We have two questions in our discussion this week.1- How doe.docx

We have two questions in our discussion this week.
1- How does socioeconomic status determine family
functioning?
2- What is the role and effect of cultural values and public
policies on the overall well-being of children and the
family?
Criteria/ 300 Level Forum Rubric
Possible Points
Student Points
Initial post
Analyzed the question(s), fact(s), issue(s), etc. and provided
well-reasoned and substantive answers.
20

Supported ideas and responses using appropriate examples and
references from texts, professional and/or academic websites,
and other references. (All references must be from
professional and/or academic sources. Websites such as
Wikipedia, about.com, and others such as these are NOT
acceptable.)
20
Post meets the 300 word minimum requirement and is free
from spelling/grammar errors
10
Timeliness: initial post meets the Wed deadline
10
Replies

Participated in the discussion by replying to a minimum of 2
classmates, asking a question, providing a statement of
clarification, providing a point of view with rationale,
challenging a point of discussion, or making a relationship
between one or more points of the discussion. Each reply post
is unique and original in nature and meets the required
minimum word count of 150 words
Reply #1
20
Reply #2
20
100

READING
CHFD 308 | WEEK 2
Nature and Nurture: Genetic and Environmental Foundations of
Child Development
Child development is impacted by both genetic or inherited
factors and environmental factors. Genetic factors are inherited
from both parents at the time of conception, but can be the
result of different types of gene interactions. Environmental
factors impact different ways families function and children
develop. Environmental factors include the ecological systems
that may alter family function, socio-economic status and
cultural values and public policy.
TOPICS COVERED WILL INCLUDE:
· Genetics
· Family functioning from an ecological systems perspective
· The impact of
socioeconomic status
· Cultural values and public policies
“
Toddler hopscotch
” by
Ilya Haykinson
is licensed under
CC BY 2.0
The Influence of Alleles

In the argument over nature versus nurture in child
development, nature is determined by genes passed down from
parent to child during conception. Both parents pass genetic
traits to their offspring, but different offspring may acquire
different traits from each parent. Why do some children in one
family have similar characteristics or appearances and yet other
children in the same family look very different? The answer lies
in the interaction of genes inherited from the mother and father.
Genes and alleles influence the inheritance of traits, through
dominant–recessive inheritance, incomplete dominance, X-
linked inheritance, genomic imprinting,
mutation
, and
polygenic inheritance
. In order to understand genetic inheritance, you need to
understand the basics of how genes work, and how they work
together with one another.
Fundamental Definitions
Understanding the basic structures and elements of genetics is
essential to recognize how various traits are inherited, from
appearance to intelligence.
GENE
The basic building block of the study of genetics is the gene; a
gene is a single unit of genetic information.
CHROMOSOME
A chromosome is a threadlike strand of DNA encoded with a
large number of genes. Humans receive 23 chromosomes from
each parent, for a total of 46 chromosomes.

ALLELE
An
allele
is one of a pair of genes that appear at a particular location on
a particular chromosome and control the same characteristics in
the individual. Humans have two alleles, one from each parent,
at each genetic locus, or position, on a chromosome.
GENOTYPE
The entire genetic makeup of an individual is called the
genotype
. The genotype can refer to the genetic makeup of an organism
with reference to a single trait, set of traits, or an entire
complex of traits. It can also refer to the sum total of genes
transmitted from parent to offspring.
PHENOTYPE
The
phenotype
is the appearance of an individual resulting from the interaction
of the genotype and the environment, or the expression of the
individual’s genes. You can see the phenotype when you look at
someone--the phenotype includes expressed and observed traits.
The genotype can include a range of traits that are not expressed
or observable.The phenotype is determined by the a variety of
factors, including how genes relate to one another in the
individual, and how environmental factors impact the
expression of various genes.
Patterns of Gene-Gene Interactions
Blue eyes are an example of a recessive trait

Genes interact with one another in a variety of different ways to
produce genetic traits, ranging from eye color or height to a
variety of genetic diseases. Genetic expression and inheritance
is not simple. In this lesson, you will learn about some of the
ways genes interact with one another and how their interactions
define and change the expression of genetic traits.
Dominant-Recessive Pattern
The expression of many genes is defined by whether or not a
gene is dominant or recessive. These terms describe how likely
or unlikely it is for the offspring to express this gene, or for the
genetic phenotype to appear in the offspring. Differences in the
alleles can lead to different visible traits in the individual.
The differences in the alleles can cause variations in the protein
that’s produced by the gene, or they can change protein
expression, including when, where, and how much protein is
made. Proteins affect the expression of different traits, so
variations in protein activity or expression can produce
different phenotypes.
Alleles are defined as dominant or recessive. If a dominant
allele is present, that allele will be expressed. If a recessive
allele is present, it will not be expressed if there is a dominant
allele. Dominant and recessive genes were first identified by
Gregor Mendel in the 19th century. While studying pea plants,
Mendel recognized that the color of the flowers was determined
by a dominant or a recessive gene.
The second allele in the pair of genes may be dominant as well,
if two of the dominant genes are inherited, or it can be
recessive. Think about eye color--while this is a simplified
example, many people are familiar with it and it’s a relatively
easy one to understand.

In eye color, brown eyes are dominant and blue eyes are
recessive. If one parent has two dominant brown genes,
represented by BB, all offspring will be brown eyed. If both
parents have blue eyes or bb, offspring will be blue eyed. If one
parent has brown eyes, but carries a recessive blue eye gene or
has the genotype Bb, and the other parent is blue eyed or bb, the
parents have a 50 percent chance of having a blue eyed child
and a 50 percent chance of having a brown eyed child.
While eye color really doesn’t have a significant impact, other
dominant and recessive traits can have a much greater impact on
the individual’s life and well being. Some genetic illnesses are
typically recessive traits. A healthy individual can carry the
recessive gene without expressing signs of the illness. These
individuals are called carriers. They do not express the gene,
but carry it to the next generation and may pass it to their
children. The child is only at risk if each parent carries a
recessive gene that codes for the illness. Cystic fibrosis is a
common example. If both parents have a recessive gene, the
child may be born with cystic fibrosis, even though both parents
appear healthy.
In some cases, the genetics associated with an illness of this
sort provide other benefits. For instance, sickle cell anemia is a
recessive disease that damages red blood cells. For individuals
with two recessive sickle cell genes, the illness can be
devastating. Individuals with only one copy to the recessive
sickle cell gene, however, have a much lower risk of contracting
malaria. Being a carrier offers benefits, but having two copies
of the recessive gene causes illness.
In these examples, the dominant trait, if present, will be the one
expressed. The recessive trait will only be expressed if the
individual contains two recessive alleles. While some alleles are
dominant and recessive, other alleles show different dominance

patterns, including
co-dominance
and
incomplete dominance
.
Incomplete Dominance Pattern
· INTERACTIONS BETWEEN ALLELES
·
CO-DOMINANCE
·
INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
·
RECOGNIZING INCOMPLETE DOMINANCE
While some alleles are dominant and recessive, other alleles
interact differently with one another. Where there are several
different allele types for a single gene, they may interact
differently with one another. They may not be dominant or
recessive, but co-dominant.
Alleles that are co-dominant produce a different phenotype than
dominant or recessive phenotypes. Blood type presents an
effective way to consider co-dominance. You’re probably aware
that there are several different blood types: A, B, O and AB. A
and B are codominant types, while O is recessive. If you have a
type O parent and a type A parent, you will be type A, as O is
recessive. If you have a type A and a type B parent, you could
end up type AB, if you inherit one type A allele and one type B
allele. Co-dominant alleles are alleles that are both expressed in
the phenotype-they are neither dominant or recessive.

Incomplete dominance allows aspects of both alleles to be
expressed in the phenotype of the individual. For instance, a red
flower that cross-breeds with a white flower might produce a
white flower, a red flower, or a pink flower. The pink flower
would be an example of incomplete dominance. If a black cat
and a white cat produced black, white and gray kittens, this
would also be an example of incomplete dominance, when the
gray kittens show traits of both the black and the white parent.
When incomplete dominance occurs, aspects of both alleles will
be expressed. Incomplete dominance may be recognized when
the offspring shows a phenotype different from both parents;
however, this is not an entirely accurate test for incomplete
dominance. The different phenotype must show traits of both
parental phenotypes.
X-linked pattern inheritance is another type of genetic
inheritance and expression. X-linked traits are found on the X
chromosome, one of two sex chromosomes. Females have two X
chromosomes, while males have one X chromosome and one Y
chromosome. X-linked traits are typically expressed only in
males, rather than females.
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· In females, the presence of one healthy functional gene and
one unhealthy, missing or defective gene on the X chromosomes
allow the healthy trait to be expressed or minimize the impact
of the unhealthy gene. In a male, the defective x-linked genes
are the only ones present, since the Y chromosome is different.
In this case, the male may present with the X-linked
inheritance.
A number of genetic disorders are x-linked, including

hemophilia, a bleeding and clotting disorder, and Fragile-X, a
disorder which causes developmental delays. Because of the X-
linked inheritance, these disorders are prevalent and more
severe in boys than in girls.
We inherit two copies of most genes and both genes are
working, functional copies.
Epigenetics
defines how genes are expressed. In most cases, all epigenetic
changes are stripped out of the genes soon after conception; the
parental expression of genes does not therefore impact the
offspring.
GENETIC IMPRINTING
Some genes
imprint
or keep the epigenetic tags during the process of conception.
Imprintation occurs in the genes found in the egg and sperm
cells before conception occurs. The imprinted gene typically
remains active, while the allele that is not imprinted will be
inactive. When this process occurs normally, genetic
development is typical.
CLONING
Epigenetic information is responsible for many of the
challenges associated with cloning mammals. Some scientists
believe that gene imprinting is the result of evolutionary
competition among males for maternal resources; or the survival
of their young over the young of other males.
· MUTATIONS
·
HERITABILITY

·
LIKELIHOOD OF MUTATIONS
Mutations are changes in the genetic sequence of an organism,
and they are a main cause of diversity among organisms,
particularly as expressed over time. Most mutations impact the
nucleic acids, or acids that form DNA. These changes occur at
many different levels, and they can have a range of different
consequences. Some of these mutations may be positive or
beneficial to the organism. Others may be negative, or
damaging to the organism.
For organisms that reproduce, it is essential to classify
mutations as heritable, or able to be passed down to the
offspring and descendants or not heritable. Mutations that do
not impact reproductive cells or hereditary material have little
relevance overall, but can be responsible for individual
differences. These are called somatic mutations, and do not
impact the offspring or descendants of the individual or
organism. An albino deer, for example, can be the same as other
deer except for color.
Mutations are difficult to predict; however, certain types of
mutations are more likely than others in some organisms.
Mutation rates, overall, are very low--in many cases, mutation
does not benefit the organism.
Polygenic inheritance is the interaction of different genes to
produce a single phenotype. Skin color is an example of
polygenic inheritance. Parents can pass on three different alleles
controlling skin color and the amount of melanin present in the
skin. In total, six different alleles work together to produce a
single phenotype in the individual, or to determine how light or
dark the individual’s skin is.

Some diseases are also the result of polygenic inheritance.
These are genetic illnesses, apparent at birth. Cleft palate, a
deformity in the palate of the mouth that creates an opening
between the mouth and sinuses, and spina bifida, a deformity in
the spinal development of the fetus, are the result of polygenic
inheritance.
Unlike more direct forms of inheritance, environmental issues
can directly impact polygenic inheritance. For instance, spina
bifida is a neural tube defect. The risk of this defect is lowered
if the mother has adequate supplies of folic acid in early
pregnancy.
Ecological Systems and Family Functioning
The
Ecological Systems Theory
, also called the Human Ecology Theory, was formulated by
psychologist Urie Bronfenbrenner. This theory addresses the
difference between behavior at home, with family, and outside
of the family. This theory strives to explain why individuals
behave differently with family than they do at work or at
school.
There are five environmental systems. Each of these involves
different environments encountered during daily life. All
environmental systems impact the child and the child’s ongoing
development.
MESOSYSTEM
The mesosystem involves relationships between different
microsystems in your life. Different microsystems relate to one
another. For instance, you might have one microsystem at
school and another with your family. Experiences in one
microsystem can impact another. For instance, a child who has a

poor home life will likely do poorly in school.
EXOSYSTEM
The exosystem is the link between a setting or context where
the individual does not have any active role, and the context
where the individual is actively participating. In the exosystem,
an external environmental system may have an impact on the
individual. The exosystem is indirect, rather than a function of
direct social interactions.
MACROSYSTEM
The macrosystem is the culture of the individual, including
ethnicity, race, socioeconomic status and conditions related to
the country of birth or origin. Someone born into poverty will
experience a very different macrosystem than someone who is
born into wealth.
CHRONOSYSTEM
The chronosystem consists of shifts and changes in the
individual’s life. Life transitions impact how the individual
functions within different environmental systems; however, the
individual may not have full control over all life shifts. For
instance, for children, the death of a parent or divorce of
parents is a significant change in the chronosystem, but not one
related to their actions.
Bronfenbrenner and Ecological Systems Theory
Bronfenbrenner believed that the child was at the center of this
progressive network of ecosystems, moving further than further
out from the child. In order to understand the child’s
development, psychologists must consider how the child
functions and interacts with each of these individual

ecosystems.
For a child of six years, microsystems might include home,
school, a sports team, and after-school child care. The
mesosystem includes the interactions between those different
microsystems. The exosystems in the child’s life might include
the parents’ workplaces. The macrosystem is the child’s culture,
determined by their socioeconomic status, ethnicity and other
factors. The chronosystem could be a variety of life events, like
the birth of a sibling.
The family, for Bronfenbrenner, plays the most critical role in
the development of the child. In the family, children learn
language, culture and values. They form lifelong bonds and
attachments in the family, and when the family is healthy, are
more capable of functioning in a healthy way in other
relationships and environments.
Parents have a direct influence on children’s behavior,
depending upon how they parent and structure the child’s
environment. Indirect influences on children are interactions
between two individuals that are impacted by an outside force
or third party. Children can experience internal or external
barriers to their relationships with different ecosystems.
Internal barriers cause worry and fear, while external barriers
are expressed as anger or aggression.
While Bronfenbrenner believed in the importance of these
ecosystems in child development, genetics still played a role in
the child’s overall experiences. Personality and other factors are
influenced by genetics. In fact, two children can experience the
same microsystem or family context in very different ways.
Awareness of the contexts in which children develop and grow
can help to understand those children, their behavior and their
development.

The Ecological Systems Theory has been key to the work of
many later psychologists, including their understanding of how
various parts of life relate to one another.
· SOCIOECONOMIC STATUS
·
INCOME, EDUCATION, AND OCCUPATION
·
MIXED INFLUENCES
·
COMPARISON OF TWO FAMILIES
The
socioeconomic status
of the family significantly impacts the physical, psychological,
social and intellectual development of children. According to
the American Psychological Association, “Socioeconomic status
(SES) is often measured as a combination of education, income
and occupation. It is commonly conceptualized as the social
standing or class of an individual or group. When viewed
through a social class lens, privilege, power and control are
emphasized.”
Socioeconomic status is not just the result of income, but of a
combination of income, education and occupation. Higher
socioeconomic status is associated with higher levels of
education, technical or white-collar jobs, and higher incomes.
Lower socioeconomic status is closely associated with reduced
education, unskilled or semi-skilled labor, and lower incomes.
Each of the three factors that define socioeconomic status are
relevant to determining the socioeconomic status of a family.
Imagine a pair of young parents, both still in college or

graduate school. They have a very low income, but would not be
of low socioeconomic status because of their education and
occupation. They may have limited financial resources, but the
children likely experience some of the benefits common to
children from families with more resources. For instance, these
parents likely understand the importance of early childhood
literacy. Compare those parents to a young couple who dropped
out of high school and work menial jobs; they may have the
same approximate income as the first family, but their lives and
socioeconomic status are very different.
The differences can impact children in other ways as well. For
instance, two families of a similar income, for instance
comfortably middle class, can be very different depending upon
the parents’ occupation, experiences and education. One family
might believe it is essentially important for their children to
develop a good work ethic, while the other might be more
concerned with appearances. These differences are also the
result of socioeconomic status.
Factors Linked to Low Economic Status
Several factors are specifically linked to low socioeconomic
status. These include psychological, physical, educational, and
familial issues.
PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPACT
The psychological impact of low socioeconomic status in
childhood includes a higher risk of mental health issues,
including anxiety, depression and ADHD, increased risk of
smoking, attempted suicide, and binge drinking, as well as
higher risk of aggression and perceived threat
PHYSICAL IMPACT

The physical impact of lower socioeconomic status includes a
higher risk of obesity, stress-related illness and cardiovascular
conditions.
SCHOOL PERFORMANCE
Low socioeconomic status is correlated with reduced linguistic
understanding in kindergarten, increased school absences and
lower standardized test scores throughout school.
RISK OF VIOLENCE AND NEGLECT
Poverty is linked to an increased overall risk of family violence,
including child abuse and neglect, as well as overcrowding and
domestic violence. Children raised in poverty are also more
likely to witness or be victim to other types of crime.
RELATIONSHIP STRESS AND DIVORCE
Families with lower socioeconomic status are more likely to
experience relationship stresses, including divorce. Marriages
are more stable for couples with a higher level of education or
higher income. Increased relationship stress or divorce typically
causes stress for children, and lowers their overall
socioeconomic status.
Why does socioeconomic status have such an impact on
children’s development and well-being? What mechanisms can
help to alleviate that impact? Research since the 1930s has
clearly shown a connection between family stress and economic
hardship or low socioeconomic status. Current research findings
have consistently shown connections between lower
socioeconomic status and developmental issues for children.
Today, some 46 million Americans, or 15 percent of the
population, live below poverty level. Extreme poverty,

including homelessness, can impact a large number of children.
Some 40 percent of the homeless population is made up of
homeless youth and children; these children often suffer
extreme stress, do poorly in school, and lack adequate access to
health care and other resources.
Intervention Can Make a Positive Difference
In addition to recognizing correlation and causation between
socioeconomic issues and child development, researchers also
look at ways to address those disparities. While some steps, like
working to increase education and improve a family’s
socioeconomic status, address the cause, many interventions are
designed to reduce the impact of low socioeconomic status,
without changing the family’s socioeconomic status.
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· Several key differences are noted between higher and lower
socioeconomic status families.
o Higher status is associated with older parents, increased
interest in learning and cognitive development, and increased
support for curiosity.
o Lower status is associated with younger parents, increased
emphasis on obedience, and reduced access to cognitive
learning.
o Affluence, or wealth, may also be associated with poor child
outcomes, including poor grades and increased risk of drug and
alcohol abuse.
Early childhood interventions of different types have shown

significant improvements in outcomes for children. This
supports the causal link between low socioeconomic status and
difficulties in children. Improvements in family income
consistently improve conditions for children in those families;
however, other types of interventions can also impact children’s
well-being.
Two different theoretical concepts are applied to explain the
changes observed in children as the result of increased
socioeconomic status or early childhood intervention. The first
of these is the Family Stress Model. The Family Stress Model
suggests that children benefit from improved relationships and
reduced family stress as a result of improved family income.
In the Family Stress Model, poor outcomes associated with low
socioeconomic status are the result of increased parental stress.
Stress causes the parents to parent less effectively, damaging
their relationship with the children. Parents experiencing stress
are likely to be harsh, uninvolved, and to lack the emotional
resources necessary. As a result, the children struggle with a
variety of psychological and educational issues. The Family
Stress Model shows a direct path from indicators of economic
hardship to economic pressure, then from economic pressure to
parent emotional distress, from parent emotional distress to
conflicts between parents, from conflicts between parents to
disruptions in effective parenting behaviors, and finally from
disruptions in parenting to child maladjustment.
The second of these is the Investment Model. The Investment
Model suggests that increased economic resources allow
families to increase their investment, both financially and in
terms of time, in their children. Increased investment provides
benefits to the children, physically, psychologically,
intellectually and emotionally. These investments in children
involve multiple dimensions of family support including parent
interaction and support of learning, access to adequate food,

housing and medical care, and improved surroundings,
including living in a safe neighborhood with accessible
resources. Children have access to more resources, including
parental time, as the family’s socioeconomic status improves
Interventions in early childhood often rely upon the Investment
Model. In this case, resources are provided to parents or
children to increase the investment in the child’s learning
experiences. For instance, children might be provided with free
pre-school, increased access to books and learning materials, or
parents might have access to parenting classes and educational
resources.
Early access to learning materials, including books, is closely
correlated with educational success. Improvements in
neighborhoods and schools can also help to alleviate issues
associated with low socioeconomic status. Schools can work to
involve parents, and communities can work together to create
safe and supportive spaces.
Today, both the Family Stress Model and the Investment Model
are considered valid. The Family Stress Model may have an
increased impact on children’s emotional development and well-
being. The Investment Model appears to be more relevant with
regard to children’s cognitive development. Regardless of
socioeconomic status, families that are involved, affectionate
and warm produce healthier and happier children. This can take
many forms, but the family dinner is a popular indicator for
family closeness. Socioeconomic status can also have an impact
on family culture, and how public policies impact that culture.
Influence of Family Values and Policies
While socioeconomic status and ecological systems of family
functioning impact children, children are also impacted in a
variety of ways by the values and culture of the family, as well

as public policies regarding children. Each of these impact and
change how children develop and how they experience the world
around them.
When parents interact with children, they do more than develop
relationships. They also pass down information about culture,
values and beliefs. In addition, other adults also pass down
similar information, including teachers, care providers, doctors,
friends and family. Policymakers also have their own values,
beliefs and cultural preferences. This can cause conflicts
between parents and caregivers, as well as confusion for
children. In addition, policymakers may have different beliefs
and values than families, particularly families of lower
socioeconomic status.
CULTURE
A number of different factors can impact cultural values. What
is culture? The definition adopted by the early childhood
organization, Zero to Three is, “Culture is a shared system of
meaning, which includes values, beliefs, and assumptions
expressed in daily interactions of individuals within a group
through a definite pattern of language, behavior, customs,
attitudes, and practices”. This definition specifies several key
factors. First, culture is shared among individuals; it is not the
beliefs of a single person.
CULTURE’S CONTRIBUTIONS TO CHILD DEVELOPMENT
Culture provides tools for individuals to create scripts that they
use to engage with and understand their environment and others
in their environment. These cultural scripts become fully
ingrained; they are not conscious, but rather considered, by the
individual, to be simply the way things are. Culture is
changeable, and may develop and adapt over time. While
culture develops from interactions with the environment,

including interactions with parents and caregivers, culture is not
the same as ethnicity
IMPACT OF CAREGIVER’S CULTURE
First and foremost, individuals, particularly teachers,
caregivers, and therapeutic professionals should recognize their
own cultural perspective. For many professionals, their “culture
of origin” or culture they grew up in and perspective that they
developed is largely European American. There may be clashes
and confusion between the values of the caregiver’s culture of
origin and the parents’ and child’s culture of origin.
Subcultures
· CULTURAL DIFFERENCES
·
CULTURAL SENSITIVITY
Parents and caregivers may, as the result of differing cultures of
origins, have different beliefs about many aspects of child
rearing.
·
They may have a different vision of what success looks like for
the child.
·
They may have differing views on well-being for the child.
·
They can have varied views on behavior and discipline, and
therefore, different expectations of children’s behaviors and
interactions.

Individualist versus Independent Culture
Some broad terms can be used to define cultures. Cultures are
defined as individualist or interdependent.
INDIVIDUALISTIC CULTURE
INTERDEPENDENT (SOCIOCENTRIC) CULTURE
COMPARISON OF BOTH
PARENTS AND CHILDREN IN INDIVIDUALISTIC
CULTURE
PARENTS AND CHILDREN IN SOCIOCENTRIC CULTURE
GLOBAL CULTURE VARIATIONS
Culture’s Impact on Development
Culture can also impact language development in young
children. Multiple studies have shown that young children
develop language through exposure. Language exposure has
been linked to both culture and socioeconomic status. The
sequence of language development is the same in all languages;
however, the further development of language can depend upon
access to various resources, including conversation, books and
other learning materials. Access to language impacts children’s
vocabulary growth, vocabulary use, and IQ scores at age three.
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·

The cultural values of the dominant culture impact the
development and priorities of public policy, including
government funding for various issues that impact children and
often, research into child development. Many different types of
public policy impact children’s health, well-being and
development, including funding for anti-poverty programs,
access to early childhood education, and even health care
policy. Voters are predominantly older, white and economically
successful, leading to reduced access to these aid and support
for childhood programs.
Programs that provide access to job training and higher
education, improve access to food and safe housing, and that
enable regular access to healthcare can all have a beneficial
impact on child development. As noted, children in more
financially stable homes show improved intellectual and
emotional development. Programs that increase financial
stability for families with children can benefit the overall
development of those children. Cuts to these programs can
damage families and the development of children. For instance,
cuts to welfare programs and work requirements may limit
access to food and resources and increase familial stresses.
Other examples of programs like these include the school
breakfast and lunch programs. Providing free or reduced cost
meals to children at school provides them with access to
adequate and healthy food and is another example of social
welfare programs designed to address the needs of children
· Government policy also impacts the availability of early
childhood education. Childhood advocates typically recommend
broad access to early childhood education for children of all
social classes. For children of a higher socioeconomic status,
these programs have relatively little impact. These children
have access to early childhood education resources, regardless
of public policy. For children of lower socioeconomic status,

public funding for early childhood education can have a
dramatic impact on their later educational success. Federal
funding for early childhood education pays for child care
assistance, Early Head Start and Head Start preschool programs
for children of lower income families, and improvements in
elementary and secondary education.
Public Policies
· PUBLIC POLICIES ADDRESS SOCIAL PROBLEMS
·
FINANCIAL HELP
·
CIVIL RIGHTS OF CHILDREN
When public policy values child development and the well-
being of children, some of the differences associated with both
genetics and environmental factors can be alleviated. Good
quality childcare and early childhood education can provide
children from different cultural and socioeconomic backgrounds
with improved access to a wide variety of learning resources.
Anti-poverty programs of various sorts can reduce financial
stresses for families, and help to improve the family and child’s
socioeconomic status. Various organizations continue to work
for the well-being of children, including the Children’s Defense
Fund. This non-profit organization works for the good of
children by funding research, community activity, and
legislative activity.
The International Convention on the Rights of the Child is an
international agreement supporting basic rights of all children.
These include the right to freedom of thought and religion,
access to free and appropriate education, a loving family life,

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