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Apr 2, 2018 12:05 AM
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Assignment Instructions
Develop a chart or diagram that will illustrate how prenatal
development is influenced by environmental or genetic factors.
Creativity is strongly suggested. There is no requirement for
APA format in this assignment. There is no requirement of
references for this assignment.
Supporting Materials
· 308 Assignment 2. Rubric.doc (50 KB)
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Nature and Nurture: Genetic and Environmental Foundations of
Child Development
Child development is impacted by both genetic or inherited
factors and environmental factors. Genetic factors are inherited
from both parents at the time of conception, but can be the
result of different types of gene interactions. Environmental
factors impact different ways families function and children
develop. Environmental factors include the ecological systems
that may alter family function, socio-economic status and
cultural values and public policy.
TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE:
· Genetics
· Family functioning from an ecological systems perspective
· The impact of socioeconomic status
· Cultural values and public policies
“Toddler hopscotch” by Ilya Haykinson is licensed under CC
BY 2.0
The Influence of Alleles
In the argument over nature versus nurture in child
development, nature is determined by genes passed down from
parent to child during conception. Both parents pass genetic
traits to their offspring, but different offspring may acquire
different traits from each parent. Why do some children in one
family have similar characteristics or appearances and yet other
children in the same family look very different? The answer lies
in the interaction of genes inherited from the mother and father.
Genes and alleles influence the inheritance of traits, through
dominant–recessive inheritance, incomplete dominance, X-
linked inheritance, genomic imprinting, mutation, and polygenic
inheritance. In order to understand genetic inheritance, you
need to understand the basics of how genes work, and how they
work together with one another.
Fundamental Definitions
Understanding the basic structures and elements of genetics is
essential to recognize how various traits are inherited, from
appearance to intelligence.
GENE
The basic building block of the study of genetics is the gene; a
gene is a single unit of genetic information.
CHROMOSOME
A chromosome is a threadlike strand of DNA encoded with a
large number of genes. Humans receive 23 chromosomes from
each parent, for a total of 46 chromosomes.
ALLELE
An allele is one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular
location on a particular chromosome and control the same
characteristics in the individual. Humans have two alleles, one
from each parent, at each genetic locus, or position, on a
chromosome.
GENOTYPE
The entire genetic makeup of an individual is called
the genotype. The genotype can refer to the genetic makeup of
an organism with reference to a single trait, set of traits, or an
entire complex of traits. It can also refer to the sum total of
genes transmitted from parent to offspring.
PHENOTYPE
The phenotype is the appearance of an individual resulting from
the interaction of the genotype and the environment, or the
expression of the individual’s genes. You can see the phenotype
when you look at someone--the phenotype includes expressed
and observed traits. The genotype can include a range of traits
that are not expressed or observable.The phenotype is
determined by the a variety of factors, including how genes
relate to one another in the individual, and how environmental
factors impact the expression of various genes.
Patterns of Gene-Gene Interactions
Blue eyes are an example of a recessive trait
Genes interact with one another in a variety of different ways to
produce genetic traits, ranging from eye color or height to a
variety of genetic diseases. Genetic expression and inheritance
is not simple. In this lesson, you will learn about some of the
ways genes interact with one another and how their interactions
define and change the expression of genetic traits.
Dominant-Recessive Pattern
The expression of many genes is defined by whether or not a
gene is dominant or recessive. These terms describe how likely
or unlikely it is for the offspring to express this gene, or for the
genetic phenotype to appear in the offspring. Differences in the
alleles can lead to different visible traits in the individual.
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· The differences in the alleles can cause variations in the
protein that’s produced by the gene, or they can change protein
expression, including when, where, and how much protein is
made. Proteins affect the expression of different traits, so
variations in protein activity or expression can produce
different phenotypes.
Incomplete Dominance Pattern
· Alleles are defined as dominant or recessive. If a dominant
allele is present, that allele will be expressed. If a recessive
allele is present, it will not be expressed if there is a dominant
allele. Dominant and recessive genes were first identified by
Gregor Mendel in the 19th century. While studying pea plants,
Mendel recognized that the color of the flowers was determined
by a dominant or a recessive gene.
The second allele in the pair of genes may be dominant as well,
if two of the dominant genes are inherited, or it can be
recessive. Think about eye color--while this is a simplified
example, many people are familiar with it and it’s a relatively
easy one to understand.
In eye color, brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are
recessive. If one parent has two dominant brown genes,
represented by BB, all offspring will be brown eyed. If both
parents have blue eyes or bb, offspring will be blue eyed. If one
parent has brown eyes, but carries a recessive blue eye gene or
has the genotype Bb, and the other parent is blue eyed or bb, the
parents have a 50 percent chance of having a blue eyed child
and a 50 percent chance of having a brown eyed child.
While eye color really doesn’t have a significant impact, other
dominant and recessive traits can have a much greater impact on
the individual’s life and well being. Some genetic illnesses are
typically recessive traits. A healthy individual can carry the
recessive gene without expressing signs of the illness. These
individuals are called carriers. They do not express the gene,
but carry it to the next generation and may pass it to their
children. The child is only at risk if each parent carries a
recessive gene that codes for the illness. Cystic fibrosis is a
common example. If both parents have a recessive gene, the
child may be born with cystic fibrosis, even though both parents
appear healthy.
In some cases, the genetics associated with an illness of this
sort provide other benefits. For instance, sickle cell anemia is a
recessive disease that damages red blood cells. For individuals
with two recessive sickle cell genes, the illness can be
devastating. Individuals with only one copy to the recessive
sickle cell gene, however, have a much lower risk of contracting
malaria. Being a carrier offers benefits, but having two copies
of the recessive gene causes illness.
In these examples, the dominant trait, if present, will be the one
expressed. The recessive trait will only be expressed if the
individual contains two recessive alleles. While some alleles are
dominant and recessive, other alleles show different dominance
patterns, including co-dominance and incomplete dominance.
Incomplete Dominance Pattern
· INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ALLELES
· CO-DOMINANCE
· INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
· RECOGNIZING INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
While some alleles are dominant and recessive, other alleles
interact differently with one another. Where there are several
different allele types for a single gene, they may interact
differently with one another. They may not be dominant or
recessive, but co-dominant.
Alleles that are co-dominant produce a different phenotype than
dominant or recessive phenotypes. Blood type presents an
effective way to consider co-dominance. You’re probably aware
that there are several different blood types: A, B, O and AB. A
and B are codominant types, while O is recessive. If you have a
type O parent and a type A parent, you will be type A, as O is
recessive. If you have a type A and a type B parent, you could
end up type AB, if you inherit one type A allele and one type B
allele. Co-dominant alleles are alleles that are both expressed in
the phenotype-they are neither dominant or recessive.
Incomplete dominance allows aspects of both alleles to be
expressed in the phenotype of the individual. For instance, a red
flower that cross-breeds with a white flower might produce a
white flower, a red flower, or a pink flower. The pink flower
would be an example of incomplete dominance. If a black cat
and a white cat produced black, white and gray kittens, this
would also be an example of incomplete dominance, when the
gray kittens show traits of both the black and the white parent.
When incomplete dominance occurs, aspects of both alleles will
be expressed. Incomplete dominance may be recognized when
the offspring shows a phenotype different from both parents;
however, this is not an entirely accurate test for incomplete
dominance. The different phenotype must show traits of both
parental phenotypes.
X-linked pattern inheritance is another type of genetic
inheritance and expression. X-linked traits are found on the X
chromosome, one of two sex chromosomes. Females have two X
chromosomes, while males have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome. X-linked traits are typically expressed only in
males, rather than females.
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· In females, the presence of one healthy functional gene and
one unhealthy, missing or defective gene on the X chromosomes
allow the healthy trait to be expressed or minimize the impact
of the unhealthy gene. In a male, the defective x-linked genes
are the only ones present, since the Y chromosome is different.
In this case, the male may present with the X-linked
inheritance.
A number of genetic disorders are x-linked, including
hemophilia, a bleeding and clotting disorder, and Fragile-X, a
disorder which causes developmental delays. Because of the X-
linked inheritance, these disorders are prevalent and more
severe in boys than in girls.
Genomic Imprinting
We inherit two copies of most genes and both genes are
working, functional copies. Epigenetics defines how genes are
expressed. In most cases, all epigenetic changes are stripped out
of the genes soon after conception; the parental expression of
genes does not therefore impact the offspring.
GENETIC IMPRINTING
Some genes imprint or keep the epigenetic tags during the
process of conception. Imprintation occurs in the genes found in
the egg and sperm cells before conception occurs. The imprinted
gene typically remains active, while the allele that is not
imprinted will be inactive. When this process occurs normally,
genetic development is typical.
When there is a problem in the inheritance of imprinted genes,
significant genetic disorders may result. These can be the result
of two active imprinted genes or two inactive imprinted genes.
Health issues associated with gene imprintation include cancer
and a number of severe health conditions. Diseases directly
connected to gene imprinting include Prader-Willi Syndrome
and Angelman Disease. Prader-Willi is associated with learning
difficulties and uncontrollable eating, while Angelman Disease
is linked to learning difficulties and an unusually happy
disposition.
Epigenetic information is responsible for many of the
challenges associated with cloning mammals. Some scientists
believe that gene imprinting is the result of evolutionary
competition among males for maternal resources; or the survival
of their young over the young of other males.
Mutation
· MUTATIONS
· HERITABILITY
· LIKELIHOOD OF MUTATIONS
Mutations are changes in the genetic sequence of an organism,
and they are a main cause of diversity among organisms,
particularly as expressed over time. Most mutations impact the
nucleic acids, or acids that form DNA. These changes occur at
many different levels, and they can have a range of different
consequences. Some of these mutations may be positive or
beneficial to the organism. Others may be negative, or
damaging to the organism.
For organisms that reproduce, it is essential to classify
mutations as heritable, or able to be passed down to the
offspring and descendants or not heritable. Mutations that do
not impact reproductive cells or hereditary material have little
relevance overall, but can be responsible for individual
differences. These are called somatic mutations, and do not
impact the offspring or descendants of the individual or
organism. An albino deer, for example, can be the same as other
deer except for color.
· MUTATIONS
· HERITABILITY
· LIKELIHOOD OF MUTATIONS
Mutations are difficult to predict; however, certain types of
mutations are more likely than others in some organisms.
Mutation rates, overall, are very low--in many cases, mutation
does not benefit the organism.
Polygenic inheritance is the interaction of different genes to
produce a single phenotype. Skin color is an example of
polygenic inheritance. Parents can pass on three different alleles
controlling skin color and the amount of melanin present in the
skin. In total, six different alleles work together to produce a
single phenotype in the individual, or to determine how light or
dark the individual’s skin is.
Some diseases are also the result of polygenic inheritance.
These are genetic illnesses, apparent at birth. Cleft palate, a
deformity in the palate of the mouth that creates an opening
between the mouth and sinuses, and spina bifida, a deformity in
the spinal development of the fetus, are the result of polygenic
inheritance.
Unlike more direct forms of inheritance, environmental issues
can directly impact polygenic inheritance. For instance, spina
bifida is a neural tube defect. The risk of this defect is lowered
if the mother has adequate supplies of folic acid in early
pregnancy.
Ecological Systems and Family Functioning
The Ecological Systems Theory, also called the Human Ecology
Theory, was formulated by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner.
This theory addresses the difference between behavior at home,
with family, and outside of the family. This theory strives to
explain why individuals behave differently with family than
they do at work or at school.
There are five environmental systems. Each of these involves
different environments encountered during daily life. All
environmental systems impact the child and the child’s ongoing
development.
The kindergarten classroom is an example of a microsystem
FIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS
· Microsystem
· Mesosystem
· Exosystem
· Macrosystem
· Chronosystem
Bronfenbrenner and Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner believed that the child was at the center of this
progressive network of ecosystems, moving further than further
out from the child. In order to understand the child’s
development, psychologists must consider how the child
functions and interacts with each of these individual
ecosystems.
SYSTEMS OF A SIX-YEAR-OLD
For a child of six years, microsystems might include home,
school, a sports team, and after-school child care. The
mesosystem includes the interactions between those different
microsystems. The exosystems in the child’s life might include
the parents’ workplaces. The macrosystem is the child’s culture,
determined by their socioeconomic status, ethnicity and other
factors. The chronosystem could be a variety of life events, like
the birth of a sibling.
ROLE OF THE FAMILY
The family, for Bronfenbrenner, plays the most critical role in
the development of the child. In the family, children learn
language, culture and values. They form lifelong bonds and
attachments in the family, and when the family is healthy, are
more capable of functioning in a healthy way in other
relationships and environments.
Parents have a direct influence on children’s behavior,
depending upon how they parent and structure the child’s
environment. Indirect influences on children are interactions
between two individuals that are impacted by an outside force
or third party. Children can experience internal or external
barriers to their relationships with different ecosystems.
Internal barriers cause worry and fear, while external barriers
are expressed as anger or aggression.
OTHER FACTORS
While Bronfenbrenner believed in the importance of these
ecosystems in child development, genetics still played a role in
the child’s overall experiences. Personality and other factors are
influenced by genetics. In fact, two children can experience the
same microsystem or family context in very different ways.
Awareness of the contexts in which children develop and grow
can help to understand those children, their behavior and their
development.
The Ecological Systems Theory has been key to the work of
many later psychologists, including their understanding of how
various parts of life relate to one another.
Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning
· SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
· INCOME, EDUCATION, AND OCCUPATION
· MIXED INFLUENCES
· COMPARISON OF TWO FAMILIES
The socioeconomic status of the family significantly impacts
the physical, psychological, social and intellectual development
of children. According to the American Psychological
Association, “Socioeconomic status (SES) is often measured as
a combination of education, income and occupation. It is
commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an
individual or group. When viewed through a social class lens,
privilege, power and control are emphasized.”
Imagine a pair of young parents, both still in college or
graduate school. They have a very low income, but would not be
of low socioeconomic status because of their education and
occupation. They may have limited financial resources, but the
children likely experience some of the benefits common to
children from families with more resources. For instance, these
parents likely understand the importance of early childhood
literacy. Compare those parents to a young couple who dropped
out of high school and work menial jobs; they may have the
same approximate income as the first family, but their lives and
socioeconomic status are very different.
Socioeconomic status is not just the result of income, but of a
combination of income, education and occupation. Higher
socioeconomic status is associated with higher levels of
education, technical or white-collar jobs, and higher incomes.
Lower socioeconomic status is closely associated with reduced
education, unskilled or semi-skilled labor, and lower incomes.
Each of the three factors that define socioeconomic status are
relevant to determining the socioeconomic status of a family.
The differences can impact children in other ways as well. For
instance, two families of a similar income, for instance
comfortably middle class, can be very different depending upon
the parents’ occupation, experiences and education. One family
might believe it is essentially important for their children to
develop a good work ethic, while the other might be more
concerned with appearances. These differences are also the
result of socioeconomic status.
Factors Linked to Low Economic Status
Several factors are specifically linked to low socioeconomic
status. These include psychological, physical, educational, and
familial issues.
· Psychological Impact
· Physical Impact
· School Performance
· Risk of Violence and Neglect
· Relationship Stress and Divorce
CONNECTIONS BETWEEN LOWER SOCIOECONOMIC
STATUS AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Why does socioeconomic status have such an impact on
children’s development and well-being? What mechanisms can
help to alleviate that impact? Research since the 1930s has
clearly shown a connection between family stress and economic
hardship or low socioeconomic status. Current research findings
have consistently shown connections between lower
socioeconomic status and developmental issues for children.
EXTREME POVERTY AND HOMELESSNESS
EXTREME POVERTY AND HOMELESSNESS
Today, some 46 million Americans, or 15 percent of the
population, live below poverty level. Extreme poverty,
including homelessness, can impact a large number of children.
Some 40 percent of the homeless population is made up of
homeless youth and children; these children often suffer
extreme stress, do poorly in school, and lack adequate access to
health care and other resources.
Intervention Can Make a Positive Difference
In addition to recognizing correlation and causation between
socioeconomic issues and child development, researchers also
look at ways to address those disparities. While some steps, like
working to increase education and improve a family’s
socioeconomic status, address the cause, many interventions are
designed to reduce the impact of low socioeconomic status,
without changing the family’s socioeconomic status.
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· Several key differences are noted between higher and lower
socioeconomic status families.
· Higher status is associated with older parents, increased
interest in learning and cognitive development, and increased
support for curiosity.
· Lower status is associated with younger parents, increased
emphasis on obedience, and reduced access to cognitive
learning.
· Affluence, or wealth, may also be associated with poor child
outcomes, including poor grades and increased risk of drug and
alcohol abuse.
Early childhood interventions of different types have shown
significant improvements in outcomes for children. This
supports the causal link between low socioeconomic status and
difficulties in children. Improvements in family income
consistently improve conditions for children in those families;
however, other types of interventions can also impact children’s
well-being.
Two different theoretical concepts are applied to explain the
changes observed in children as the result of increased
socioeconomic status or early childhood intervention. The first
of these is the Family Stress Model. The Family Stress Model
suggests that children benefit from improved relationships and
reduced family stress as a result of improved family income.
In the Family Stress Model, poor outcomes associated with low
socioeconomic status are the result of increased parental stress.
Stress causes the parents to parent less effectively, damaging
their relationship with the children. Parents experiencing stress
are likely to be harsh, uninvolved, and to lack the emotional
resources necessary. As a result, the children struggle with a
variety of psychological and educational issues. The Family
Stress Model shows a direct path from indicators of economic
hardship to economic pressure, then from economic pressure to
parent emotional distress, from parent emotional distress to
conflicts between parents, from conflicts between parents to
disruptions in effective parenting behaviors, and finally from
disruptions in parenting to child maladjustment.
The second of these is the Investment Model. The Investment
Model suggests that increased economic resources allow
families to increase their investment, both financially and in
terms of time, in their children. Increased investment provides
benefits to the children, physically, psychologically,
intellectually and emotionally. These investments in children
involve multiple dimensions of family support including parent
interaction and support of learning, access to adequate food,
housing and medical care, and improved surroundings,
including living in a safe neighborhood with accessible
resources. Children have access to more resources, including
parental time, as the family’s socioeconomic status improves.
Interventions in early childhood often rely upon the Investment
Model. In this case, resources are provided to parents or
children to increase the investment in the child’s learning
experiences. For instance, children might be provided with free
pre-school, increased access to books and learning materials, or
parents might have access to parenting classes and educational
resources.
Early access to learning materials, including books, is closely
correlated with educational success. Improvements in
neighborhoods and schools can also help to alleviate issues
associated with low socioeconomic status. Schools can work to
involve parents, and communities can work together to create
safe and supportive spaces.
Today, both the Family Stress Model and the Investment Model
are considered valid. The Family Stress Model may have an
increased impact on children’s emotional development and well-
being. The Investment Model appears to be more relevant with
regard to children’s cognitive development. Regardless of
socioeconomic status, families that are involved, affectionate
and warm produce healthier and happier children. This can take
many forms, but the family dinner is a popular indicator for
family closeness. Socioeconomic status can also have an impact
on family culture, and how public policies impact that culture.
Influence of Family Values and Policies
While socioeconomic status and ecological systems of family
functioning impact children, children are also impacted in a
variety of ways by the values and culture of the family, as well
as public policies regarding children. Each of these impact and
change how children develop and how they experience the world
around them.
Culture can determine how much parents value curiosity and
experimentation.
PARENTS PASS ON CULTURE, VALUES, BELIEFS
When parents interact with children, they do more than develop
relationships. They also pass down information about culture,
values and beliefs. In addition, other adults also pass down
similar information, including teachers, care providers, doctors,
friends and family. Policymakers also have their own values,
beliefs and cultural preferences. This can cause conflicts
between parents and caregivers, as well as confusion for
children. In addition, policymakers may have different beliefs
and values than families, particularly families of lower
socioeconomic status.
CULTURE
A number of different factors can impact cultural values. What
is culture? The definition adopted by the early childhood
organization, Zero to Three is, “Culture is a shared system of
meaning, which includes values, beliefs, and assumptions
expressed in daily interactions of individuals within a group
through a definite pattern of language, behavior, customs,
attitudes, and practices”. This definition specifies several key
factors. First, culture is shared among individuals; it is not the
beliefs of a single person.
CULTURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Culture provides tools for individuals to create scripts that they
use to engage with and understand their environment and others
in their environment. These cultural scripts become fully
ingrained; they are not conscious, but rather considered, by the
individual, to be simply the way things are. Culture is
changeable, and may develop and adapt over time. While
culture develops from interactions with the environment,
including interactions with parents and caregivers, culture is not
the same as ethnicity
IMPACT OF CAREGIVER’S CULTURE
First and foremost, individuals, particularly teachers,
caregivers, and therapeutic professionals should recognize their
own cultural perspective. For many professionals, their “culture
of origin” or culture they grew up in and perspective that they
developed is largely European American. There may be clashes
and confusion between the values of the caregiver’s culture of
origin and the parents’ and child’s culture of origin.
Subcultures
· CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
· CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
Parents and caregivers may, as the result of differing cultures of
origins, have different beliefs about many aspects of child
rearing.
· They may have a different vision of what success looks like
for the child.
· They may have differing views on well-being for the child.
· They can have varied views on behavior and discipline, and
therefore, different expectations of children’s behaviors and
interactions.
· Caregivers, teachers, and others who associate with children
and families can increase their cultural sensitivity in a number
of different ways. First and foremost, caregivers can familiarize
themselves with other cultural scripts than their own. One way
to do this is to speak to parents about the type of adult they
envision their child becoming. The individual they describe will
help caregivers to recognize parents values.
· Individualist versus Independent Culture
· Some broad terms can be used to define cultures. Cultures are
defined as individualist or interdependent.Culture’s Impact on
Development
Culture can also impact language development in young
children. Multiple studies have shown that young children
develop language through exposure. Language exposure has
been linked to both culture and socioeconomic status. The
sequence of language development is the same in all languages;
however, the further development of language can depend upon
access to various resources, including conversation, books and
other learning materials. Access to language impacts children’s
vocabulary growth, vocabulary use, and IQ scores at age three.
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·
The cultural values of the dominant culture impact the
development and priorities of public policy, including
government funding for various issues that impact children and
often, research into child development. Many different types of
public policy impact children’s health, well-being and
development, including funding for anti-poverty programs,
access to early childhood education, and even health care
policy. Voters are predominantly older, white and economically
successful, leading to reduced access to these aid and support
for childhood programs.
Programs that provide access to job training and higher
education, improve access to food and safe housing, and that
enable regular access to healthcare can all have a beneficial
impact on child development. As noted, children in more
financially stable homes show improved intellectual and
emotional development. Programs that increase financial
stability for families with children can benefit the overall
development of those children. Cuts to these programs can
damage families and the development of children. For instance,
cuts to welfare programs and work requirements may limit
access to food and resources and increase familial stresses.
Other examples of programs like these include the school
breakfast and lunch programs. Providing free or reduced cost
meals to children at school provides them with access to
adequate and healthy food and is another example of social
welfare programs designed to address the needs of children
Government policy also impacts the availability of early
childhood education. Childhood advocates typically recommend
broad access to early childhood education for children of all
social classes. For children of a higher socioeconomic status,
these programs have relatively little impact. These children
have access to early childhood education resources, regardless
of public policy. For children of lower socioeconomic status,
public funding for early childhood education can have a
dramatic impact on their later educational success. Federal
funding for early childhood education pays for child care
assistance, Early Head Start and Head Start preschool programs
for children of lower income families, and improvements in
elementary and secondary education.
Public Policies
· PUBLIC POLICIES ADDRESS SOCIAL PROBLEMS
· FINANCIAL HELP
· CIVIL RIGHTS OF CHILDREN
When public policy values child development and the well-
being of children, some of the differences associated with both
genetics and environmental factors can be alleviated. Good
quality childcare and early childhood education can provide
children from different cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds
with improved access to a wide variety of learning resources.
Anti-poverty programs of various sorts can reduce financial
stresses for families, and help to improve the family and child’s
socioeconomic status. Various organizations continue to work
for the well-being of children, including the Children’s Defense
Fund. This non-profit organization works for the good of
children by funding research, community activity, and
legislative activity
The International Convention on the Rights of the Child is an
international agreement supporting basic rights of all children.
These include the right to freedom of thought and religion,
access to free and appropriate education, a loving family life,
and access to good health and an adequate standard of living.
The United States is one of only two developed countries which
have not ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child, in
part because of the belief in individualism and rejection of legal
controls on parenting.
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from http://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner-
ecological-theory/.
· Science Museum. (n.d.). What Is X-Linked
Inheritance? Retrieved
from http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/whoami/findoutmore/yo
urgenes/whatcausesgeneticconditions/whatisx-linkedinheritance.
· Scitable. (n.d.) Allele. Retrieved
from http://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/allele-48.
· Sincero, Sarah May. (n.d.). Ecological Systems Theory.
Retrieved from https://explorable.com/ecological-systems-
theory.
· What is Epigenetics? (n.d.). Epigenetics: Fundamentals.
Retrieved
from http://www.whatisepigenetics.com/fundamentals/.
1
The Prejudice of Minority Groups
Minority groups encounter prejudices whenever they engage in
illegal behaviors even if their conduct enhances their well-being
and are both natural and cultural. Stereotypes are driven by
people’s intolerance to the things that they are unfamiliar with.
NOTE Consequently, people treat each other on the basis of
their skin color, ethnicity, and nationality. Accordingly,
individual’s behaviors are assessed from their physical
appearances instead of their impact on the society. This is the
reason why law enforcement officers react differently to crime
scenes involving suspects from majority and minority groups.
The attitudes and perceptions that the majority groups in the
society have towards the minority compromises how they view
their activities, both legal and illegal.
TS
One of the ways through which minority groups are denigrated
in the societies, such as the American is through racial
profiling.
NOTE This is common in the U.S. where minority groups,
particularly the African American and Hispanic suspects are
treated differently from the whites. The law enforcement
officers use more force on the minority group suspects than the
whites. The outlook is supported by the recent incidents where
police officers shot unarmed black Americans, hence prompting
demonstrations across the nation. However, these incidents are
driven by the perception of majority groups on minority ones.
Over the years, the people of color have been viewed as being
violent and criminals. These viewpoints have been driven by the
involvement of a few of them in criminal activities.
Consequently, the members of the majority groups develop
beliefs that all persons who belong to minority groups are
criminals.
SIM For this reason, they minimize their engagements with
them and monitor their movements more than the other groups.
For instance, the traffic officers tend to stop and search the
vehicles being driven by African Americans and Hispanics than
whites. [Did you mean to write more often?]
Members of the majority groups tend to engage
dele react negatively to the cultural activities of the minority
groups even if they enhance their welfare. A good example is
the stereotype labeled against the Asian American students as
being studious despite their excellent academic performances.
The outlook has led to white students believing that their
classmates with Asian backgrounds are cold despite their
competency in the classroom. The outlook leads to them
believing that all Asians are not social, thus unable to interact
with them. Consequently, the Asian Americans struggle to have
white friends as the latter refuse to engage with them at
personal levels. The position can be supported by the fact that
the Asians who move to the U.S. prefer to live in neighborhoods
that have Asians to have persons to interact with.
awk Moving into white neighborhoods can have devastating
effects on their welfare, as they would be forced to live in
solitude. They encounter the same experience at their
workplaces where their colleagues from the majority groups do
not engage
prep them besides on work related issues. They believe that
all Asians are geeks, thus only relevant on issues concerning
their jobs.
Also, white students and professors believe that the Hispanic
and African American learners are average, hence need to work
harder for their performances to match those of whites (Bender
& New York University, 2003). The outlook can be traced back
to the slavery era when whites [A word is missing here.]
believed to be the superior race. At the same time, the belief
that the Latinos and people of color are not academically
competent is driven by the high school dropout rate of students
from these communities. Nonetheless, the whites fail to
understand that most students are unable to continue with their
studies because of financial reasons. There is no evidence
showing that a certain race is more intelligent than the others.
The reason why the number of white students who graduate with
college degrees is higher than that of minority groups is because
of economic reasons, and not intellectual abilities. The belief
that the Hispanics and African Americans are less intelligent
that whites leads to them being denigrated in several ways. One
of the ways through which the minority students are denigrated
is through being denied admission to top institutions of higher
learning in the nation.
SIM For instance, the Latino and African American learners
tend to struggle to get the opportunity to join the colleges in the
Ivy League. The other way these learners are denigrated is
through being denied academic grants and loans. The boards and
organizations that award the funds are usually reluctant to
award these scholars the capital they need to further their
studies. In the instances where they award students from
minority groups with grants, they tend to scrutinize their
academic performances thoroughly. These aspects imply that the
students from minority groups are denied academic
opportunities because of the stereotypic belief that they are not
as intelligent as the whites.
Over the recent years, the U.S. has experienced several
incidents of mass shootings orchestrated by persons from
different racial and ethnic groups. However, the public’s
reactions to these incidents have been different. The differences
have been facilitated by the persons who conduct the crime. If
the shooter is white, the American society blames the
individual. Here, the suspect is treated as an isolated case of
mental disorder. At the same time, the public does not call upon
the law enforcement officers, particularly the Homeland
Security Department to establish measures to protect the nation
from attacks. However, the reaction is different when the
shooting is done by persons from minority groups. A good
example is the Orlando night club shooting that took place on
12 June 2016, which was conducted by a son of Afghanistan
immigrants, Omar Mateen, a condition that led to the event
being treated as a terrorist attack. For this reason, they
WC were numerous calls to the security agencies to develop
initiatives to deal with domestic terrorism. However, such calls
were not seen after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School
shooting in Florida, which occurred on 14 February 2018 and
left seventeen persons dead and fourteen hospitalized. In this
case, the incident was perpetrated by a white, Nikolas Cruz,
hence viewed as a normal crime.
awk Therefore, whites were not labeled as being violent and
terrorists as was the case during the Orlando incident where the
immigrants from the Middle East were treated as terrorists. The
outlook has compromised the relations between the migrants
from the Arab nations and other Americans (Hartlep, 2015). The
former are associated with terrorism because of the conduct of a
few persons. For this reason, they struggle to move freely
across the nation as the law enforcement officers and the public
are always monitoring their movements. For instance, they are
searched more than the other persons whenever they enter social
joints,
inf such as shopping malls and hotels.
In the healthcare sector, the situation is not any different.
Although many bodies have tirelessly improved on healthcare
delivery, differences in geography, patient and provider
communication difficulties, cultural barriers, low income, lack
of access to provider and provider stereotyping have
continuously increased healthcare disparities. These differences
can be overcome by a complete change in the structure of power
where the minorities are involved in the State’s
C decision making. It means that any effort to end health
inequities will require changing the entire distribution of power
within the society to the advantage of the disadvantaged or the
minority groups. Efforts to have an equal distribution of health
care service in all parts encounter many barriers. Racial and
ethnic minorities receive more inferior quality health care than
the non-minorities. All people regardless of their ethnic origin,
gender, language, race, cultural background, disability, religion
or age deserve high-quality healthcare. [As the sociology tutor
pointed out, this paragraph seems off topic. Once you have a
solid thesis in place, you will be better able to go through your
paper and eliminate information which is unrelated to your
topic.]
The cultural values of minority groups also lead to the members
of the majority groups stereotyping them. For example, the
modes of dressing differ across the different religions. In the
U.S., people have a choice to wear anything they believe to be
decent because of their Christianity
WF values. The outlook is different in Islam which has a
different dress code. For instance, women are required to cover
most parts of their bodies, thus wear hijabs and niqabs. In the
U.S., the whites stereotype these women as being primitive
because they have refused to embrace modernity. Consequently,
they believe that all Muslims are not civilized because of their
religious practices. On the other hand, Americans who live in
Muslim societies, but do not adhere to the dressing mode
WC of the surrounding environments are viewed to be immoral
and unbelievers. Consequently, members of such societies
perceive all Americans to lack moral values.
The behavior of persons from minority groups will in
entertainment joints affects how the majority groups perceive
them.
awk For instance, the English soccer fans are perceived to be
violent because of the conducts
s/pl of a few of them during major tournaments. During these
occasions which are hosted in other nations, some of the fans
engage in violent behavior while in bars and night clubs after
being intoxicated. Accordingly, their local
WC tend to perceive them as being violent. The outlook played
a crucial role in the violence witnessed between the English and
Russian fans during the 2016 European Cup competition.
Therefore, the majority groups in a society tend to denigrate the
minority ones because of the behaviors of a few that contravene
the established social order.
References
Bender, S. W., & New York University. (2003). Greasers and
gringos: Latinos, law, and the
American imagination. New York ; London: New York
University Press.
Hartlep, N. D. (2015). Modern Societal Impacts of the Model
Minority Stereotype. Hershey, PA:
Information Science Reference.
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��In your academic writing, do not
use a preposition at the end of a phrase or sentence. For
example, instead of writing “He wants to come in;” write “He
wants to enter.” This rule also induces you to be more verbal in
your writing.
NOTE
�
�
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��The thesis statement is
underdeveloped. It should give a single, focused, and specific
idea which directly responds to the prompt. TS
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��To improve sentence clarity, use
active voice and eliminate unnecessary words. What is the main
subject of the sentence? For example, beginning with the main
subject f the sentence, this could be rewritten as:
Minority groups are denigrated through racial profiling. NOTE
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by
eliminating unnecessary words and repitition. This section
could be condensed into a single, stronger sentence. SIM
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��For clarity, delete the highlighted
text. dele
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear due to
awkward sentence structure. Rewrite it. awk
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��A preposition needs to be added.
prep
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by
eliminating unnecessary words. These two sentences could be
condensed into one. SIM
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is
inappropriate. WC
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it.
awk
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Avoid using informal language in
your academic writing. inf
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��There is a capitalization problem
here. C
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This form of this word does not fit
the structure of your sentence. WF
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is
awkward. Typically, the proper term to use here would be, dress
code. WC
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it.
awk
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This word is plural when it should
be singular. s/pl
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is
awkward. WC
1
The Prejudice of Minority Groups
Minority groups encounter prejudices whenever they engage in
illegal behaviors even if their conduct enhances their well-being
and are both natural and cultural. Stereotypes are driven by
people’s intolerance to the things that they are unfamiliar with.
NOTE Consequently, people treat each other on the basis of
their skin color, ethnicity, and nationality. Accordingly,
individual’s behaviors are assessed from their physical
appearances instead of their impact on the society. This is the
reason why law enforcement officers react differently to crime
scenes involving suspects from majority and minority groups.
The attitudes and perceptions that the majority groups in the
society have towards the minority compromises how they view
their activities, both legal and illegal.
TS
One of the ways through which minority groups are denigrated
in the societies, such as the American is through racial
profiling.
NOTE This is common in the U.S. where minority groups,
particularly the African American and Hispanic suspects are
treated differently from the whites. The law enforcement
officers use more force on the minority group suspects than the
whites. The outlook is supported by the recent incidents where
police officers shot unarmed black Americans, hence prompting
demonstrations across the nation. However, these incidents are
driven by the perception of majority groups on minority ones.
Over the years, the people of color have been viewed as being
violent and criminals. These viewpoints have been driven by the
involvement of a few of them in criminal activities.
Consequently, the members of the majority groups develop
beliefs that all persons who belong to minority groups are
criminals.
SIM For this reason, they minimize their engagements with
them and monitor their movements more than the other groups.
For instance, the traffic officers tend to stop and search the
vehicles being driven by African Americans and Hispanics than
whites. [Did you mean to write more often?]
Members of the majority groups tend to engage
dele react negatively to the cultural activities of the minority
groups even if they enhance their welfare. A good example is
the stereotype labeled against the Asian American students as
being studious despite their excellent academic performances.
The outlook has led to white students believing that their
classmates with Asian backgrounds are cold despite their
competency in the classroom. The outlook leads to them
believing that all Asians are not social, thus unable to interact
with them. Consequently, the Asian Americans struggle to have
white friends as the latter refuse to engage with them at
personal levels. The position can be supported by the fact that
the Asians who move to the U.S. prefer to live in neighborhoods
that have Asians to have persons to interact with.
awk Moving into white neighborhoods can have devastating
effects on their welfare, as they would be forced to live in
solitude. They encounter the same experience at their
workplaces where their colleagues from the majority groups do
not engage
prep them besides on work related issues. They believe that
all Asians are geeks, thus only relevant on issues concerning
their jobs.
Also, white students and professors believe that the Hispanic
and African American learners are average, hence need to work
harder for their performances to match those of whites (Bender
& New York University, 2003). The outlook can be traced back
to the slavery era when whites [A word is missing here.]
believed to be the superior race. At the same time, the belief
that the Latinos and people of color are not academically
competent is driven by the high school dropout rate of students
from these communities. Nonetheless, the whites fail to
understand that most students are unable to continue with their
studies because of financial reasons. There is no evidence
showing that a certain race is more intelligent than the others.
The reason why the number of white students who graduate with
college degrees is higher than that of minority groups is because
of economic reasons, and not intellectual abilities. The belief
that the Hispanics and African Americans are less intelligent
that whites leads to them being denigrated in several ways. One
of the ways through which the minority students are denigrated
is through being denied admission to top institutions of higher
learning in the nation.
SIM For instance, the Latino and African American learners
tend to struggle to get the opportunity to join the colleges in the
Ivy League. The other way these learners are denigrated is
through being denied academic grants and loans. The boards and
organizations that award the funds are usually reluctant to
award these scholars the capital they need to further their
studies. In the instances where they award students from
minority groups with grants, they tend to scrutinize their
academic performances thoroughly. These aspects imply that the
students from minority groups are denied academic
opportunities because of the stereotypic belief that they are not
as intelligent as the whites.
Over the recent years, the U.S. has experienced several
incidents of mass shootings orchestrated by persons from
different racial and ethnic groups. However, the public’s
reactions to these incidents have been different. The differences
have been facilitated by the persons who conduct the crime. If
the shooter is white, the American society blames the
individual. Here, the suspect is treated as an isolated case of
mental disorder. At the same time, the public does not call upon
the law enforcement officers, particularly the Homeland
Security Department to establish measures to protect the nation
from attacks. However, the reaction is different when the
shooting is done by persons from minority groups. A good
example is the Orlando night club shooting that took place on
12 June 2016, which was conducted by a son of Afghanistan
immigrants, Omar Mateen, a condition that led to the event
being treated as a terrorist attack. For this reason, they
WC were numerous calls to the security agencies to develop
initiatives to deal with domestic terrorism. However, such calls
were not seen after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School
shooting in Florida, which occurred on 14 February 2018 and
left seventeen persons dead and fourteen hospitalized. In this
case, the incident was perpetrated by a white, Nikolas Cruz,
hence viewed as a normal crime.
awk Therefore, whites were not labeled as being violent and
terrorists as was the case during the Orlando incident where the
immigrants from the Middle East were treated as terrorists. The
outlook has compromised the relations between the migrants
from the Arab nations and other Americans (Hartlep, 2015). The
former are associated with terrorism because of the conduct of a
few persons. For this reason, they struggle to move freely
across the nation as the law enforcement officers and the public
are always monitoring their movements. For instance, they are
searched more than the other persons whenever they enter social
joints,
inf such as shopping malls and hotels.
In the healthcare sector, the situation is not any different.
Although many bodies have tirelessly improved on healthcare
delivery, differences in geography, patient and provider
communication difficulties, cultural barriers, low income, lack
of access to provider and provider stereotyping have
continuously increased healthcare disparities. These differences
can be overcome by a complete change in the structure of power
where the minorities are involved in the State’s
C decision making. It means that any effort to end health
inequities will require changing the entire distribution of power
within the society to the advantage of the disadvantaged or the
minority groups. Efforts to have an equal distribution of health
care service in all parts encounter many barriers. Racial and
ethnic minorities receive more inferior quality health care than
the non-minorities. All people regardless of their ethnic origin,
gender, language, race, cultural background, disability, religion
or age deserve high-quality healthcare. [As the sociology tutor
pointed out, this paragraph seems off topic. Once you have a
solid thesis in place, you will be better able to go through your
paper and eliminate information which is unrelated to your
topic.]
The cultural values of minority groups also lead to the members
of the majority groups stereotyping them. For example, the
modes of dressing differ across the different religions. In the
U.S., people have a choice to wear anything they believe to be
decent because of their Christianity
WF values. The outlook is different in Islam which has a
different dress code. For instance, women are required to cover
most parts of their bodies, thus wear hijabs and niqabs. In the
U.S., the whites stereotype these women as being primitive
because they have refused to embrace modernity. Consequently,
they believe that all Muslims are not civilized because of their
religious practices. On the other hand, Americans who live in
Muslim societies, but do not adhere to the dressing mode
WC of the surrounding environments are viewed to be immoral
and unbelievers. Consequently, members of such societies
perceive all Americans to lack moral values.
The behavior of persons from minority groups will in
entertainment joints affects how the majority groups perceive
them.
awk For instance, the English soccer fans are perceived to be
violent because of the conducts
s/pl of a few of them during major tournaments. During these
occasions which are hosted in other nations, some of the fans
engage in violent behavior while in bars and night clubs after
being intoxicated. Accordingly, their local
WC tend to perceive them as being violent. The outlook played
a crucial role in the violence witnessed between the English and
Russian fans during the 2016 European Cup competition.
Therefore, the majority groups in a society tend to denigrate the
minority ones because of the behaviors of a few that contravene
the established social order.
References
Bender, S. W., & New York University. (2003). Greasers and
gringos: Latinos, law, and the
American imagination. New York ; London: New York
University Press.
Hartlep, N. D. (2015). Modern Societal Impacts of the Model
Minority Stereotype. Hershey, PA:
Information Science Reference.
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��In your academic writing, do not
use a preposition at the end of a phrase or sentence. For
example, instead of writing “He wants to come in;” write “He
wants to enter.” This rule also induces you to be more verbal in
your writing.
NOTE
�
�
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��The thesis statement is
underdeveloped. It should give a single, focused, and specific
idea which directly responds to the prompt. TS
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��To improve sentence clarity, use
active voice and eliminate unnecessary words. What is the main
subject of the sentence? For example, beginning with the main
subject f the sentence, this could be rewritten as:
Minority groups are denigrated through racial profiling. NOTE
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by
eliminating unnecessary words and repitition. This section
could be condensed into a single, stronger sentence. SIM
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��For clarity, delete the highlighted
text. dele
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear due to
awkward sentence structure. Rewrite it. awk
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��A preposition needs to be added.
prep
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by
eliminating unnecessary words. These two sentences could be
condensed into one. SIM
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is
inappropriate. WC
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it.
awk
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Avoid using informal language in
your academic writing. inf
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��There is a capitalization problem
here. C
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This form of this word does not fit
the structure of your sentence. WF
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is
awkward. Typically, the proper term to use here would be, dress
code. WC
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it.
awk
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This word is plural when it should
be singular. s/pl
� PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is
awkward. WC
THE PREJUDICE OF MINORITY GROUPS 8
Prejudice of Minority Groups
[Please keep in mind you are asked to discuss “illegal
behavior”. The ideas related to healthcare, entertainment,
dressing., and various stereotypes are not considered illegal
behavior. Please revisit your paper and focus on the topic.]
Minority groups encounter prejudices whenever they
engage in illegal behaviors even if their conduct enhances their
well-being and are both natural and cultural. Stereotypes are
driven by people’s intolerance to the things that they are
unfamiliar with. Consequently, people treat each other based on
their skin color, ethnicity, and nationality. Accordingly,
individual’s behaviors are assessed from their physical
appearances instead of their impact on the society. This is the
reason why law enforcement officers react differently to crime
scenes involving suspects from majority and minority groups.
The attitudes and perceptions that the majority groups in the
society have towards the minority compromises how they view
their activities, both legal and illegal. [What is your thesis
statement? In this essay, I will discuss….]
One of the ways through which minority groups are
denigrated in the societies, such as the American is through
racial profiling. This is common in the U.S. where minority
groups, particularly the African American and Hispanic suspects
are treated differently from the whites. The law enforcement
officers use more force on the minority group suspects than the
whites [Any data or number to support the statement?]. The
outlook is supported by the recent incidents where police
officers shot unarmed black Americans, hence prompting
demonstrations across the nation. However, these incidents are
driven by the perception of majority groups on minority ones.
Over the years, the people of color have been viewed as being
violent and criminals [Any study or research to support your
idea?]. These viewpoints have been driven by the involvement
of a few of them in criminal activities. Consequently, the
members of the majority groups develop beliefs that all persons
who belong to minority groups are criminals. For this reason,
they minimize their engagements with them and monitor their
movements more than the other groups. For instance, the traffic
officers tend to stop and search the vehicles being driven by
African Americans and Hispanics than whites. [It will be more
convincing if you can find data or numbers to support your
ideas.]
Members of the majority groups tend to engage [and?]
react negatively to the cultural activities of the minority groups
even if they enhance their [are you referring “their” to majority
groups?] welfare. A good example is the stereotype labeled
against the Asian American students as being studious despite
their excellent academic performances [I am not sure how being
studious is related to excellent academic performance]. The
outlook [Is outlook another stereotype besides being studious?]
has led to white students believing that their classmates with
Asian backgrounds are cold despite their competency in the
classroom. The outlook leads to them believing that all Asians
are not social, thus unable to interact with them. Consequently,
the Asian Americans struggle to have white friends as the latter
refuse to engage with them at personal levels. The position
[What position?] can be supported by the fact that the Asians
who move to the U.S. prefer to live in neighborhoods that have
Asians to have persons to interact with. Moving into white
neighborhoods can have devastating effects on their welfare, as
they would be forced to live in solitude [Are you talking about
cultural assimilation?]. They encounter the same experience at
their workplaces where their colleagues from the majority
groups do not engage them besides on work related issues. They
believe that all Asians are geeks, thus only relevant on issues
concerning their jobs.
Also, white students and professors believe that the
Hispanic and African American learners are average, hence
need to work harder for their performances to match those of
whites (Bender & New York University, 2003). The outlook can
be traced back to the slavery era when whites believed to be the
superior race. At the same time, the belief that the Latinos and
people of color are not academically competent is driven by the
high school dropout rate of students from these communities.
Nonetheless, the whites fail to understand that most students are
unable to continue with their studies because of financial
reasons [Are the ideas from the source Bender and New York
University ? Otherwise, you need to find more sources to
support your ideas. ]. There is no evidence showing that a
certain race is more intelligent than the others. The reason why
the number of white students who graduate with college degrees
is higher than that of minority groups is because of economic
reasons, and not intellectual abilities. The belief that the
Hispanics and African Americans are less intelligent that whites
leads to them being denigrated in several ways. One of the ways
through which the minority students are denigrated is through
being denied admission to top institutions of higher learning in
the nation. For instance, the Latino and African American
learners tend to struggle to get the opportunity to join the
colleges in the Ivy League [Any data or numbers to support
your statement?]. The other way these learners are denigrated is
through being denied academic grants and loans. The boards and
organizations that award the funds are usually reluctant to
award these scholars the capital they need to further their
studies. In the instances where they award students from
minority groups with grants, they tend to scrutinize their
academic performances thoroughly. These aspects imply that the
students from minority groups are denied academic
opportunities because of the stereotypic belief that they are not
as intelligent as the whites. [I really encourage you to find
sources to support your ideas and statements.]
Over the recent years, the U.S. has experienced several
incidents of mass shootings orchestrated by persons from
different racial and ethnic groups. However, the public’s
reactions to these incidents have been different. The differences
have been facilitated by the persons who conduct the crime. If
the shooter is white, the American society blames the
individual. Here, the suspect is treated as an isolated case of
mental disorder. At the same time, the public does not call upon
the law enforcement officers, particularly the Homeland
Security Department to establish measures to protect the nation
from attacks. However, the reaction is different when the
shooting is done by persons from minority groups. A good
example is the Orlando night club shooting that took place on
12 June 2016, which was conducted by a son of Afghanistan
immigrants, Omar Mateen, a condition that led to the event
being treated as a terrorist attack. For this reason, they were
numerous calls to the security agencies to develop initiatives to
deal with domestic terrorism. However, such calls were not seen
after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in
Florida, which occurred on 14 February 2018 and left seventeen
persons dead and fourteen hospitalized. In this case, the
incident was perpetrated by a white, Nikolas Cruz, hence
viewed as a normal crime. Therefore, whites were not labeled as
being violent and terrorists as was the case during the Orlando
incident where the immigrants from the Middle East were
treated as terrorists. The outlook has compromised the relations
between the migrants from the Arab nations and other
Americans (Hartlep, 2015). The former are associated with
terrorism because of the conduct of a few persons. For this
reason, they struggle to move freely across the nation as the law
enforcement officers and the public are always monitoring their
movements. For instance, they are searched more than the other
persons whenever they enter social joints, such as shopping
malls and hotels [How do you know they are searched more?
You need number to back up your statement.].
In the healthcare sector, the situation is not any different.
Although many bodies have tirelessly improved on healthcare
delivery, differences in geography, patient and provider
communication difficulties, cultural barriers, low income, lack
of access to provider and provider stereotyping have
continuously increased healthcare disparities. These differences
can be overcome by a complete change in the structure of power
where the minorities are involved in the State’s decision
making. It means that any effort to end health inequities will
require changing the entire distribution of power within the
society to the advantage of the disadvantaged or the minority
groups. Efforts to have an equal distribution of health care
service in all parts encounter many barriers. Racial and ethnic
minorities receive more inferior quality health care than the
non-minorities. All people regardless of their ethnic origin,
gender, language, race, cultural background, disability, religion
or age deserve high-quality healthcare [Is the whole paragraph
your own idea? If not, you need to provide citation].
The cultural values of minority groups also lead to the
members of the majority groups stereotyping them. For
example, the modes of dressing differ across the different
religions. In the U.S., people have a choice to wear anything
they believe to be decent because of their Christianity values [I
am not sure if that is the Christianity value.]. The outlook is
different in Islam which has a different dress code. For
instance, women are required to cover most parts of their
bodies, thus wear hijabs and niqabs. In the U.S., the whites
stereotype these women as being primitive because they have
refused to embrace modernity. Consequently, they believe that
all Muslims are not civilized because of their religious
practices. On the other hand, Americans who live in Muslim
societies, but do not adhere to the dressing mode of the
surrounding environments are viewed to be immoral and
unbelievers. Consequently, members of such societies perceive
all Americans to lack moral values. [Try to avoid
overgeneralization by using the words, such as “all” everyone“,
and etic]
The behavior of persons from minority groups will in
entertainment joints affects how the majority groups perceive
them. For instance, the English soccer fans are perceived to be
violent because of the conducts of a few of them during major
tournaments. During these occasions which are hosted in other
nations, some of the fans engage in violent behavior while in
bars and night clubs after being intoxicated. Accordingly, their
local tend to perceive them as being violent. The outlook played
a crucial role in the violence witnessed between the English and
Russian fans during the 2016 European Cup competition.
Therefore, the majority groups in a society tend to denigrate the
minority ones because of the behaviors of a few that contravene
the established social order.
[Please keep in mind you are asked to discuss “illegal
behavior”. The ideas related to healthcare, entertainment,
dressing., and various stereotypes are not considered illegal
behavior. Please revisit your paper and focus on the topic.]
References
Bender, S. W., & New York University. (2003). Greasers and
gringos: Latinos, law, and the American imagination. New York
; London: New York University Press.
Hartlep, N. D. (2015). Modern Societal Impacts of the Model
Minority Stereotype. Hershey, PA: Information Science
Reference.

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Assignment DetailsOpen DateApr 2, 2018 1205 AMGradedYes.docx

  • 1. Assignment Details Open Date Apr 2, 2018 12:05 AM Graded? Yes Points Possible 100.0 Resubmissions Allowed? No Attachments checked for originality? Yes Top of Form Assignment Instructions Develop a chart or diagram that will illustrate how prenatal development is influenced by environmental or genetic factors. Creativity is strongly suggested. There is no requirement for APA format in this assignment. There is no requirement of references for this assignment. Supporting Materials · 308 Assignment 2. Rubric.doc (50 KB) Bottom of Form Nature and Nurture: Genetic and Environmental Foundations of Child Development Child development is impacted by both genetic or inherited factors and environmental factors. Genetic factors are inherited from both parents at the time of conception, but can be the result of different types of gene interactions. Environmental factors impact different ways families function and children develop. Environmental factors include the ecological systems that may alter family function, socio-economic status and
  • 2. cultural values and public policy. TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE: · Genetics · Family functioning from an ecological systems perspective · The impact of socioeconomic status · Cultural values and public policies “Toddler hopscotch” by Ilya Haykinson is licensed under CC BY 2.0 The Influence of Alleles In the argument over nature versus nurture in child development, nature is determined by genes passed down from parent to child during conception. Both parents pass genetic traits to their offspring, but different offspring may acquire different traits from each parent. Why do some children in one family have similar characteristics or appearances and yet other children in the same family look very different? The answer lies in the interaction of genes inherited from the mother and father. Genes and alleles influence the inheritance of traits, through dominant–recessive inheritance, incomplete dominance, X- linked inheritance, genomic imprinting, mutation, and polygenic inheritance. In order to understand genetic inheritance, you need to understand the basics of how genes work, and how they work together with one another. Fundamental Definitions Understanding the basic structures and elements of genetics is essential to recognize how various traits are inherited, from appearance to intelligence. GENE The basic building block of the study of genetics is the gene; a gene is a single unit of genetic information. CHROMOSOME A chromosome is a threadlike strand of DNA encoded with a large number of genes. Humans receive 23 chromosomes from each parent, for a total of 46 chromosomes. ALLELE
  • 3. An allele is one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular location on a particular chromosome and control the same characteristics in the individual. Humans have two alleles, one from each parent, at each genetic locus, or position, on a chromosome. GENOTYPE The entire genetic makeup of an individual is called the genotype. The genotype can refer to the genetic makeup of an organism with reference to a single trait, set of traits, or an entire complex of traits. It can also refer to the sum total of genes transmitted from parent to offspring. PHENOTYPE The phenotype is the appearance of an individual resulting from the interaction of the genotype and the environment, or the expression of the individual’s genes. You can see the phenotype when you look at someone--the phenotype includes expressed and observed traits. The genotype can include a range of traits that are not expressed or observable.The phenotype is determined by the a variety of factors, including how genes relate to one another in the individual, and how environmental factors impact the expression of various genes. Patterns of Gene-Gene Interactions Blue eyes are an example of a recessive trait Genes interact with one another in a variety of different ways to produce genetic traits, ranging from eye color or height to a variety of genetic diseases. Genetic expression and inheritance is not simple. In this lesson, you will learn about some of the ways genes interact with one another and how their interactions define and change the expression of genetic traits. Dominant-Recessive Pattern The expression of many genes is defined by whether or not a gene is dominant or recessive. These terms describe how likely or unlikely it is for the offspring to express this gene, or for the
  • 4. genetic phenotype to appear in the offspring. Differences in the alleles can lead to different visible traits in the individual. ‹1/7› · The differences in the alleles can cause variations in the protein that’s produced by the gene, or they can change protein expression, including when, where, and how much protein is made. Proteins affect the expression of different traits, so variations in protein activity or expression can produce different phenotypes. Incomplete Dominance Pattern · Alleles are defined as dominant or recessive. If a dominant allele is present, that allele will be expressed. If a recessive allele is present, it will not be expressed if there is a dominant allele. Dominant and recessive genes were first identified by Gregor Mendel in the 19th century. While studying pea plants, Mendel recognized that the color of the flowers was determined by a dominant or a recessive gene. The second allele in the pair of genes may be dominant as well, if two of the dominant genes are inherited, or it can be recessive. Think about eye color--while this is a simplified example, many people are familiar with it and it’s a relatively easy one to understand. In eye color, brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are recessive. If one parent has two dominant brown genes, represented by BB, all offspring will be brown eyed. If both parents have blue eyes or bb, offspring will be blue eyed. If one parent has brown eyes, but carries a recessive blue eye gene or has the genotype Bb, and the other parent is blue eyed or bb, the parents have a 50 percent chance of having a blue eyed child and a 50 percent chance of having a brown eyed child. While eye color really doesn’t have a significant impact, other dominant and recessive traits can have a much greater impact on the individual’s life and well being. Some genetic illnesses are typically recessive traits. A healthy individual can carry the
  • 5. recessive gene without expressing signs of the illness. These individuals are called carriers. They do not express the gene, but carry it to the next generation and may pass it to their children. The child is only at risk if each parent carries a recessive gene that codes for the illness. Cystic fibrosis is a common example. If both parents have a recessive gene, the child may be born with cystic fibrosis, even though both parents appear healthy. In some cases, the genetics associated with an illness of this sort provide other benefits. For instance, sickle cell anemia is a recessive disease that damages red blood cells. For individuals with two recessive sickle cell genes, the illness can be devastating. Individuals with only one copy to the recessive sickle cell gene, however, have a much lower risk of contracting malaria. Being a carrier offers benefits, but having two copies of the recessive gene causes illness. In these examples, the dominant trait, if present, will be the one expressed. The recessive trait will only be expressed if the individual contains two recessive alleles. While some alleles are dominant and recessive, other alleles show different dominance patterns, including co-dominance and incomplete dominance. Incomplete Dominance Pattern · INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ALLELES · CO-DOMINANCE · INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE · RECOGNIZING INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE While some alleles are dominant and recessive, other alleles interact differently with one another. Where there are several different allele types for a single gene, they may interact differently with one another. They may not be dominant or recessive, but co-dominant. Alleles that are co-dominant produce a different phenotype than dominant or recessive phenotypes. Blood type presents an effective way to consider co-dominance. You’re probably aware that there are several different blood types: A, B, O and AB. A
  • 6. and B are codominant types, while O is recessive. If you have a type O parent and a type A parent, you will be type A, as O is recessive. If you have a type A and a type B parent, you could end up type AB, if you inherit one type A allele and one type B allele. Co-dominant alleles are alleles that are both expressed in the phenotype-they are neither dominant or recessive. Incomplete dominance allows aspects of both alleles to be expressed in the phenotype of the individual. For instance, a red flower that cross-breeds with a white flower might produce a white flower, a red flower, or a pink flower. The pink flower would be an example of incomplete dominance. If a black cat and a white cat produced black, white and gray kittens, this would also be an example of incomplete dominance, when the gray kittens show traits of both the black and the white parent. When incomplete dominance occurs, aspects of both alleles will be expressed. Incomplete dominance may be recognized when the offspring shows a phenotype different from both parents; however, this is not an entirely accurate test for incomplete dominance. The different phenotype must show traits of both parental phenotypes. X-linked pattern inheritance is another type of genetic inheritance and expression. X-linked traits are found on the X chromosome, one of two sex chromosomes. Females have two X chromosomes, while males have one X chromosome and one Y chromosome. X-linked traits are typically expressed only in males, rather than females. ‹1/2› · In females, the presence of one healthy functional gene and one unhealthy, missing or defective gene on the X chromosomes allow the healthy trait to be expressed or minimize the impact of the unhealthy gene. In a male, the defective x-linked genes are the only ones present, since the Y chromosome is different. In this case, the male may present with the X-linked inheritance. A number of genetic disorders are x-linked, including hemophilia, a bleeding and clotting disorder, and Fragile-X, a
  • 7. disorder which causes developmental delays. Because of the X- linked inheritance, these disorders are prevalent and more severe in boys than in girls. Genomic Imprinting We inherit two copies of most genes and both genes are working, functional copies. Epigenetics defines how genes are expressed. In most cases, all epigenetic changes are stripped out of the genes soon after conception; the parental expression of genes does not therefore impact the offspring. GENETIC IMPRINTING Some genes imprint or keep the epigenetic tags during the process of conception. Imprintation occurs in the genes found in the egg and sperm cells before conception occurs. The imprinted gene typically remains active, while the allele that is not imprinted will be inactive. When this process occurs normally, genetic development is typical. When there is a problem in the inheritance of imprinted genes, significant genetic disorders may result. These can be the result of two active imprinted genes or two inactive imprinted genes. Health issues associated with gene imprintation include cancer and a number of severe health conditions. Diseases directly connected to gene imprinting include Prader-Willi Syndrome and Angelman Disease. Prader-Willi is associated with learning difficulties and uncontrollable eating, while Angelman Disease is linked to learning difficulties and an unusually happy disposition. Epigenetic information is responsible for many of the challenges associated with cloning mammals. Some scientists believe that gene imprinting is the result of evolutionary competition among males for maternal resources; or the survival of their young over the young of other males. Mutation · MUTATIONS · HERITABILITY · LIKELIHOOD OF MUTATIONS
  • 8. Mutations are changes in the genetic sequence of an organism, and they are a main cause of diversity among organisms, particularly as expressed over time. Most mutations impact the nucleic acids, or acids that form DNA. These changes occur at many different levels, and they can have a range of different consequences. Some of these mutations may be positive or beneficial to the organism. Others may be negative, or damaging to the organism. For organisms that reproduce, it is essential to classify mutations as heritable, or able to be passed down to the offspring and descendants or not heritable. Mutations that do not impact reproductive cells or hereditary material have little relevance overall, but can be responsible for individual differences. These are called somatic mutations, and do not impact the offspring or descendants of the individual or organism. An albino deer, for example, can be the same as other deer except for color. · MUTATIONS · HERITABILITY · LIKELIHOOD OF MUTATIONS Mutations are difficult to predict; however, certain types of mutations are more likely than others in some organisms. Mutation rates, overall, are very low--in many cases, mutation does not benefit the organism. Polygenic inheritance is the interaction of different genes to produce a single phenotype. Skin color is an example of polygenic inheritance. Parents can pass on three different alleles controlling skin color and the amount of melanin present in the skin. In total, six different alleles work together to produce a single phenotype in the individual, or to determine how light or dark the individual’s skin is. Some diseases are also the result of polygenic inheritance. These are genetic illnesses, apparent at birth. Cleft palate, a deformity in the palate of the mouth that creates an opening between the mouth and sinuses, and spina bifida, a deformity in
  • 9. the spinal development of the fetus, are the result of polygenic inheritance. Unlike more direct forms of inheritance, environmental issues can directly impact polygenic inheritance. For instance, spina bifida is a neural tube defect. The risk of this defect is lowered if the mother has adequate supplies of folic acid in early pregnancy. Ecological Systems and Family Functioning The Ecological Systems Theory, also called the Human Ecology Theory, was formulated by psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner. This theory addresses the difference between behavior at home, with family, and outside of the family. This theory strives to explain why individuals behave differently with family than they do at work or at school. There are five environmental systems. Each of these involves different environments encountered during daily life. All environmental systems impact the child and the child’s ongoing development. The kindergarten classroom is an example of a microsystem FIVE ENVIRONMENTAL SYSTEMS · Microsystem · Mesosystem · Exosystem · Macrosystem · Chronosystem Bronfenbrenner and Ecological Systems Theory Bronfenbrenner believed that the child was at the center of this progressive network of ecosystems, moving further than further out from the child. In order to understand the child’s development, psychologists must consider how the child functions and interacts with each of these individual ecosystems. SYSTEMS OF A SIX-YEAR-OLD For a child of six years, microsystems might include home, school, a sports team, and after-school child care. The mesosystem includes the interactions between those different
  • 10. microsystems. The exosystems in the child’s life might include the parents’ workplaces. The macrosystem is the child’s culture, determined by their socioeconomic status, ethnicity and other factors. The chronosystem could be a variety of life events, like the birth of a sibling. ROLE OF THE FAMILY The family, for Bronfenbrenner, plays the most critical role in the development of the child. In the family, children learn language, culture and values. They form lifelong bonds and attachments in the family, and when the family is healthy, are more capable of functioning in a healthy way in other relationships and environments. Parents have a direct influence on children’s behavior, depending upon how they parent and structure the child’s environment. Indirect influences on children are interactions between two individuals that are impacted by an outside force or third party. Children can experience internal or external barriers to their relationships with different ecosystems. Internal barriers cause worry and fear, while external barriers are expressed as anger or aggression. OTHER FACTORS While Bronfenbrenner believed in the importance of these ecosystems in child development, genetics still played a role in the child’s overall experiences. Personality and other factors are influenced by genetics. In fact, two children can experience the same microsystem or family context in very different ways. Awareness of the contexts in which children develop and grow can help to understand those children, their behavior and their development. The Ecological Systems Theory has been key to the work of many later psychologists, including their understanding of how various parts of life relate to one another. Socioeconomic Status and Family Functioning · SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS · INCOME, EDUCATION, AND OCCUPATION · MIXED INFLUENCES
  • 11. · COMPARISON OF TWO FAMILIES The socioeconomic status of the family significantly impacts the physical, psychological, social and intellectual development of children. According to the American Psychological Association, “Socioeconomic status (SES) is often measured as a combination of education, income and occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as the social standing or class of an individual or group. When viewed through a social class lens, privilege, power and control are emphasized.” Imagine a pair of young parents, both still in college or graduate school. They have a very low income, but would not be of low socioeconomic status because of their education and occupation. They may have limited financial resources, but the children likely experience some of the benefits common to children from families with more resources. For instance, these parents likely understand the importance of early childhood literacy. Compare those parents to a young couple who dropped out of high school and work menial jobs; they may have the same approximate income as the first family, but their lives and socioeconomic status are very different. Socioeconomic status is not just the result of income, but of a combination of income, education and occupation. Higher socioeconomic status is associated with higher levels of education, technical or white-collar jobs, and higher incomes. Lower socioeconomic status is closely associated with reduced education, unskilled or semi-skilled labor, and lower incomes. Each of the three factors that define socioeconomic status are relevant to determining the socioeconomic status of a family. The differences can impact children in other ways as well. For instance, two families of a similar income, for instance comfortably middle class, can be very different depending upon the parents’ occupation, experiences and education. One family might believe it is essentially important for their children to develop a good work ethic, while the other might be more
  • 12. concerned with appearances. These differences are also the result of socioeconomic status. Factors Linked to Low Economic Status Several factors are specifically linked to low socioeconomic status. These include psychological, physical, educational, and familial issues. · Psychological Impact · Physical Impact · School Performance · Risk of Violence and Neglect · Relationship Stress and Divorce CONNECTIONS BETWEEN LOWER SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS AND CHILD DEVELOPMENT Why does socioeconomic status have such an impact on children’s development and well-being? What mechanisms can help to alleviate that impact? Research since the 1930s has clearly shown a connection between family stress and economic hardship or low socioeconomic status. Current research findings have consistently shown connections between lower socioeconomic status and developmental issues for children. EXTREME POVERTY AND HOMELESSNESS EXTREME POVERTY AND HOMELESSNESS Today, some 46 million Americans, or 15 percent of the population, live below poverty level. Extreme poverty, including homelessness, can impact a large number of children. Some 40 percent of the homeless population is made up of homeless youth and children; these children often suffer extreme stress, do poorly in school, and lack adequate access to health care and other resources. Intervention Can Make a Positive Difference In addition to recognizing correlation and causation between socioeconomic issues and child development, researchers also look at ways to address those disparities. While some steps, like working to increase education and improve a family’s socioeconomic status, address the cause, many interventions are
  • 13. designed to reduce the impact of low socioeconomic status, without changing the family’s socioeconomic status. ‹1/8› · Several key differences are noted between higher and lower socioeconomic status families. · Higher status is associated with older parents, increased interest in learning and cognitive development, and increased support for curiosity. · Lower status is associated with younger parents, increased emphasis on obedience, and reduced access to cognitive learning. · Affluence, or wealth, may also be associated with poor child outcomes, including poor grades and increased risk of drug and alcohol abuse. Early childhood interventions of different types have shown significant improvements in outcomes for children. This supports the causal link between low socioeconomic status and difficulties in children. Improvements in family income consistently improve conditions for children in those families; however, other types of interventions can also impact children’s well-being. Two different theoretical concepts are applied to explain the changes observed in children as the result of increased socioeconomic status or early childhood intervention. The first of these is the Family Stress Model. The Family Stress Model suggests that children benefit from improved relationships and reduced family stress as a result of improved family income. In the Family Stress Model, poor outcomes associated with low socioeconomic status are the result of increased parental stress. Stress causes the parents to parent less effectively, damaging their relationship with the children. Parents experiencing stress are likely to be harsh, uninvolved, and to lack the emotional resources necessary. As a result, the children struggle with a variety of psychological and educational issues. The Family Stress Model shows a direct path from indicators of economic
  • 14. hardship to economic pressure, then from economic pressure to parent emotional distress, from parent emotional distress to conflicts between parents, from conflicts between parents to disruptions in effective parenting behaviors, and finally from disruptions in parenting to child maladjustment. The second of these is the Investment Model. The Investment Model suggests that increased economic resources allow families to increase their investment, both financially and in terms of time, in their children. Increased investment provides benefits to the children, physically, psychologically, intellectually and emotionally. These investments in children involve multiple dimensions of family support including parent interaction and support of learning, access to adequate food, housing and medical care, and improved surroundings, including living in a safe neighborhood with accessible resources. Children have access to more resources, including parental time, as the family’s socioeconomic status improves. Interventions in early childhood often rely upon the Investment Model. In this case, resources are provided to parents or children to increase the investment in the child’s learning experiences. For instance, children might be provided with free pre-school, increased access to books and learning materials, or parents might have access to parenting classes and educational resources. Early access to learning materials, including books, is closely correlated with educational success. Improvements in neighborhoods and schools can also help to alleviate issues associated with low socioeconomic status. Schools can work to involve parents, and communities can work together to create safe and supportive spaces. Today, both the Family Stress Model and the Investment Model are considered valid. The Family Stress Model may have an increased impact on children’s emotional development and well- being. The Investment Model appears to be more relevant with regard to children’s cognitive development. Regardless of socioeconomic status, families that are involved, affectionate
  • 15. and warm produce healthier and happier children. This can take many forms, but the family dinner is a popular indicator for family closeness. Socioeconomic status can also have an impact on family culture, and how public policies impact that culture. Influence of Family Values and Policies While socioeconomic status and ecological systems of family functioning impact children, children are also impacted in a variety of ways by the values and culture of the family, as well as public policies regarding children. Each of these impact and change how children develop and how they experience the world around them. Culture can determine how much parents value curiosity and experimentation. PARENTS PASS ON CULTURE, VALUES, BELIEFS When parents interact with children, they do more than develop relationships. They also pass down information about culture, values and beliefs. In addition, other adults also pass down similar information, including teachers, care providers, doctors, friends and family. Policymakers also have their own values, beliefs and cultural preferences. This can cause conflicts between parents and caregivers, as well as confusion for children. In addition, policymakers may have different beliefs and values than families, particularly families of lower socioeconomic status. CULTURE A number of different factors can impact cultural values. What is culture? The definition adopted by the early childhood organization, Zero to Three is, “Culture is a shared system of meaning, which includes values, beliefs, and assumptions expressed in daily interactions of individuals within a group through a definite pattern of language, behavior, customs, attitudes, and practices”. This definition specifies several key factors. First, culture is shared among individuals; it is not the beliefs of a single person. CULTURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT Culture provides tools for individuals to create scripts that they
  • 16. use to engage with and understand their environment and others in their environment. These cultural scripts become fully ingrained; they are not conscious, but rather considered, by the individual, to be simply the way things are. Culture is changeable, and may develop and adapt over time. While culture develops from interactions with the environment, including interactions with parents and caregivers, culture is not the same as ethnicity IMPACT OF CAREGIVER’S CULTURE First and foremost, individuals, particularly teachers, caregivers, and therapeutic professionals should recognize their own cultural perspective. For many professionals, their “culture of origin” or culture they grew up in and perspective that they developed is largely European American. There may be clashes and confusion between the values of the caregiver’s culture of origin and the parents’ and child’s culture of origin. Subcultures · CULTURAL DIFFERENCES · CULTURAL SENSITIVITY Parents and caregivers may, as the result of differing cultures of origins, have different beliefs about many aspects of child rearing. · They may have a different vision of what success looks like for the child. · They may have differing views on well-being for the child. · They can have varied views on behavior and discipline, and therefore, different expectations of children’s behaviors and interactions. · Caregivers, teachers, and others who associate with children and families can increase their cultural sensitivity in a number of different ways. First and foremost, caregivers can familiarize themselves with other cultural scripts than their own. One way to do this is to speak to parents about the type of adult they envision their child becoming. The individual they describe will help caregivers to recognize parents values.
  • 17. · Individualist versus Independent Culture · Some broad terms can be used to define cultures. Cultures are defined as individualist or interdependent.Culture’s Impact on Development Culture can also impact language development in young children. Multiple studies have shown that young children develop language through exposure. Language exposure has been linked to both culture and socioeconomic status. The sequence of language development is the same in all languages; however, the further development of language can depend upon access to various resources, including conversation, books and other learning materials. Access to language impacts children’s vocabulary growth, vocabulary use, and IQ scores at age three. ‹1/4› · The cultural values of the dominant culture impact the development and priorities of public policy, including government funding for various issues that impact children and often, research into child development. Many different types of public policy impact children’s health, well-being and development, including funding for anti-poverty programs, access to early childhood education, and even health care policy. Voters are predominantly older, white and economically successful, leading to reduced access to these aid and support for childhood programs. Programs that provide access to job training and higher education, improve access to food and safe housing, and that enable regular access to healthcare can all have a beneficial impact on child development. As noted, children in more financially stable homes show improved intellectual and emotional development. Programs that increase financial stability for families with children can benefit the overall development of those children. Cuts to these programs can damage families and the development of children. For instance, cuts to welfare programs and work requirements may limit
  • 18. access to food and resources and increase familial stresses. Other examples of programs like these include the school breakfast and lunch programs. Providing free or reduced cost meals to children at school provides them with access to adequate and healthy food and is another example of social welfare programs designed to address the needs of children Government policy also impacts the availability of early childhood education. Childhood advocates typically recommend broad access to early childhood education for children of all social classes. For children of a higher socioeconomic status, these programs have relatively little impact. These children have access to early childhood education resources, regardless of public policy. For children of lower socioeconomic status, public funding for early childhood education can have a dramatic impact on their later educational success. Federal funding for early childhood education pays for child care assistance, Early Head Start and Head Start preschool programs for children of lower income families, and improvements in elementary and secondary education. Public Policies · PUBLIC POLICIES ADDRESS SOCIAL PROBLEMS · FINANCIAL HELP · CIVIL RIGHTS OF CHILDREN When public policy values child development and the well- being of children, some of the differences associated with both genetics and environmental factors can be alleviated. Good quality childcare and early childhood education can provide children from different cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds with improved access to a wide variety of learning resources. Anti-poverty programs of various sorts can reduce financial stresses for families, and help to improve the family and child’s socioeconomic status. Various organizations continue to work for the well-being of children, including the Children’s Defense Fund. This non-profit organization works for the good of children by funding research, community activity, and
  • 19. legislative activity The International Convention on the Rights of the Child is an international agreement supporting basic rights of all children. These include the right to freedom of thought and religion, access to free and appropriate education, a loving family life, and access to good health and an adequate standard of living. The United States is one of only two developed countries which have not ratified the Convention on the Rights of the Child, in part because of the belief in individualism and rejection of legal controls on parenting. Sources · American Psychological Association. (2016) Children, Youth, Families and Socioeconomic Status. Retrieved from http://www.apa.org/pi/ses/resources/publications/children- families.aspx. · Khan Academy. (n.d.). Polygenic Inheritance. Retrieved from https://www.khanacademy.org/science/biology/classical- genetics/variations-on-mendelian-genetics/a/polygenic- inheritance-and-environmental-effects. · Learn Genetics.(2016). Genomic Imprinting. Retrieved from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/. · Learn Genetics.(2016) What Are Dominant and Recessive? Retrieved from http://learn.genetics.utah.edu/. · Loewe, L. (2008). Genetic mutation. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/scitable/topicpage/genetic- mutation-1127. · Maschinot, Beth. (January 2008) The Changing Face of the United States: The Influence of Culture on Early Child Development. Retrieved from http://www.buildinitiative.org/TheIssues/DiversityEquity/ Toolkit/ToolkitResourceList/ViewToolkit/tabid/224/ArticleId/9 3/The-Changing-Face-of-the-United-States-The-Influence-of- Culture-on-Early-Child-Development.aspx · New Health Advisor. (July 1, 2016). Incomplete Dominance Examples. Retrieved from http://www.newhealthadvisor.com/Incomplete-Dominance-
  • 20. Examples.html · The Psychology Notes HQ. (November 2013). What Is Brofenbrunner’s Ecological Systems Theory? Retrieved from http://www.psychologynoteshq.com/bronfenbrenner- ecological-theory/. · Science Museum. (n.d.). What Is X-Linked Inheritance? Retrieved from http://www.sciencemuseum.org.uk/whoami/findoutmore/yo urgenes/whatcausesgeneticconditions/whatisx-linkedinheritance. · Scitable. (n.d.) Allele. Retrieved from http://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/allele-48. · Sincero, Sarah May. (n.d.). Ecological Systems Theory. Retrieved from https://explorable.com/ecological-systems- theory. · What is Epigenetics? (n.d.). Epigenetics: Fundamentals. Retrieved from http://www.whatisepigenetics.com/fundamentals/. 1 The Prejudice of Minority Groups Minority groups encounter prejudices whenever they engage in illegal behaviors even if their conduct enhances their well-being and are both natural and cultural. Stereotypes are driven by people’s intolerance to the things that they are unfamiliar with. NOTE Consequently, people treat each other on the basis of their skin color, ethnicity, and nationality. Accordingly, individual’s behaviors are assessed from their physical appearances instead of their impact on the society. This is the reason why law enforcement officers react differently to crime
  • 21. scenes involving suspects from majority and minority groups. The attitudes and perceptions that the majority groups in the society have towards the minority compromises how they view their activities, both legal and illegal. TS One of the ways through which minority groups are denigrated in the societies, such as the American is through racial profiling. NOTE This is common in the U.S. where minority groups, particularly the African American and Hispanic suspects are treated differently from the whites. The law enforcement officers use more force on the minority group suspects than the whites. The outlook is supported by the recent incidents where police officers shot unarmed black Americans, hence prompting demonstrations across the nation. However, these incidents are driven by the perception of majority groups on minority ones. Over the years, the people of color have been viewed as being violent and criminals. These viewpoints have been driven by the involvement of a few of them in criminal activities. Consequently, the members of the majority groups develop beliefs that all persons who belong to minority groups are criminals. SIM For this reason, they minimize their engagements with them and monitor their movements more than the other groups. For instance, the traffic officers tend to stop and search the vehicles being driven by African Americans and Hispanics than whites. [Did you mean to write more often?] Members of the majority groups tend to engage dele react negatively to the cultural activities of the minority groups even if they enhance their welfare. A good example is the stereotype labeled against the Asian American students as being studious despite their excellent academic performances. The outlook has led to white students believing that their classmates with Asian backgrounds are cold despite their
  • 22. competency in the classroom. The outlook leads to them believing that all Asians are not social, thus unable to interact with them. Consequently, the Asian Americans struggle to have white friends as the latter refuse to engage with them at personal levels. The position can be supported by the fact that the Asians who move to the U.S. prefer to live in neighborhoods that have Asians to have persons to interact with. awk Moving into white neighborhoods can have devastating effects on their welfare, as they would be forced to live in solitude. They encounter the same experience at their workplaces where their colleagues from the majority groups do not engage prep them besides on work related issues. They believe that all Asians are geeks, thus only relevant on issues concerning their jobs. Also, white students and professors believe that the Hispanic and African American learners are average, hence need to work harder for their performances to match those of whites (Bender & New York University, 2003). The outlook can be traced back to the slavery era when whites [A word is missing here.] believed to be the superior race. At the same time, the belief that the Latinos and people of color are not academically competent is driven by the high school dropout rate of students from these communities. Nonetheless, the whites fail to understand that most students are unable to continue with their studies because of financial reasons. There is no evidence showing that a certain race is more intelligent than the others. The reason why the number of white students who graduate with college degrees is higher than that of minority groups is because of economic reasons, and not intellectual abilities. The belief that the Hispanics and African Americans are less intelligent that whites leads to them being denigrated in several ways. One of the ways through which the minority students are denigrated is through being denied admission to top institutions of higher
  • 23. learning in the nation. SIM For instance, the Latino and African American learners tend to struggle to get the opportunity to join the colleges in the Ivy League. The other way these learners are denigrated is through being denied academic grants and loans. The boards and organizations that award the funds are usually reluctant to award these scholars the capital they need to further their studies. In the instances where they award students from minority groups with grants, they tend to scrutinize their academic performances thoroughly. These aspects imply that the students from minority groups are denied academic opportunities because of the stereotypic belief that they are not as intelligent as the whites. Over the recent years, the U.S. has experienced several incidents of mass shootings orchestrated by persons from different racial and ethnic groups. However, the public’s reactions to these incidents have been different. The differences have been facilitated by the persons who conduct the crime. If the shooter is white, the American society blames the individual. Here, the suspect is treated as an isolated case of mental disorder. At the same time, the public does not call upon the law enforcement officers, particularly the Homeland Security Department to establish measures to protect the nation from attacks. However, the reaction is different when the shooting is done by persons from minority groups. A good example is the Orlando night club shooting that took place on 12 June 2016, which was conducted by a son of Afghanistan immigrants, Omar Mateen, a condition that led to the event being treated as a terrorist attack. For this reason, they WC were numerous calls to the security agencies to develop initiatives to deal with domestic terrorism. However, such calls were not seen after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, which occurred on 14 February 2018 and left seventeen persons dead and fourteen hospitalized. In this
  • 24. case, the incident was perpetrated by a white, Nikolas Cruz, hence viewed as a normal crime. awk Therefore, whites were not labeled as being violent and terrorists as was the case during the Orlando incident where the immigrants from the Middle East were treated as terrorists. The outlook has compromised the relations between the migrants from the Arab nations and other Americans (Hartlep, 2015). The former are associated with terrorism because of the conduct of a few persons. For this reason, they struggle to move freely across the nation as the law enforcement officers and the public are always monitoring their movements. For instance, they are searched more than the other persons whenever they enter social joints, inf such as shopping malls and hotels. In the healthcare sector, the situation is not any different. Although many bodies have tirelessly improved on healthcare delivery, differences in geography, patient and provider communication difficulties, cultural barriers, low income, lack of access to provider and provider stereotyping have continuously increased healthcare disparities. These differences can be overcome by a complete change in the structure of power where the minorities are involved in the State’s C decision making. It means that any effort to end health inequities will require changing the entire distribution of power within the society to the advantage of the disadvantaged or the minority groups. Efforts to have an equal distribution of health care service in all parts encounter many barriers. Racial and ethnic minorities receive more inferior quality health care than the non-minorities. All people regardless of their ethnic origin, gender, language, race, cultural background, disability, religion or age deserve high-quality healthcare. [As the sociology tutor pointed out, this paragraph seems off topic. Once you have a solid thesis in place, you will be better able to go through your paper and eliminate information which is unrelated to your topic.]
  • 25. The cultural values of minority groups also lead to the members of the majority groups stereotyping them. For example, the modes of dressing differ across the different religions. In the U.S., people have a choice to wear anything they believe to be decent because of their Christianity WF values. The outlook is different in Islam which has a different dress code. For instance, women are required to cover most parts of their bodies, thus wear hijabs and niqabs. In the U.S., the whites stereotype these women as being primitive because they have refused to embrace modernity. Consequently, they believe that all Muslims are not civilized because of their religious practices. On the other hand, Americans who live in Muslim societies, but do not adhere to the dressing mode WC of the surrounding environments are viewed to be immoral and unbelievers. Consequently, members of such societies perceive all Americans to lack moral values. The behavior of persons from minority groups will in entertainment joints affects how the majority groups perceive them. awk For instance, the English soccer fans are perceived to be violent because of the conducts s/pl of a few of them during major tournaments. During these occasions which are hosted in other nations, some of the fans engage in violent behavior while in bars and night clubs after being intoxicated. Accordingly, their local WC tend to perceive them as being violent. The outlook played a crucial role in the violence witnessed between the English and Russian fans during the 2016 European Cup competition. Therefore, the majority groups in a society tend to denigrate the minority ones because of the behaviors of a few that contravene the established social order. References
  • 26. Bender, S. W., & New York University. (2003). Greasers and gringos: Latinos, law, and the American imagination. New York ; London: New York University Press. Hartlep, N. D. (2015). Modern Societal Impacts of the Model Minority Stereotype. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��In your academic writing, do not use a preposition at the end of a phrase or sentence. For example, instead of writing “He wants to come in;” write “He wants to enter.” This rule also induces you to be more verbal in your writing. NOTE � � � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��The thesis statement is underdeveloped. It should give a single, focused, and specific idea which directly responds to the prompt. TS � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��To improve sentence clarity, use active voice and eliminate unnecessary words. What is the main subject of the sentence? For example, beginning with the main subject f the sentence, this could be rewritten as:
  • 27. Minority groups are denigrated through racial profiling. NOTE � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by eliminating unnecessary words and repitition. This section could be condensed into a single, stronger sentence. SIM � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��For clarity, delete the highlighted text. dele � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear due to awkward sentence structure. Rewrite it. awk � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��A preposition needs to be added. prep � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by eliminating unnecessary words. These two sentences could be condensed into one. SIM � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is inappropriate. WC � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it. awk � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Avoid using informal language in your academic writing. inf
  • 28. � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��There is a capitalization problem here. C � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This form of this word does not fit the structure of your sentence. WF � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is awkward. Typically, the proper term to use here would be, dress code. WC � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it. awk � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This word is plural when it should be singular. s/pl � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is awkward. WC 1 The Prejudice of Minority Groups Minority groups encounter prejudices whenever they engage in
  • 29. illegal behaviors even if their conduct enhances their well-being and are both natural and cultural. Stereotypes are driven by people’s intolerance to the things that they are unfamiliar with. NOTE Consequently, people treat each other on the basis of their skin color, ethnicity, and nationality. Accordingly, individual’s behaviors are assessed from their physical appearances instead of their impact on the society. This is the reason why law enforcement officers react differently to crime scenes involving suspects from majority and minority groups. The attitudes and perceptions that the majority groups in the society have towards the minority compromises how they view their activities, both legal and illegal. TS One of the ways through which minority groups are denigrated in the societies, such as the American is through racial profiling. NOTE This is common in the U.S. where minority groups, particularly the African American and Hispanic suspects are treated differently from the whites. The law enforcement officers use more force on the minority group suspects than the whites. The outlook is supported by the recent incidents where police officers shot unarmed black Americans, hence prompting demonstrations across the nation. However, these incidents are driven by the perception of majority groups on minority ones. Over the years, the people of color have been viewed as being violent and criminals. These viewpoints have been driven by the involvement of a few of them in criminal activities. Consequently, the members of the majority groups develop beliefs that all persons who belong to minority groups are criminals. SIM For this reason, they minimize their engagements with them and monitor their movements more than the other groups. For instance, the traffic officers tend to stop and search the
  • 30. vehicles being driven by African Americans and Hispanics than whites. [Did you mean to write more often?] Members of the majority groups tend to engage dele react negatively to the cultural activities of the minority groups even if they enhance their welfare. A good example is the stereotype labeled against the Asian American students as being studious despite their excellent academic performances. The outlook has led to white students believing that their classmates with Asian backgrounds are cold despite their competency in the classroom. The outlook leads to them believing that all Asians are not social, thus unable to interact with them. Consequently, the Asian Americans struggle to have white friends as the latter refuse to engage with them at personal levels. The position can be supported by the fact that the Asians who move to the U.S. prefer to live in neighborhoods that have Asians to have persons to interact with. awk Moving into white neighborhoods can have devastating effects on their welfare, as they would be forced to live in solitude. They encounter the same experience at their workplaces where their colleagues from the majority groups do not engage prep them besides on work related issues. They believe that all Asians are geeks, thus only relevant on issues concerning their jobs. Also, white students and professors believe that the Hispanic and African American learners are average, hence need to work harder for their performances to match those of whites (Bender & New York University, 2003). The outlook can be traced back to the slavery era when whites [A word is missing here.] believed to be the superior race. At the same time, the belief that the Latinos and people of color are not academically competent is driven by the high school dropout rate of students from these communities. Nonetheless, the whites fail to
  • 31. understand that most students are unable to continue with their studies because of financial reasons. There is no evidence showing that a certain race is more intelligent than the others. The reason why the number of white students who graduate with college degrees is higher than that of minority groups is because of economic reasons, and not intellectual abilities. The belief that the Hispanics and African Americans are less intelligent that whites leads to them being denigrated in several ways. One of the ways through which the minority students are denigrated is through being denied admission to top institutions of higher learning in the nation. SIM For instance, the Latino and African American learners tend to struggle to get the opportunity to join the colleges in the Ivy League. The other way these learners are denigrated is through being denied academic grants and loans. The boards and organizations that award the funds are usually reluctant to award these scholars the capital they need to further their studies. In the instances where they award students from minority groups with grants, they tend to scrutinize their academic performances thoroughly. These aspects imply that the students from minority groups are denied academic opportunities because of the stereotypic belief that they are not as intelligent as the whites. Over the recent years, the U.S. has experienced several incidents of mass shootings orchestrated by persons from different racial and ethnic groups. However, the public’s reactions to these incidents have been different. The differences have been facilitated by the persons who conduct the crime. If the shooter is white, the American society blames the individual. Here, the suspect is treated as an isolated case of mental disorder. At the same time, the public does not call upon the law enforcement officers, particularly the Homeland Security Department to establish measures to protect the nation from attacks. However, the reaction is different when the
  • 32. shooting is done by persons from minority groups. A good example is the Orlando night club shooting that took place on 12 June 2016, which was conducted by a son of Afghanistan immigrants, Omar Mateen, a condition that led to the event being treated as a terrorist attack. For this reason, they WC were numerous calls to the security agencies to develop initiatives to deal with domestic terrorism. However, such calls were not seen after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, which occurred on 14 February 2018 and left seventeen persons dead and fourteen hospitalized. In this case, the incident was perpetrated by a white, Nikolas Cruz, hence viewed as a normal crime. awk Therefore, whites were not labeled as being violent and terrorists as was the case during the Orlando incident where the immigrants from the Middle East were treated as terrorists. The outlook has compromised the relations between the migrants from the Arab nations and other Americans (Hartlep, 2015). The former are associated with terrorism because of the conduct of a few persons. For this reason, they struggle to move freely across the nation as the law enforcement officers and the public are always monitoring their movements. For instance, they are searched more than the other persons whenever they enter social joints, inf such as shopping malls and hotels. In the healthcare sector, the situation is not any different. Although many bodies have tirelessly improved on healthcare delivery, differences in geography, patient and provider communication difficulties, cultural barriers, low income, lack of access to provider and provider stereotyping have continuously increased healthcare disparities. These differences can be overcome by a complete change in the structure of power where the minorities are involved in the State’s C decision making. It means that any effort to end health inequities will require changing the entire distribution of power within the society to the advantage of the disadvantaged or the
  • 33. minority groups. Efforts to have an equal distribution of health care service in all parts encounter many barriers. Racial and ethnic minorities receive more inferior quality health care than the non-minorities. All people regardless of their ethnic origin, gender, language, race, cultural background, disability, religion or age deserve high-quality healthcare. [As the sociology tutor pointed out, this paragraph seems off topic. Once you have a solid thesis in place, you will be better able to go through your paper and eliminate information which is unrelated to your topic.] The cultural values of minority groups also lead to the members of the majority groups stereotyping them. For example, the modes of dressing differ across the different religions. In the U.S., people have a choice to wear anything they believe to be decent because of their Christianity WF values. The outlook is different in Islam which has a different dress code. For instance, women are required to cover most parts of their bodies, thus wear hijabs and niqabs. In the U.S., the whites stereotype these women as being primitive because they have refused to embrace modernity. Consequently, they believe that all Muslims are not civilized because of their religious practices. On the other hand, Americans who live in Muslim societies, but do not adhere to the dressing mode WC of the surrounding environments are viewed to be immoral and unbelievers. Consequently, members of such societies perceive all Americans to lack moral values. The behavior of persons from minority groups will in entertainment joints affects how the majority groups perceive them. awk For instance, the English soccer fans are perceived to be violent because of the conducts s/pl of a few of them during major tournaments. During these occasions which are hosted in other nations, some of the fans
  • 34. engage in violent behavior while in bars and night clubs after being intoxicated. Accordingly, their local WC tend to perceive them as being violent. The outlook played a crucial role in the violence witnessed between the English and Russian fans during the 2016 European Cup competition. Therefore, the majority groups in a society tend to denigrate the minority ones because of the behaviors of a few that contravene the established social order. References Bender, S. W., & New York University. (2003). Greasers and gringos: Latinos, law, and the American imagination. New York ; London: New York University Press. Hartlep, N. D. (2015). Modern Societal Impacts of the Model Minority Stereotype. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference. � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��In your academic writing, do not use a preposition at the end of a phrase or sentence. For example, instead of writing “He wants to come in;” write “He wants to enter.” This rule also induces you to be more verbal in your writing. NOTE � �
  • 35. � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��The thesis statement is underdeveloped. It should give a single, focused, and specific idea which directly responds to the prompt. TS � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��To improve sentence clarity, use active voice and eliminate unnecessary words. What is the main subject of the sentence? For example, beginning with the main subject f the sentence, this could be rewritten as: Minority groups are denigrated through racial profiling. NOTE � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by eliminating unnecessary words and repitition. This section could be condensed into a single, stronger sentence. SIM � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��For clarity, delete the highlighted text. dele � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear due to awkward sentence structure. Rewrite it. awk � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��A preposition needs to be added. prep � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Make this easier to understand by eliminating unnecessary words. These two sentences could be condensed into one. SIM
  • 36. � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is inappropriate. WC � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it. awk � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Avoid using informal language in your academic writing. inf � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��There is a capitalization problem here. C � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This form of this word does not fit the structure of your sentence. WF � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is awkward. Typically, the proper term to use here would be, dress code. WC � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This idea is not clear. Rewrite it. awk � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��This word is plural when it should be singular. s/pl � PAGE # "'Page: '#'�'" ��Your choice of word(s) is awkward. WC
  • 37. THE PREJUDICE OF MINORITY GROUPS 8 Prejudice of Minority Groups [Please keep in mind you are asked to discuss “illegal behavior”. The ideas related to healthcare, entertainment, dressing., and various stereotypes are not considered illegal behavior. Please revisit your paper and focus on the topic.] Minority groups encounter prejudices whenever they engage in illegal behaviors even if their conduct enhances their well-being and are both natural and cultural. Stereotypes are driven by people’s intolerance to the things that they are unfamiliar with. Consequently, people treat each other based on their skin color, ethnicity, and nationality. Accordingly, individual’s behaviors are assessed from their physical appearances instead of their impact on the society. This is the reason why law enforcement officers react differently to crime scenes involving suspects from majority and minority groups. The attitudes and perceptions that the majority groups in the society have towards the minority compromises how they view their activities, both legal and illegal. [What is your thesis statement? In this essay, I will discuss….] One of the ways through which minority groups are denigrated in the societies, such as the American is through racial profiling. This is common in the U.S. where minority groups, particularly the African American and Hispanic suspects are treated differently from the whites. The law enforcement officers use more force on the minority group suspects than the whites [Any data or number to support the statement?]. The outlook is supported by the recent incidents where police officers shot unarmed black Americans, hence prompting demonstrations across the nation. However, these incidents are driven by the perception of majority groups on minority ones. Over the years, the people of color have been viewed as being
  • 38. violent and criminals [Any study or research to support your idea?]. These viewpoints have been driven by the involvement of a few of them in criminal activities. Consequently, the members of the majority groups develop beliefs that all persons who belong to minority groups are criminals. For this reason, they minimize their engagements with them and monitor their movements more than the other groups. For instance, the traffic officers tend to stop and search the vehicles being driven by African Americans and Hispanics than whites. [It will be more convincing if you can find data or numbers to support your ideas.] Members of the majority groups tend to engage [and?] react negatively to the cultural activities of the minority groups even if they enhance their [are you referring “their” to majority groups?] welfare. A good example is the stereotype labeled against the Asian American students as being studious despite their excellent academic performances [I am not sure how being studious is related to excellent academic performance]. The outlook [Is outlook another stereotype besides being studious?] has led to white students believing that their classmates with Asian backgrounds are cold despite their competency in the classroom. The outlook leads to them believing that all Asians are not social, thus unable to interact with them. Consequently, the Asian Americans struggle to have white friends as the latter refuse to engage with them at personal levels. The position [What position?] can be supported by the fact that the Asians who move to the U.S. prefer to live in neighborhoods that have Asians to have persons to interact with. Moving into white neighborhoods can have devastating effects on their welfare, as they would be forced to live in solitude [Are you talking about cultural assimilation?]. They encounter the same experience at their workplaces where their colleagues from the majority groups do not engage them besides on work related issues. They believe that all Asians are geeks, thus only relevant on issues concerning their jobs. Also, white students and professors believe that the
  • 39. Hispanic and African American learners are average, hence need to work harder for their performances to match those of whites (Bender & New York University, 2003). The outlook can be traced back to the slavery era when whites believed to be the superior race. At the same time, the belief that the Latinos and people of color are not academically competent is driven by the high school dropout rate of students from these communities. Nonetheless, the whites fail to understand that most students are unable to continue with their studies because of financial reasons [Are the ideas from the source Bender and New York University ? Otherwise, you need to find more sources to support your ideas. ]. There is no evidence showing that a certain race is more intelligent than the others. The reason why the number of white students who graduate with college degrees is higher than that of minority groups is because of economic reasons, and not intellectual abilities. The belief that the Hispanics and African Americans are less intelligent that whites leads to them being denigrated in several ways. One of the ways through which the minority students are denigrated is through being denied admission to top institutions of higher learning in the nation. For instance, the Latino and African American learners tend to struggle to get the opportunity to join the colleges in the Ivy League [Any data or numbers to support your statement?]. The other way these learners are denigrated is through being denied academic grants and loans. The boards and organizations that award the funds are usually reluctant to award these scholars the capital they need to further their studies. In the instances where they award students from minority groups with grants, they tend to scrutinize their academic performances thoroughly. These aspects imply that the students from minority groups are denied academic opportunities because of the stereotypic belief that they are not as intelligent as the whites. [I really encourage you to find sources to support your ideas and statements.] Over the recent years, the U.S. has experienced several incidents of mass shootings orchestrated by persons from
  • 40. different racial and ethnic groups. However, the public’s reactions to these incidents have been different. The differences have been facilitated by the persons who conduct the crime. If the shooter is white, the American society blames the individual. Here, the suspect is treated as an isolated case of mental disorder. At the same time, the public does not call upon the law enforcement officers, particularly the Homeland Security Department to establish measures to protect the nation from attacks. However, the reaction is different when the shooting is done by persons from minority groups. A good example is the Orlando night club shooting that took place on 12 June 2016, which was conducted by a son of Afghanistan immigrants, Omar Mateen, a condition that led to the event being treated as a terrorist attack. For this reason, they were numerous calls to the security agencies to develop initiatives to deal with domestic terrorism. However, such calls were not seen after the Marjory Stoneman Douglas High School shooting in Florida, which occurred on 14 February 2018 and left seventeen persons dead and fourteen hospitalized. In this case, the incident was perpetrated by a white, Nikolas Cruz, hence viewed as a normal crime. Therefore, whites were not labeled as being violent and terrorists as was the case during the Orlando incident where the immigrants from the Middle East were treated as terrorists. The outlook has compromised the relations between the migrants from the Arab nations and other Americans (Hartlep, 2015). The former are associated with terrorism because of the conduct of a few persons. For this reason, they struggle to move freely across the nation as the law enforcement officers and the public are always monitoring their movements. For instance, they are searched more than the other persons whenever they enter social joints, such as shopping malls and hotels [How do you know they are searched more? You need number to back up your statement.]. In the healthcare sector, the situation is not any different. Although many bodies have tirelessly improved on healthcare delivery, differences in geography, patient and provider
  • 41. communication difficulties, cultural barriers, low income, lack of access to provider and provider stereotyping have continuously increased healthcare disparities. These differences can be overcome by a complete change in the structure of power where the minorities are involved in the State’s decision making. It means that any effort to end health inequities will require changing the entire distribution of power within the society to the advantage of the disadvantaged or the minority groups. Efforts to have an equal distribution of health care service in all parts encounter many barriers. Racial and ethnic minorities receive more inferior quality health care than the non-minorities. All people regardless of their ethnic origin, gender, language, race, cultural background, disability, religion or age deserve high-quality healthcare [Is the whole paragraph your own idea? If not, you need to provide citation]. The cultural values of minority groups also lead to the members of the majority groups stereotyping them. For example, the modes of dressing differ across the different religions. In the U.S., people have a choice to wear anything they believe to be decent because of their Christianity values [I am not sure if that is the Christianity value.]. The outlook is different in Islam which has a different dress code. For instance, women are required to cover most parts of their bodies, thus wear hijabs and niqabs. In the U.S., the whites stereotype these women as being primitive because they have refused to embrace modernity. Consequently, they believe that all Muslims are not civilized because of their religious practices. On the other hand, Americans who live in Muslim societies, but do not adhere to the dressing mode of the surrounding environments are viewed to be immoral and unbelievers. Consequently, members of such societies perceive all Americans to lack moral values. [Try to avoid overgeneralization by using the words, such as “all” everyone“, and etic] The behavior of persons from minority groups will in entertainment joints affects how the majority groups perceive
  • 42. them. For instance, the English soccer fans are perceived to be violent because of the conducts of a few of them during major tournaments. During these occasions which are hosted in other nations, some of the fans engage in violent behavior while in bars and night clubs after being intoxicated. Accordingly, their local tend to perceive them as being violent. The outlook played a crucial role in the violence witnessed between the English and Russian fans during the 2016 European Cup competition. Therefore, the majority groups in a society tend to denigrate the minority ones because of the behaviors of a few that contravene the established social order. [Please keep in mind you are asked to discuss “illegal behavior”. The ideas related to healthcare, entertainment, dressing., and various stereotypes are not considered illegal behavior. Please revisit your paper and focus on the topic.] References Bender, S. W., & New York University. (2003). Greasers and gringos: Latinos, law, and the American imagination. New York ; London: New York University Press. Hartlep, N. D. (2015). Modern Societal Impacts of the Model Minority Stereotype. Hershey, PA: Information Science Reference.