This file contains detailed rules of writing in APA style.

1. Mechanics of Style

2. Style:
The rules or guidelines a publisher observes to
ensure clear, consistent presentation in scholarly
article
 To avoid inconsistencies among journal articles
or book chapters
Ex: Subtest, sub-test, and subtest
correct in APA
style

3. Basic tools for APA style
in this chapter
 Punctuation
 Spelling
 Capitalization
 Italics
 Abbreviations
 Numbers
 Metrication
 Statistics

4. Punctuation
 Establishes the rhythm of a sentence
 Tells the reader where to pause, stop or take a detour
 Denotes a pause in thought

5. Spacing after Punctuation
Mark
One space is needed after
 Commas, colons, and semicolons;
 Periods that separate parts of a sentence citations; and
 Periods of the initials in personal names
Exception:
• No space after internal periods in abbreviations,
including identity concealing labels, or colons in
ratio

6. Use period with
• initials of names
• abbreviations for United
States when it is used as an
adjective(U.S. Navy)
• identity concealing for
study participants(F.I.M)
• latin abbreviations
• reference abbrevioations
Do not use periods with
• abbreviations of states
names
• capital letter abbreviations
and acronyms
• Abbreviations for routes of
administrations
• Web address in text or in
the reference list
• Metric and nonmetric
abbreviations
Exception: in. for inch
Period

7. Comma
• Use a comma
• Between elements in a series of three or more items.
incorrect:
,
in a study by Stacy, Newcomb and Bentler(1991)
• To make a nonrestrictive clause
• To separate two independent clauses joined by a conjunction.
• To set off the year in exact dates (April 15, 1991)
• To set off the year in parenthetical reference citations.
(Wordsworth, 1798)
• To separate groups of three digits (1,000)

8. Comma
Do not use a comma
• Before a restrictive clause
• Between two parts of a compound predicate
,
All subjects completed the first phase of experiment and
returned the following week for phase 2.
• To separate parts of a measurement
3 min 40 s

9. Semicolon
Use a semicolon
• To separate two independent clauses.
• To separate elements in a series that already contain commas.
The color order was red, yellow, blue; blue, yellow, red; or
yellow, red, blue.

10. Colon
Use a colon
• Between a grammatically complete introductory clause
and a final clause or phrase.
they have agreed on the outcome: informed participants
performed better than uninformed participants.
• In ratio and proportions. (the proportion was 1:8.)
• In references between place of publication and publisher.
New York, NY: Wiley
Do not use a colon
• After an introduction that is not independent clause

11. Dash
• Use a dash to indicate only a sudden interruption in
continuity of the sentence.
These two participants—one from the first group and one from the
second—were tested separately.
OVERUSE

12. Quotation Mark
Use double quotation mark
• To introduce a new word or phrase used as an ironic
comment, as slang, or as an invented expression.
The “good-outcome” variable … the good-outcome variable
• To set off the title of an article in a periodical or book
when title is mentioned in the text.
Riger’s (1992) article, “Epistemological Debates, Feminist
Voices: Science, Social Values, and the Study of Women”
• To reproduce material from a test item to participants.
The first fill-in item was “could be expected to ______.”

13. Quotation Mark
Do not use double quotation mark
• to identify the anchors of a scale. Instead, italicized them.
We ranked the items on a scale ranging from 1 (all of the time) to 5
(never).
• to cite a letter, word, phase, or sentence as a linguistic
example, instead, italicized the term
He clarified the distinction between farther and further
• to introduce a technical or key term. Instead, italicize the
term
The term zero-base budgeting appeared frequently in the speech.
• to hedge, Do not use any punctuation with each expression.
The teacher “r e w a r d e d ” the students with tokens.

14. Double or Single Quotation
Marks
• Single quotations within the double quotations
“Miele (1993) found that “the ‘placebo effect,’ which have
been verified in previous studies, disappeared when [only the
first group’s] behaviors were studied in this manner ” (p. 276)
Block quotations (any quotations of 40 or more words)
 Don’t use double quotations to enclose block quotations
 Use double quotations for the quotations within the block
quotations.
Use periods and commas within closing single or double quotations.

15. Parentheses
Use parentheses
 to set off structurally independent elements.
The patterns were statistically significant. (see figure 5)
 to set off a reference in text
 to introduce an abbreviation
 to set off letters that identify items in a series within a
sentence or paragraph.
The subject areas included (a) synonyms associated with cultural
interactions, (b) descriptors for ethnic group membership, and (c)
psychological symptoms and outcomes associated with bicultural
adaptation.

16. Parentheses
 to group mathematical expressions (k—1)/(g—2)
 to enclose the citation or page number of a direct
quotation
The author stated, "The effect disappeared within minutes" (Lopez, 1993,
p.311), but she did not say which effect.
Lopez (1993) found that "the effect disappeared within minutes" (p. 311).
But she did not say which effect.
 to enclose numbers that identify displayed formulas
and equations.
 to enclose statistical values.
was statistically significant (p = .031)

17. Parentheses
 to enclose degrees of freedom.
t(75)= 2.19
F(2, 116H3.71
Do not use parentheses
 to enclose material within other parentheses.
 back to back.
(e.g., defensive pessimism) (Norem & Cantor, 1986)

18. Brackets
Use brackets
 to enclose the values that are the limits of a confidence
interval
95% CIs [—7.2, 4.3], [9.2, 12.4], and [—1.2, -0.5]
 to enclose material inserted in a quotation by some
person other than the original writer.
(The results for the control group [n = 8] are also presented in Figure 2.)
Exception 1 : Do not use brackets if the material can be set off easily with
commas without confounding meaning.
(as lmai, 1990, later concluded)
not
(as lmai [1990] later concluded)

19. Brackets
Exception 2: In mathematical material, the placement of brackets and
parentheses is reversed; that is, parentheses appear within brackets.
Do not use brackets
 to set off statistics that already include parentheses.
Correct:
was statistically significant, F(l, 32) = 4.37, p = .045.
Incorrect:
was statistically significant (FR, 32] = 4.37, p = .045).
Incorrect:
was statistically significant EF(I, 32) = 4.37, p = .045].

20. Slash
Use a slash (also called a virgule, solidus, or shill)
 to clarify a relationship in which a hyphenated compound
is used.
the classification/similarity-judgment condition
hits/false-alarms comparison
 to separate numerator from denominator. X/Y
 to indicate per to separate units of measurement
accompanied by a numerical value. 0.5 deg/s 7.4 mg/kg
 to set off English phonemes.
 to cite a republished work in text. Freud (1923/1 961)

21. Slash
Do not use a slash
 when a phrase would be clearer.
Each child handed the ball to her mother/guardian.
 for simple comparisons. Use a hyphen or short dash (en
dash) instead. test-retest reliability
not
test/retest reliability
 more than once to express compound units. Use
centered dots and parentheses as needed to prevent
ambiguity.
nmol • hr-1 • mg-1
not
nmol/hr/mg

22. Spelling
Preferred Spelling
 Spelling should conform to standard American English as
exemplified in Merriam--Webster's Collegiate Dictionary
(2005),
 Spelling of psychological terms should conform to the
APA Dictionary of Psychology (VandenBos, 2007)
 If there is a choice for spelling , use the first spelling
listed canceled cancelled
 Use preferred spelling of some of more common
Latin or Greek origin words. Singular Plural
appendix appendices
cannula cannulas
datum data
phenomenon phenomena

23.  Use only an apostrophe with the possessive of
a plural name.
Singular Plural
Freud's the Freuds'
James's the Jameses'
Watson's the Watsons'
Skinner's the Skinners'
Exceptions: Use an apostrophe only with the singular form of
names ending in unpronounced s (e.g., Descartes'). It is
preferable to include of when referring to the plural form of
names ending in unpronounced s (e.g., the home of the
Descartes).

24. Hyphenation
Types of compound words are
• Two separate words (open)
• A hyphenated word (hyphenated)
• One unbroken “solid” word (solid)
How to choose the correct type?
 Use a dictionary (specially nonscientific words)
 APA follows Webster's Collegiate in most cases
What are permanent compound and temporary compound?
Established compounds in the dictionaries are permanent compounds
Compounds which are made up of two or more words that occur together,
in particular paper, to express a thought are temporary compounds.