges
to the expansion of the transportation network. It is essential to
consider economic growth to be an exogenous variable because
the transportation infrastructure is not the only factor that
affects the rate at which the economy expands, and this is
because transportation infrastructure is not the only factor that
affects the rate at which the economy expands. During the
process of analyzing a network, external factors like patterns of
population and land use are also taken into consideration. These

problems may be solved at some point in the future. The
expansion of the road network has recently attracted much
attention because it is a procedure that is already tough to
understand and intricate. The model takes into account a variety
of elements, including the amount that people desire to travel
and how they move, as well as the amount of money that can be
earned from prices, how investments are made, and the rate at
which roads continue to deteriorate over time.
Figure 1 explains how the various parts of the model should be
put together and provides an overview of the model's
constituent parts. A travel demand model projects link-level
flows by factoring in the road network, how land is utilized, as
well as socioeconomic and demographic data. The demand
projections are used to figure out both the amount of money that
will be made and the amount of money that will be spent in the
future. When an investment module is put to use, the supply
changes on an annual basis, and the network can keep becoming
better (Namasudra et al., 2021). It is not necessary to perform
annual iterations at every point in time for the modelling
process to be successful. There is far more scope for
development in this area (Gyalai-Korpos et al., 2020). However,
budgets are often established at the beginning of each fiscal
year, and this is also the time when any necessary adjustments
to supply are carried out. The road network is illustrated as a
directed graph with curved lines connecting the many nodes that
make up the network (links). In the following part of this
article, I will go into the particulars of how the submodels are
described in mathematics by utilizing the conventional notation
for directed graphs.
Figure 1: Model of Network Expansion Flowchart (U.E. = User
Equilibrium)
Travel Demand
The typical four-step forecasting model that is used to
anticipate travel demand at the link level takes into
consideration exogenous variables, including land use,

socioeconomic conditions, and the existing network. This
allows the model to predict travel demand at the link level
accurately. A framework that is based on zone regression is
applied whenever travel plans are being produced. The origin-
destination (O-D) cost table that was developed from the traffic
assignment for the previous year is used for trip distribution in
the current year. This is the result of deriving this from a model
of gravity that takes into account two separate sets of
limitations. The point is further demonstrated by Equation 1,
which can be found in the appendix.
After it has finished its work, the origin-based user equilibrium
traffic assignment algorithm that Bar-Gera and Boyce devised
will install the resulting O-D table onto the transportation
network for the current year (Ru et al., 2019). The amount of
time it takes to complete the journey and the amount of money
that must be paid in tolls are the two components that combine
to generate what is known as the generalized link cost function.
For the answer to equation 2, please look at the appendix that
has been provided below.
The component of travel time is calculated by making use of the
functional form that is made available by the Bureau of Public
Roads (BPR) (Huo et al., 2022). The traffic assignment phase
concludes that the Wardrop user equilibrium has been reached
when the relative excess trip cost is less than 0.001.
Price and Revenue
At the link level, a cost is applied to automobiles that are in the
process of moving through the system. The annual flow and the
toll are the sole components of the annual income that are taken
into consideration. The pricing strategy will be used to establish
the amount of money that is required to be paid for the toll. The
functioning of the fuel tax system in the United States is
depicted by Equation 4 below. If regulations for fuel efficiency
in automobiles are not taken into mind, gasoline taxes are, in
essence, a form of tolling that also takes into account distance
travelled (Fridstrøm & Østli, 2021). People mistakenly believe
that the money that is collected from the gasoline tax is

administered by a central organization, which also selects where
the money should be invested (Carlan et al., 2019). This is a
common misperception. This is made abundantly clear by
equations number 3 and 4, which can be found in the appendix.
Maintenance Cost
The empirical evidence reveals that the costs of operating and
maintaining roadways are only moderately connected (about
30% and 46%, respectively) to the volume of traffic that is
present on the road at any given time (11; W. D. O. Paterson
and R. Archondo-Callao, Estimating Road Use Cost,
unpublished document, World Bank, Washington, D.C., Sept.
1991). Some maintenance charges remain consistent regardless
of the number of customers who walk through the establishment
each day. There is no guarantee that there will be a linear
increase in the expenses of maintenance as a result of an
increase in the volume of traffic. The number of vehicles that
utilize the road daily has an additional influence on the amount
of money that will be needed to resurface it (Madhav & Tyagi,
2022). In a streamlined version of the function for determining
the cost of link maintenance, the three factors that are
considered are the link's length, capacity, and volume (Hamim
et al., 2020). Utilizing this function allows one to calculate the
cost of keeping the link up and running. Therefore, according to
this principle, capacity is liable for absorbing any maintenance
costs, regardless of how much traffic there is. The appendix
contains Equation 5, which has extra information regarding this
subject.
Construction Cost
The cost of building a road can be affected by several factors,
including the road hierarchy (what kind of road it is, such as an
Interstate highway or a state highway), the cost of purchasing
land, the level of urbanization in the area, the terrain, and any
elevated parts that may be included in the road. Other
considerations include any high portions of the road that may be

present (e.g., interchanges and bridges). Only the number of
construction lanes and the level of urbanization were required
for Keeler and Small to develop their estimate of how much it
costs to construct something. Their methodology is capable of
explaining around 52 per cent of the total price range's
volatility. A regression model for construction projects in the
Twin Cities of Minnesota can be improved by including two
new variables—namely, road hierarchy and work duration—in
the equation. This enables the formulation of a more accurate
model (Wu et al., 2019). As a consequence of this, we will now
have an explanation for 77% of the variability in the costs
(Nikolić & Cerić, 2022). When estimating how much it will cost
to build a road, it is common practice to make use of a function
that contains three different variables. In a prior study, the lane
mile variable was applied, and the product of the first and third
components of the cost function has an appearance that is
comparable to that variable. The second statement may lead one
to believe that the ranks of the various highways are distinct
from one another. According to this cost function, the
construction of a road that is longer, that has a higher capacity,
and that is positioned higher in the road hierarchy will cost
more money than the construction of a road that requires a
larger capacity increase. Make sure you look in the appendix for
equation 6, which you can find there. Others believe that
investments in building roads are distinct, very lumpy, and
difficult to split, but others believe that expenditures in
extending capacity are often less lumpy than they appear to be.
Both of these schools of thought are correct. In this argument,
there is evidence to support both of the opposing perspectives
that were adopted. Either you can only enlarge a road by a
specified amount by adding a specific number of lanes, or you
can only build a road with a specific number of lanes by
yourself (Hymel, 2019). Neither option is available to you until
both of these conditions are met. However, incremental capacity
gains can also be obtained by making managers more effective,
broadening shoulders, and repainting pavement (Badue et al.,

2021). These three methods are listed in the previous paragraph.
All of these are examples of several approaches that can be
taken to obtain incremental capacity gains. Equation 6 is an
illustration of a function that does not terminate. It is also
feasible to use it to indicate how much it costs to construct a
new road by including an additional limit. You may do this by
following the steps in the previous sentence. This objective can
be accomplished in a couple of different ways, the first of
which is to keep a record of the number of lanes that are present
on each road in the network, and the second is to determine a
capacity-to-number-of-lane function. The capacity-number-of-
lane function determines the maximum number of vehicles that
may be accommodated on a specific stretch of road by factoring
in the total number of lanes that comprise that stretch (L). You
will find additional information on equation 7 in the appendix
of this document. The number of lanes that were present in link
a during the year I am represented by the symbol Li an, and the
coefficients 0 through 2 are established by paying attention to
what goes on. The inclusion of the second-order element is done
to account for the likelihood that capacity increases will not
develop at a linear pace as time goes on. This function could
compute the sum of money that would be necessary to widen a
roadway by one or two travel lanes to accommodate additional
traffic. Because the expansion cost model was intended to be as
easy to understand as possible, it does not take into account the
level of urbanization that exists in a region. The level of
urbanization can be directly correlated to the population of a
region or the distance from the region to the nearest downtown.
Investment Rule
The investment model compares the amount of money that each
link produces to the amount of money that it costs to maintain
that link and uses this comparison to determine how the money
should be spent to keep the network running and develop it. In
the case that the funds that have been allotted to a connection
are not adequate to sustain the ongoing maintenance

requirements for that connection, the capacity of that link will
be decreased in the round that follows. It is also possible that
this money may be used to add a few links to the network;
however, this will depend on how the money is invested and
how the organization is formed. Another possibility is that this
money will be used to purchase equipment. You are about to
receive an in-depth education on two of the most frequent ways
that individuals invest their money, and we could not be more
excited to share it with you! Depending on what the user
prefers, the construction cost function can do the capacity
change calculation in either a discrete or continuous manner
(Merkert et al., 2021). This flexibility is provided to
accommodate the user's needs (Courchelle et al., 20219). When
the capacity of a link is increased or lowered, there is a
possibility that the link's free-flow speed will also vary
simultaneously. When compared to narrower roads, wider
highways often enable faster travel times for autos. A log-linear
function is shown below as a means of illustrating how changes
in capacity and free-flow speed occur with time. Equation 8
contains more information. There will be changes to several
factors that influence how people move, such as the amount of
time it takes to get from one link to another and the price that
they are required to pay. When the capacity of a link is
increased, and the free-flow speed is increased, there will also
be changes to several other factors that influence how people
move (Leong et al., 2020; Ostrowski & Budzynski, 2021). A
new pattern of consumer demand will emerge in the succeeding
round as a direct consequence of the aforementioned shifts in
supply, as well as shifts in preferences, economic growth, and
population. This will occur as a direct consequence of the
previous shifts in supply.
Estimation of Model Parameters
The road network that is being modelled will cause the precise
values of the parameters in the network dynamics model to take
on a variety of different forms since this will affect how the

model behaves. In the following section of the piece, we will go
over the steps that need to be taken to generate a full set of
parameter estimates for the road network in the metropolitan
area that surrounds the Twin Cities. In addition to this, we talk
about the empirical data that is necessary for model estimation
as well as the potential sources of data of this kind. The process
of assessing the road network in the Twin Cities had previously
utilized the network dynamics model, which had been applied to
the process (L. Zhang and D. Levinson, A model of the rise and
fall of roads, unpublished paper, 2008) (Shahat et al., 2021).
For the network dynamics model to be successfully executed,
the very first piece of data that the model requires is the current
status of the network. This covers the capacity, length, and free-
flow speed of any lines, as well as any tolls that may be
required for them or their connections. It is vital to use
information from forecasting models that consider these
changes because it is presumed that nothing within the area is
generating changes in the land use, population, or economics of
the area (Obeidat & Al-Kofahi, 2020). The practice of making
an educated guess as to the number of people who could be
interested in going on a trip has become a fairly standard
component of the planning process over time. Travel demand
models are typically four-step models, and they are routinely
updated every five to ten years. The majority of large cities
utilize these models to predict future travel demand. It is
essential for organizations that deal with urban planning to have
access to the travel demand parameters, such as those that may
be found in the gravity model (Equation 1). In the general
vicinity of the Twin Cities, the value is roughly 0.1. The pricing
policy ought to be applied in the process of creating the formula
for the process of determining the toll fee on a roadway, as was
just discussed. This was just mentioned. The collection of
income from taxes on fuel has long been one of the primary
methods used in American cities like the Twin Cities and other
American cities to pay for the construction and maintenance of
roadways. Putting aside the fact that different autos achieve

different levels of gas mileage (see Equations 4; and 3), the
fuel tax is only a user fee that is based on the distance travelled.
In order to calculate the quantity of the constant term, you will
need to know the amount of the additional charge that is
imposed per gallon. Following that, the value of the constant
term is normalized to 1 by using the constant terms that are
associated with the cost functions. Using data from several
projects, Keeler and Small developed an easy linear model to
estimate the costs involved with road repair (Qiao et al., 2021).
The total number of miles that have been driven in a vehicle can
have an impact on the expenditures that are associated with
maintaining that vehicle. When Heggie was estimating how
much it would cost to maintain the roads, he took into account
both the order in which the highways were travelled and the
overall number of vehicle kilometres driven. Paterson and
Archondo-Callao state that only about 46% of the total
expenditures associated with maintenance are related to the
circulation of people and vehicles (Keller et al., 2020). The
remainder, which accounts for 54%, is made up of fixed costs.
Utilizing data that is unique to the road in question is going to
be the most effective strategy for arriving at an accurate
estimate of how much it will cost to maintain the road. As the
amount of traffic that is being handled increases, there is some
evidence to suggest that as a result of economies of scale,
maintenance costs are becoming reduced. There is a direct
correlation between the number of vehicles on the road and the
rate at which the cost of maintenance per vehicle kilometre
drops (Jones et al., 2020; Wróblewski & Lewicki, 2021). This
suggests that the value of 3 lies somewhere between 0 and 1,
about in the middle. (Equation 5). It is likely that higher-level
roads, such as Interstate highways, have a maintenance cost that
is higher than lower-level roads, such as arterial streets. This is
something that should be taken into consideration when
comparing the two types of roads. Even if both highways carry
the same amount of traffic, which is some number greater than
zero, this statement is still true. To this day, however, no

research has yet been able to identify with absolute certainty
how much 2. There is a significant probability that there will be
scale-related concerns with the way the road is maintained once
its capacity is increased from one to two vehicles per hour. In
order to reiterate, the most reliable method for estimating how
much it will cost to widen a road is to make use of the facts that
are collected at the project level (Equation 6). In earlier studies
on the topic of economies of scale in road construction, one of
the predictors that were used was the number of additional lanes
that were added every mile (Mahdavian et al., 2021; Kedarisetty
et al., 2022). The researchers operate under the hypothesis that
1 equals 3. It is not surprising that the majority of building
projects have virtually the same returns to scale (1 = 3 = 1),
given that construction projects of all sizes are combined
together. This is because building projects of all sizes are
joined together. A recent study that used data from 110 projects
in the Twin Cities indicated that the returns to scale (1 = 3 =
0.5) were significantly going up after it was taken into account
that the sequence of the roadways was taken into consideration.
The data for the study came from a recent study that used data
from the Twin Cities. Without taking into consideration the
sequence in which the roads were identified, the authors were
able to find consistent returns to scale by using the same data
set. It makes sense that the cost of widening a high-capacity
road would go up in tandem with the rising cost of buying land.
Because we do not possess any other information, it seems
reasonable to assume that two is superior to 1. According to the
results of these studies, the procedure that yields the most
precise estimate of the cost function of a road expansion is to
take the entire cost and divide it by three, which yields the
number 1. In addition to this, they illustrate the need for
additional research into other cost functions (e.g., a function
that considers second-order effects, factor prices, and land
acquisition costs). Utilizing the Metropolitan Council's
Transportation Improvement Program allowed for the gathering
of information regarding the prices of goods and services in the

Twin Cities. This was performed by the Metropolitan Council.
In addition, the Metropolitan Council's database for the regional
transportation planning model contains information regarding
the capacity the free-flow speed, and the number of lanes for
over 10,000 different road segments in the Twin Cities (Nasim
Khan et al., 2020). This information was compiled as part of the
project to develop the model (Vishnu et al., 2018). Using these
data, it is possible to estimate the capacity-number-of-lanes
function found in Equation 7 as well as the capacity-speed
function found in Equation 8. (Equation 8). Each coefficient (1
= 341, 1 = 162, 2 = 273, 1 = 30.6, 2 = 9.8) is statistically
significant when analyzed at the.05 threshold of statistical
significance. The expected values of the dependent variables are
compared to the actual values in Figure 2. You may find this
comparison in the figure. R2 values of 0.6 and 0.7, respectively,
were calculated for the two different models.
Figure 2: There are Capacity-Speed (vph= number of vehicles
per hour) and Capacity-Number-of-Lanes functions
It is recommended that the investment rule be formulated based
on the investment policy, which is now being evaluated for
normative applicability (such as policy evaluation). Calibration
and validation of the investment model are not at all required in
this hypothetical situation.
Investment Policies
When the cost of adding a new capacity unit is precisely equal
to the amount that it adds to the total benefit, we say that a road
is operating at its maximum capacity and that it is functioning
at its full potential. Even though it creates a goal for long-term
investments, this optimality condition does not provide you with
any information that will tell you how to make decisions on
long-term investments. The benefit-cost analysis has evolved to
become the first stage in the decision-making process for many
different types of investments. A variety of engineering best
practices has been utilized to make certain that sufficient
financing will be allotted for the road-building projects that are

most appropriate (Ahmadabadi & Heravi, 2019). One of these
procedures is the removal of any bottlenecks that may exist
(Alsuliman, 2019). In this section, we will analyze the two
investment rules that were brought up earlier and explain how
they can be applied to regular road networks.
Bottleneck Removal
The strategy for eliminating bottlenecks is often applied to
stretches of roadways that experience the most severe levels of
traffic congestion, and the policy frequently favours expansion
projects as a means of achieving its goals. This form of generic
rule of thumb for investments is illustrated through the use of a
mathematical model. The management of all network revenue
(also known as E.T.) from all roadways falls under the purview
of a single, centralized organization (Kashani et al., 2022). In
addition to that, this entity is in charge of the distribution of the
E.T. If you need any further explanation, please look at
Equation 9.
At this point in time, it is absolutely necessary to keep the state
of all of the roadways in good repair (Li et al., 2020). You can
figure out how much the overall cost of maintenance will be by
utilizing Equation 10, which can be found over here (M.T.). The
money assists in paying for some of the costs that are associated
with maintaining the property and helps pay for some of those
costs. The volume-to-capacity ratio, denoted by the letter S,
indicates how busy each road currently is. The capacity is raised
dependent on the amount of money that is still available as well
as the current level of congestion on each route (E.D.). Road A
will be the first road in the network to have extensive work
done to it because it has the highest S value out of all the roads
in the network. The maximum amount of capacity that can be
raised is determined by the level of service that is sought,
marked by the symbol S*, or by the goal value, signified simply
by the letter S. the value of S* must be reliant on the overall
level of effectiveness achieved by the network. The value of S

can be determined by locating the average of all of the roads,
which can then be used in the calculation. If you have not done
so already, you should look at equations 11 and 12. Equations
13 and 14 detail, respectively, the expenditures associated with
the expansion as well as the rise in revenue that may be
attributed to the expansion. The subsequent section of the
highway has the second-highest volume of traffic of all of them.
Calculations quite similar to these can be carried out to
ascertain the amount of money that the firm is still making as
well as the amount of money that it will cost for the business to
expand. The cycle will keep going on and on forever, right up
until the point where there is no more money to be made. The
method that was just outlined is built on the idea that the money
that is invested on roads can be invested in more than one
location. The value of Fa i+1 in Equation 11 can be anything
that has a positive sign in front of it. Only a small number of
locations would be allowed for the building of road extensions
if the model more properly mirrored reality. Because of
Equation 7, we have a little bit more leeway with this
assumption. In order to establish the number of lanes that will
be added to the extension as well as the costs that are involved
with the expansion, the anticipated new capacity is compared to
the actual capacity in the discrete scenario (Marques et al.,
2021; Shayanfar & Schonfeld, 2019). This is carried out
regardless of the number of lanes that are created, be it one,
two, or three.
Benefit-Cost Analysis
A benefit-cost analysis, on the other hand, takes into account
both the benefits and the expenses of a potential course of
action, in contrast to the bottleneck reduction approach. Before
we can move on to examine the costs and benefits of the
situation, we first need to reach an agreement on the poi nt of
view that everyone subscribes to. Likely, a company will not
regard the costs to society to be "real costs" until after they
have been factored in some way. This is because society's costs
are sometimes difficult to quantify. Again, a public organiza tion

is taken into consideration, and it is considered that it was
founded to assist the greatest number of people who can receive
it. The table below and equation 15 can be used to estimate the
life-cycle cost (Ca) of a road extension project. This can be
done by basing the estimate on how much it will cost to build
and maintain the road. The majority of road widening projects
offer several long-term benefits, some of which are challenging
to quantify (Johnsson et a., 2020). These benefits include better
traffic flow and increased capacity. When a road is widened,
there will be less traffic passing along that route, at least
temporarily. This will be the case whenever the road is widened
(Meža et al., 2021). This will make transport faster and more
dependable, cut down on the number of accidents, cut down on
the amount of energy that is used, and cut down on the amount
of pollution that is emitted into the air. It is more difficult to
assess exactly how advantageous the extension will be to the
system as a whole as a result of the fact that expanding a road
has a propensity to make traffic worse on roads that connect to
it and takes traffic away from routes that compete with it (Li et
al., 2018; Elvik, 2021). The benefit (Ba) estimation method that
we present simply takes into consideration the amount of time
that will be saved by taking the shorter route because we are
attempting to keep things as simple as possible. It is not taken
into account how this will influence the total number of
accidents, the total amount of pollution, or the total quantity of
fuel that is used. Nor is it taken into account whether or not
there will be any benefits that extend beyond the local area.
Another issue that is not taken into consideration in this
approach is induced demand. Have a look at the solution to
equation 16 in the appendix, which can be found further down
this page.
You can discover the ideal amount of growth for each road by
first determining how to acquire the optimal benefit-to-cost
ratio for that specific path (Li et al., 2021; Henke et al., 2021).
This will allow you to establish the optimal amount of growth

that should be pursued along each path. This non-linear
programming problem contains a target function that is quite
hard to comprehend, and it may be one of the most challenging
aspects of the problem. The fact that there is a limit to the
number of lanes that may be added to a roadway, on the other
hand, makes it a great deal less difficult to understand the
optimization problem. Calculating the benefit-to-cost ratios of
adding one, two, or three lanes, as well as the route that
delivers the best benefit-to-cost ratio (B.C. *) and the best
number of extra lanes to add (F*), is not a difficult task at all. It
is recommended that the funds be allocated to the course that
has earned the greatest B.C.* by F* score and that this process
is repeated until all of the available funds have been used.
The emergence of the Road Hierarchy
The network growth model can be applied to any existing
highway network in the real world; the amount of time it takes
to run is primarily determined by how quickly the traffic
assignment algorithm converges on a solution. In the real world,
the network growth model has the potential to predict future
traffic patterns. In this section of the article, a 10-by-10 grid
network with 100 nodes and 360 links is used to analyze the two
investment plans. The evaluation has a special emphasis on how
each of the plans affects the reliability of the network. Both of
these possible policy settings start with the same situation as a
baseline. The initial capacity of the grid network's links, each of
which is 4 kilometres long, is 735 vehicles per hour (this value
corresponds to a one-lane road, according to the regression
analysis with the capacity and number-of-lane data in the Twin
Cities; see Equation 7). With an average S value of 0.8 and a
speed of around 10 kilometres per hour on average, the initial
network is very congested. The initial use of land in every one
of the 100 network zones is the same. This is since each
network zone serves as the starting and terminating point for
10,000 journeys. O-D demand is prone to fluctuations
throughout time because link capacity and actual trip prices are
prone to change. The point at which the simulation model

converges is directly proportional to the total number of
activities that can be taken to increase the reach of a network.
When the network is managed from a central location, it is
possible to achieve supply and demand equilibrium over the
long run; however, this requires that the total income be exactly
sufficient to cover the whole cost of maintenance (i.e., there are
no more road expansions or contractions) (Huang & Kockelman,
2020; Wen et al., 2018). One can improve the effectiveness of
both long-term and short-term road networks by making
investments in a road network based on benefit-cost analysis.
This will allow for the investments to have a positive impact
(Figure 3). The discovery that the total number of vehicle hours
of travel (VHT) in both situations appears to be coming closer
together with time is an intriguing observation. Even though the
most important shift that occurred over the 50 years was 20%,
the difference in VHT when equilibrium is established is less
than 3% (benefit-cost analysis = 0.31 million hours; bottleneck
reduction = 0.32 million hours). Even though this technique
does not take into account all of the potential benefits and
drawbacks, the strategy for removing bottlenecks often
prioritizes rerouting traffic onto the busiest highways first as
the primary strategy for removing bottlenecks. On the other
hand, a process that is sometimes referred to as the "iron law of
traffic congestion" begins to take effect, and the newly created
space is quickly occupied by a greater number of vehicles (Lee
et al., 2020). This is because of the "iron rule of traffic
congestion" Along with this, there have been further accounts of
similar occurring in the "real world." It is feasible that the
volume of traffic on a route that has just been widened will
return to what it was before the extension within a short period
(Félix et al., 2020; Yu et al., 2020). As a direct result of the
bottleneck reduction program, the possibility that highways that
had their lanes widened the year before will have their lanes
widened once again has grown. This is because the likelihood
that bottlenecks will be reduced as a direct result of the program
has increased. This self-perpetuating pattern of "the affluent

getting richer" leads to the construction of road networks that
have an increasing number of levels over time (Figure 4). It
would appear that there is a power law at work in the way that
the capacity of the route is distributed. When selecting how to
spend money based on benefit-cost analysis, you will not
observe the same tendencies that you do when making financial
decisions based on intuition (Christie et al., 2022; Hannay,
2021; Pannell, 2018). Even though there is not enough evidence
to prove it, it is still possible that a normal distributi on is a
good approximation of the capacity distribution. This is even
though there is a lack of evidence to support it (or Poisson
distribution, due to nonnegativity). Because all of the roads that
comprise the Twin Cities network actually functioned as
intended in the year 1998, the investment strategy that has
typically propelled network growth in the region has probably
been one that emphasizes eliminating bottlenecks (Oleśków -
Szłapka et al., 2020). This is because of the fact that all of the
roads that comprise the network actually functioned as intended
in that year. Figure 5 depicts how the growth rates of the two
alternative investment programs are different from one another
and show how these differences compare.
Figure 3: Effectiveness of Networks with Varying Investment
Strategies
In the vast majority of instances, the sole factor that a network
hierarchy takes into consideration is how the various nodes are
connected to one another (Jiang et al., 2020; Riolo & Newman,
2020; Alzahrani et al., 2020). It does not take into account the
characteristics of the connection, such as its capacity or the cost
of maintaining the connection. Because the nodes in some
networks, such as social networks and the Internet, are the most
significant parts of those networks, it is feasible that
overlooking these characteristics will not be a huge worry for
those particular networks.

Figure 4: The Capacity Distribution of Roads
On the other hand, connection characteristics are especially
important in transportation networks, particularly road
networks, because they have a substantial impact on how
efficiently the network performs. This is particularly the case
with road networks. This is especially true for systems that
involve roadways. As a result, the hierarchy that is present in
road networks has at least two components: namely, the
connectivity hierarchy and the capacity hierarchy. The most
efficient type of link is a star network, which may be thought of
as an ideal hub-and-spoke structure (Wang et al., 2021). This
type of link has a ring topology (Bangjun et al., 2022; Hu.,
2020). One kind of distribution curve is called a power -law
curve, and it shows how the capacity of each link in a network
is distributed in a certain way. This particular netw ork is the
one that possesses the hierarchy that has the most capacity
available. The discussion on how to establish a road hierarchy
in the hypothetical experiment that was detailed above focused
solely on the capacity hierarchy. This is a result of the
connectivity hierarchy being built to be the same for both
investment plans, which has brought about the aforementioned
result.
Figure5: Changes in Networks Caused by Diversified
Investment Strategies
Network Fragility and Vulnerability
The process of simulating the growth of a network through
simulation entails several fascinating sub-steps that each has
their unique appeal. However, the primary focus of this inquiry
is centred on the relationship that exists between investment
strategies, road hierarchy, network fragility, and vulnerability
(Lu et al., 2021; Galiano & Moretti, 2021; Thees, 2020). This
is because of fact that these four factors are interrelated. Does
the more hierarchical road layout suggested by the bottleneck
elimination policy allow for a greater number of failures than

the flatter network that was presented in the benefit-cost
analysis? A Monte Carlo simulation was run to acquire greater
insight into this topic of reliability so that further action can be
taken. After each iteration of the simulation, the functionality
of the networks that have been degraded is evaluated. During
each iteration, one of three criteria is chosen to remove a
predetermined quantity of links from the equilibrium networks
representing the two investment strategies. These networks are
then compared to each other. The travel demand has changed to
use the other connections, but not the connections between O
and D pairs. This argument is based on the central premise that
the reduction in capacity that will occur as a result of the
various types of road failures that are described in the following
paragraphs will not last for a period that is sufficient to result
in significant changes in demand other than rerouting. This
argument is based on the central premise that the reduction in
capacity that will occur as a result of the various types of road
failures that are described in the following paragraphs will not
last for an extended period of There are three distinct
circumstances that could lead to the collapse of a network: (a) a
random link failure, in which the possibility of a link losing its
capacity to carry traffic is completely random (Scenario 1), (b)
a volume-dependent failure, in which a link carrying more
traffic is more likely to fail than its peers carryi ng less traffic,
and the failure rate is proportional to traffic volume, and (c) a
scenario in which the most important links, those with the
highest criticality, are the ones Each (Scenario 3) (Sohouenou et
al., 2020; Li & Zhou, 2020; Ganin et al., 2019; Almotahari &
Yazici, 2021). The first scenario is an appropriate fit for many
road problems that are not caused by traffic, such as those that
are caused by natural disasters.
This is because traffic is not the root cause of these difficulties.
The second scenario makes an effort to take into account the
effects of connection failures brought on by occurrences related
to traffic, such as accidents and routine maintenance. The idea
that the number of accidents and the volume of traffic are

closely related to one another in a linear way has been
supported by some empirical studies that used gathered traffic
statistics as their primary source of information. These studies
used a correlational approach to examine the relationship
between the two variables. Recent studies have indicated that
the underlying links between accident rates and traffic flow are
more complex than previously thought (Retallack & Ostendorf,
2019; & Yamamoto, 2018; Miglani & Kumar, 2019). These
studies took into account a variety of parameters, including
speed, weaving movement, weather, and lighting conditions,
among others. There is a correlation between the changes in the
accident rate and the degree of traffic congestion, which is
frequently determined by the computation of S, but this
correlation does not exist in a manner that is directly
proportional to the changes. In the following inquiry, there is a
chance that improved models of connection failure induced by
traffic will be implemented. In Scenario 3, the capability of a
road network to be employed in the event of targeted attacks is
put through its paces. A Monte Carlo simulation is not essential
for the analysis of Scenario 3, and the reasons for this are
clearly evident to the reader. It is said that a network is fragile
if it experiences problems even with a relatively low number of
connection failures that are either random or dependent on the
amount of traffic passing through it (Yu et al., 2022; Shen et
al., 2021; Shang et al., 2022). On the other hand, we refer to a
network as being vulnerable when the disruption of one or more
of its most critical connections has the potential to bring it
down in a very short amount of time. The road network that has
flatter topography is superior in all three of the conceivable
scenarios in which a link breaks according to the benefit-cost
investment criterion (Figure 6).
©
Figure 6: Fragility and Vulnerability of Networks: Cross-
Network Comparison (a) Random Link Failure (a), (b) Volume-
Dependent Failure (b), and (c) Targeted Attack.

On the graph, the dots represent the outcomes of the Monte
Carlo simulation run thirty times, with the averages of those
runs being displayed. Because the Markovian volatility of the
average performance was quite low, it was decided that 30
iterations would be sufficient to meet the requirements. On the
other hand, random failure rates reveal the least variance in
performance between the two networks, but directed attacks
demonstrate considerable differences in performance between
the two networks. It is becoming more and more apparent, with
each of the three different possibilities, that the network that
has fewer nodes and fewer connections is the preferable option.
The bottleneck elimination policy tries to construct an
extremely fragile network, and it does so by establishing a very
hierarchical structure as its foundation. The overall travel time
will quickly lengthen as more of the top links sustain damage.
Even if only 4% of the most important connections are removed,
the total time it takes to complete the journey will rise by a
factor of two (14 out of 360). The difficulties that have been
found in other scale-free or power law networks are consistent
with the findings presented here. When the performance
indicator for each network is given on its own, the network with
a less hierarchical structure exhibits a gradual increase in
journey costs for all types of network deterioration (Figure 7).
The relationship that exists between the percentage of removed
links and the percentage of an increase in the overall journey
duration is best represented by a linear function. This is because
this relationship is linear in nature. There is no correlation
between the number of tiers in a road hierarchy and a linear rise
in the amount of time required for travel (Tang et al., 2018;
Goel et al., 2022; Lin et al., 2020). Both of these networks are
susceptible to a type of network deterioration known as a
random link failure, which is considered to be the mildest of the
two. On the other hand, it is extremely clear that targeted
attacks have the greatest impact on the effectiveness of the
network.

Figure 7: Identifying and Eliminating Bottlenecks and
Addressing Fragility and Vulnerability in Networks (a) Through
Comparative Internal Analysis and (b) By Changing Current
Practices.
Conclusion
Depending on how other transportation investments are made,
the future forms of networks may differ greatly from one
another. The study findings confirm the hypothesis that road
transport is the most affordable way of transport. The safety and
dependability of a transportation system must be considered
alongside its potential to generate revenue. This is due to the
fact that even a tiny amount of unanticipated capacity loss in a
transportation system incurs substantial expenses. Researchers
investigate the resilience of networked systems against targeted
attacks, traffic accidents, and natural calamities. They also
investigate how investment policies and the hierarchical
arrangement of highways interact. The equilibrium road network
for two distinct policy scenarios can be estimated using a
microscopic network growth model. The first category includes
investments based on a cost-benefit analysis and the elimination
of bottlenecks. In order to determine how various types of
network degradation would affect the stability of road networks,
a series of Monte Carlo simulations with varying numbers of
removed links were conducted. Hierarchies may be implemented
in road networks for pragmatic reasons, such as enhancing the
system's cost-efficiency. However, it has been discovered that
too many degrees of hierarchy make the system less
trustworthy. During the phase of equilibrating or evolution, the
cost-benefit analysis revealed that the grid network was more
efficient and less prone to failure. This study demonstrates how
security and safety may be incorporated into the design of
transportation networks.

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