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Institute of Interfaith Dialog - Prison Conversion to Islam - Christianity
- 1. RELIGIOUS CONVERSION IN PRISON: TENDENCIES IN IDENTITY AND THE EXCLUSIVIST OR INCLUSIVIST The Institute of Interfaith Dialogue April 18, 2013 Malcolm L. Rigsby, Ph.D., J.D., Henderson State University, Arkadelphia, Arkansas ©
- 2. Reasons For My Interest in Religion and Prison For the prisoner, religion is one major venue for identity expression in an otherwise restricted population. Studies seeking to understand prisoner life experiences in terms of their narrative accounts have long been neglected. Study of religion in prison has been largely considered as a means to understand institutional management issues.
- 3. RATIONALE • Two Rationales Supported the Study • Academic Call • Transformation Desistance (pro-sociality) • Societal Call • Safety legitimate needs for safety balanced by individual liberties
- 4. GAPS IN EXISTING LITERATURE • Prisoners and Religion (Will “Voice” provide opportunity for pro-social transformation?) • Maruna, O’Connor • APA and Worthington • Terrorism, Religion, Concerns (Is there and if so, radicalization in prison of the type feared since 9/11?) • Lieberman, Newman, Pistole, King, • U.S. Commission on Civil Rights • Conversion in Prison Studies • Hamm (fails to compare any religion to Islam) • Pew study (fails to directly recruit prisoner participants)
- 5. Prisons: A 50-State Survey of Prison Chaplains I Was Fortunate! “Prisoners are rarely allowed to participate in research studies of any kind, …..The possible ‘psychic rewards’ to inmates of being able to express their opinions and describe their experiences on a survey questionnaire, or the value of the information to the public, generally are not considered by correctional authorities to justify a survey of inmates.” (Pew 2012)
- 6. CONTRIBUTIONS • Voice: • Knowledge: • Unique: • Theory Production: Presents a “testable” grounded theory based upon sound academic research and verifiable methodology, “integrating” sociological and criminological theories
- 7. THEORY CONTRIBUTION 1. This theory is “integrative and holistic” • Sociological Literature • Theory of Religious Conversion (Lofland and Stark, 1965) • Criminological Literature • Strain Theory • Stigma and Labeling Theories • Social Bonds Theory • Neutralization Theory 2. This theory is “testable” • Responds to the APA study, Worthington and O’Connor • Provides an interdisciplinary method for evaluating transformation • Provides a design that will promote “outcomes based/ evidence based” evaluation of treatment programs in “faith-based” settings.
- 8. RESEARCH QUESTIONS 1. What are the social and personal reasons given for inmate conversion? 2. How are inclusivist or exclusivist religious community identities formed and justified by the participants? 3. How are incorporationist or rejectionist world-views formed and justified by the participants?
- 9. THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK • Methodology - qualitative and quantitative • Population – Prisoners at SCI and OSP and Chaplains at ODOC • Participants • Chaplains (15) • Of all 22 chaplains, 15 responded to the questionnaire and 4 were selected for interviews • Prisoners (22) • Self-selection, snowball, purposive, non-probable • 11 Muslim, 11 Christian
- 11. Terms - Phrases Connected with Concepts World Tensions, Religious Identity, Self Identity and Conversion
- 14. INTERESTING FINDINGS • Exclusivist religious outlook did not necessarily lead to a rejectionist world-view in a way that would be conducive to radicalization or terrorism • Exclusivists • Found a way to be in the world but not of the world OR • Chose to keep to their own beliefs and communities and isolate themselves • Rarely were tendencies of the kind that would alert security agencies of radicalization processes evinced as a result of religious conversion.
- 15. SURPRISING FINDINGS • Exclusivist undertones were detected in the majority of narratives. • Surprising in light of media reports and concern for prison Islam serving a role in radical recruitment, is that more Muslims coded inclusive/incorporationist than Christians.
- 16. Frequency Distribution of Religious Community Identity by Religion Religious Community Identity Religion Exclusivist Inclusivist Total Muslim 6 5 11 Christian 9 2 11 Total 15 7 22
- 17. Frequency Distribution of Religious Community Identity and World-View Community Identity by Religion Community Identity Religious Community Identity Self-Identity Muslim Christian Total Inclusivist Exclusivist Inclusivist Exclusivist Incorporationist 4 5 1 8 18 Rejectionist 1 1 1 1 4 Total 5 6 2 9 22
- 19. The Nuanced Pathway of Prisoner Religious Conversion 1. Religious Conversion for both groups is a “much nuanced pathway”. 2. What is found in both religions is that there are many “forks in the road” during the conversion process and transforming identities. 3. Forks were evidenced in both the inclusivist and exclusivist religious community identity and in the incorporationist and rejectionist world-view identity.
- 20. The Nuanced Pathway of Prisoner Religious Conversion 4. The narratives evidenced that religion is just one alternative for gaining knowledge of self • Other alternatives are education, counseling, and gangs 5. It emerged that not all who experience religious conversion and become “exclusivist” also become “rejectionist” 6. Each religion - no definitive process of radicalization emerged. 7. Data showed that only two participants (one to Islam and one to Christianity) coded both exclusivist and rejectionist • Of these one coded as “non-violent and isolationist” and the other coded “violent and isolationist”
- 21. POLICY IMPLICATIONS This research: 1. *shows that isolating one religion as a radicalization source may unduly burden free practice of religion but also fail to recognize other religions have the similar tendencies 2. helps prison treatment personnel understand how including a person's religion and spirituality into their correctional treatment relates to desistance. 3. supports the need for treatment professionals and institutional administrators to work holistically in overall treatment programs.
- 22. POLICY IMPLICATIONS This research: 4. provides support and direction for prison chaplaincy and volunteer programs and enhances chaplaincy as a correctional profession. 5. shows the need to replicate this method and advance qualitative studies of religion in prison 6. supports concern for radicalization, but provides data to reduce fears and claims about prison as a primary situs for terrorism recruitment
- 23. Ordering a Copy • Religious conversion in prison and its directions: Community identity, religious dogma, and exclusivist or inclusivist religiosity in American prisons by Rigsby, Malcolm L. Ph.D., Texas Woman's University, 2012, 232 pages; AAT 3550846 • ORDER your copy at ProQuest/UMI: Just type “Malcolm L. Rigsby” in the Search Box.
- 24. RELIGIOUS CONVERSION IN PRISON: TENDENCIES IN IDENTITY AND THE EXCLUSIVIST OR INCLUSIVIST The Institute of Interfaith Dialogue April 18, 2013 Malcolm L. Rigsby, Ph.D., J.D., Henderson State University, Arkadelphia, Arkansas ©
Editor's Notes
- Academic Calls: 1. There is need for knowledge of prisoner rehabilitation through Religion/Spirituality incorporating prisoner participation through self-narratives. 2. This knowledge gaining process establishes the need for sound academic research based on verifiable methodology (Maruna et al, 2006; O’Connor various; Worthington et al, 2010; Norcross and Wampold, 2010; Pew, 2012) *(We need to understand “ deep meaning” associated with transformation. Self-Narratives help us to explore identity and provides each transforming individual a means for participation in the process of transforming their identity ) 3. While Hamm (2007) and Pew (2012) investigated similar calls to those in this research there are distinctions that must be pointed out. Hamm failed to examine Christian Converts in prison and Pew was not allowed to recruit prisoners as participants and therefore had to rely on the interpretations of Chaplains. These studies are valuable, but they leave an unsatisfied gap in the literature, which this research addresses. * (Hamm’s study left a gap in that it failed to examine converts of both Islam and Christianity; Pew left a gap in failing to speak directly with the converts themselves, and relied on third party interpretations of transformation) Societal Call: 1. Since 9/11, fear of terrorism has led to heightened scrutiny of the role of a particular religion as a potential tool for recruitment to, membership in, and activity associated with terrorism and has led to claims making against Islam as a religion associated with terrorism (lieberman, various; Newman, 2010; Pistole, 2003; King, 2011). 2. Some authorities and academics have voiced concern over singling out one religion for study and call for the need to carefully scrutinize how we study and establish claims about any religion. What is called for is balancing “need for security” with “need to protect free practice of religion and exercise of belief” (U.S. Comm on Civil Rts. 2008; Congressman Al Greene, 2011; U.S. Rep Laura Richardson, 2011). *(Researchers must employ an interdisciplinary approach that balances security and civil rights) Significance of the Study: 1. This study explores avenues of prisoner rehabilitation. - It address the largely unrecognized area of research with this marginalized pop - and it allows the prisoners a participatory role in their rehabilitation process. 2. This study explores the tendencies of identity among prisoners to develop inclusive or exclusive identities in the context of religion and conversion, and it contributes to the knowledge of the criminal justice system and the prison chaplaincy, thereby enhancing security both within prison and for society at large to feel secure from crime and radical terrorism. * The Combined Effect of this Study : To establish a theoretical explanation, identifying policy outcomes for better practice; and engender better-informed public policy; to deepen the understanding of how tendencies emerge, identity transforms and how dogma may play a role in prison conversion that may lead to either enforced criminality or desistance. The extreme form of criminality is Terrorism.
- Academic Calls: 1. There is need for knowledge of prisoner rehabilitation through Religion/Spirituality incorporating prisoner participation through self-narratives. 2. This knowledge gaining process establishes the need for sound academic research based on verifiable methodology (Maruna et al, 2006; O’Connor various; Worthington et al, 2010; Norcross and Wampold, 2010; Pew, 2012) *(We need to understand “ deep meaning” associated with transformation. Self-Narratives help us to explore identity and provides each transforming individual a means for participation in the process of transforming their identity ) 3. While Hamm (2007) and Pew (2012) investigated similar calls to those in this research there are distinctions that must be pointed out. Hamm failed to examine Christian Converts in prison and Pew was not allowed to recruit prisoners as participants and therefore had to rely on the interpretations of Chaplains. These studies are valuable, but they leave an unsatisfied gap in the literature, which this research addresses. * (Hamm’s study left a gap in that it failed to examine converts of both Islam and Christianity; Pew left a gap in failing to speak directly with the converts themselves, and relied on third party interpretations of transformation) Societal Call: 1. Since 9/11, fear of terrorism has led to heightened scrutiny of the role of a particular religion as a potential tool for recruitment to, membership in, and activity associated with terrorism and has led to claims making against Islam as a religion associated with terrorism (lieberman, various; Newman, 2010; Pistole, 2003; King, 2011). 2. Some authorities and academics have voiced concern over singling out one religion for study and call for the need to carefully scrutinize how we study and establish claims about any religion. What is called for is balancing “need for security” with “need to protect free practice of religion and exercise of belief” (U.S. Comm on Civil Rts. 2008; Congressman Al Greene, 2011; U.S. Rep Laura Richardson, 2011). *(Researchers must employ an interdisciplinary approach that balances security and civil rights) Significance of the Study: 1. This study explores avenues of prisoner rehabilitation. - It address the largely unrecognized area of research with this marginalized pop - and it allows the prisoners a participatory role in their rehabilitation process. 2. This study explores the tendencies of identity among prisoners to develop inclusive or exclusive identities in the context of religion and conversion, and it contributes to the knowledge of the criminal justice system and the prison chaplaincy, thereby enhancing security both within prison and for society at large to feel secure from crime and radical terrorism. * The Combined Effect of this Study : To establish a theoretical explanation, identifying policy outcomes for better practice; and engender better-informed public policy; to deepen the understanding of how tendencies emerge, identity transforms and how dogma may play a role in prison conversion that may lead to either enforced criminality or desistance. The extreme form of criminality is Terrorism.
- Prisoners and Religion : Existing literature on religion in prison tends to focus on religion only as an institutional management tool for internal security rather than the religious conversion experience that may serve as a source of rehabilitation and reentry to society. 1. Maruna et al (2006) “deep meaning through narrative helps prisoners explore their social community and identity by giving them a participatory role providing a means of expression and an enabling power to take control of their futures. The Academic community plays a vital role in this process.” O’Connor and Bogue (2010) “academics have a duty to effectively foster “change promoting roles” in prisoner transformation. Terrorism, Religion, Concerns: “safety vs infringement” are key issues. 1. US Commission on Civil Rights (2008) “researchers must employ an interdisciplinary approach to this phenomenon that is both balanced between security and civil rights” Conversion in Prison Studies : These studies are hard to accomplish due to prisoners being protected populations for research purposes. We lack data for sound academic analysis. Before this study, two studies have been particularly relevant to radicalization and religion in prisoner populations. Both left gaps in the literature. 1. Hamm, 2007 fails to examine Christian Prison Converts 2. Pew, 2012 fails to include Prison Converts as Participants 3. Although not dealing with prisoner conversions one study is relevant (Lofland and Stark, 1965). Lofland and Stark outline (5) minimal, but progressive steps for religious conversion. It is postulated that this theory as modified is particularly relevant when extended to the prisoner population. Criminological Literature : a. Strain Theory : Frustration, rejection, anger, desire leads to need to adapt or seek alternatives (Agnew) b. Labeling & Stigma Theories : Stigma is “reaction to spoiled identity” (Goffman, 1963); Attached labels have consequences of which is one is stigma, (Becker, 1963); De-labeling is a difficult if not impossible process because social stigma is reinforced institutionally throughout society and no institutionalized de-labeling processes are systematically employed, (Becker); The total institution, which prison is a model, maximizes the potential for tension and strain. Within prison prisoners suffer another level of labeling from other prisoners and personnel, religion is one of several communities in which prisoners may seek to cope with understanding self-identity, community belonging, safety and a way out. c. Social Bonds Theory (Control Theory ): Strong attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief consistent with norms of society keep socialized human beings from deviating and being anti-social (Hirschi, 1969). Religion in prison offers a means of control of one’s life and destiny (place) and serves to create strong social bonds. The bonds enforce the group identity. This creates and preserves a relationship called community. d. Neutralization Process (Theory ): Prisoners that convert must determine if they are “real” converts or not. If they are real they may undergo a period of “drift” between old and transforming identity, or fully transform to a new identity and community. Religion may create “boxes” and create dogmas calling for people to balance religious “sacred” practices against secular “profane” practices. Religion may be interpreted or taken in particular contexts to justify otherwise deviant behavior for particular causes. Doing things for the Divine that would otherwise be considered by the society as deviant or criminal allow for acts against society/victims. Neutralization answers the question “how could such a good person do such a bad thing” as individual members learn dogma that allows them to “disassociate” their behaviors and place blame on others (Sykes and Matza, 1957). Notes: 1. Steps c. and d . are highly interactional between the convert, with other individuals, and structures). Interaction leads to relationships (attachment ), teachings (commitment ), practices (involvement ), and dogma (belief ) that may transform the individual toward the mainstream religion, or right or left of the mainstream. The nuanced pathway is a process that involves the community and individual in a process of neutralizing their acts in relation to their sectarian-personal identity, their secular Community identity and their religious Community Identity. 2. Lofland and Stark’s 1965 model has been criticized for the “need for tensions” as applied to the general population of converts; but the study supports that it is directly applicable to the prisoner population in America.
- Prisoners and Religion : Existing literature on religion in prison tends to focus on religion only as an institutional management tool for internal security rather than the religious conversion experience that may serve as a source of rehabilitation and reentry to society. 1. Maruna et al (2006) “deep meaning through narrative helps prisoners explore their social community and identity by giving them a participatory role providing a means of expression and an enabling power to take control of their futures. The Academic community plays a vital role in this process.” O’Connor and Bogue (2010) “academics have a duty to effectively foster “change promoting roles” in prisoner transformation. Terrorism, Religion, Concerns: “safety vs infringement” are key issues. 1. US Commission on Civil Rights (2008) “researchers must employ an interdisciplinary approach to this phenomenon that is both balanced between security and civil rights” Conversion in Prison Studies : These studies are hard to accomplish due to prisoners being protected populations for research purposes. We lack data for sound academic analysis. Before this study, two studies have been particularly relevant to radicalization and religion in prisoner populations. Both left gaps in the literature. 1. Hamm, 2007 fails to examine Christian Prison Converts 2. Pew, 2012 fails to include Prison Converts as Participants 3. Although not dealing with prisoner conversions one study is relevant (Lofland and Stark, 1965). Lofland and Stark outline (5) minimal, but progressive steps for religious conversion. It is postulated that this theory as modified is particularly relevant when extended to the prisoner population. Criminological Literature : a. Strain Theory : Frustration, rejection, anger, desire leads to need to adapt or seek alternatives (Agnew) b. Labeling & Stigma Theories : Stigma is “reaction to spoiled identity” (Goffman, 1963); Attached labels have consequences of which is one is stigma, (Becker, 1963); De-labeling is a difficult if not impossible process because social stigma is reinforced institutionally throughout society and no institutionalized de-labeling processes are systematically employed, (Becker); The total institution, which prison is a model, maximizes the potential for tension and strain. Within prison prisoners suffer another level of labeling from other prisoners and personnel, religion is one of several communities in which prisoners may seek to cope with understanding self-identity, community belonging, safety and a way out. c. Social Bonds Theory (Control Theory ): Strong attachment, commitment, involvement, and belief consistent with norms of society keep socialized human beings from deviating and being anti-social (Hirschi, 1969). Religion in prison offers a means of control of one’s life and destiny (place) and serves to create strong social bonds. The bonds enforce the group identity. This creates and preserves a relationship called community. d. Neutralization Process (Theory ): Prisoners that convert must determine if they are “real” converts or not. If they are real they may undergo a period of “drift” between old and transforming identity, or fully transform to a new identity and community. Religion may create “boxes” and create dogmas calling for people to balance religious “sacred” practices against secular “profane” practices. Religion may be interpreted or taken in particular contexts to justify otherwise deviant behavior for particular causes. Doing things for the Divine that would otherwise be considered by the society as deviant or criminal allow for acts against society/victims. Neutralization answers the question “how could such a good person do such a bad thing” as individual members learn dogma that allows them to “disassociate” their behaviors and place blame on others (Sykes and Matza, 1957). Notes: 1. Steps c. and d . are highly interactional between the convert, with other individuals, and structures). Interaction leads to relationships (attachment ), teachings (commitment ), practices (involvement ), and dogma (belief ) that may transform the individual toward the mainstream religion, or right or left of the mainstream. The nuanced pathway is a process that involves the community and individual in a process of neutralizing their acts in relation to their sectarian-personal identity, their secular Community identity and their religious Community Identity. 2. Lofland and Stark’s 1965 model has been criticized for the “need for tensions” as applied to the general population of converts; but the study supports that it is directly applicable to the prisoner population in America.
- This study is unique and establishes support for additional study using this methodology.
- Voice : Enabled prisoners a direct and active participatory role Knowledge : Explored prisoner experiences in conversion and how tendencies emerge and transformation Unique : No other study has simultaneously explored relationships to tendencies in both Christian and Islamic converts
- SATISFIED GOAL: *sound academic research based on verifiable methodology allows these contributions and findings to be duplicated, modified, and tested
- SATISFIED GOAL: *sound academic research based on verifiable methodology allows these contributions and findings to be duplicated, modified, and tested
- Two Assumptions Underlie these Questions: 1. religious beliefs : has a tendency to construct community identities that may (or may not) support such radicalization, and these tendencies arise in the context of religious conversion and identity. 2. prison creates a micro population : a combination of factors: structured religion, cultural strain (stigma, labels, fear of being “broken”), and a need for community identity (responsibility, accountability, knowledge of self,) make people susceptible to a transformative dogma Ans: 1.
- Pearson’s r = .90. This allowed a visualization of words and concepts that clustered about the axis of “conversion”. I was able to visualize how coded concepts related to the central theme and which words were most used to describe the resolution of problems through the conversion experience.
- Pearson’s r = .90. This allowed a visualization of words and concepts that clustered about the axis of “conversion”. I was able to visualize how coded concepts related to the central theme and which words were most used to describe the resolution of problems through the conversion experience.
- 1. An important and unexpected result of this study was that exclusivist religious outlook did not necessarily lead to a rejectionist world view in a way that would be conducive to radicalization and terrorism. 2. The exclusivists either found a way to be in the world and not of the world or chose to keep to their own beliefs and communities and isolate themselves. 3. Only rarely did tendencies of the kind that would alert security agencies where evinced as a result of religious conversion.
- 1. An important and unexpected result of this study was that exclusivist religious outlook did not necessarily lead to a rejectionist world view in a way that would be conducive to radicalization and terrorism. 2. The exclusivists either found a way to be in the world and not of the world or chose to keep to their own beliefs and communities and isolate themselves. 3. Only rarely did tendencies of the kind that would alert security agencies where evinced as a result of religious conversion. Definitions: Exclusive: only one religion is the way to truth. Inclusive one religion has unique and superior truth, but some form of salvation is accessible to followers of other creeds. Incorporationist: a person whose plan in daily life is to live among people of varied faiths and persuasions. Rejectionist: a person whose plan of daily life is to live apart from the society, either radically indifferent to other people or hostile.
- Definitions: Exclusive: only one religion is the way to truth. Inclusive one religion has unique and superior truth, but some form of salvation is accessible to followers of other creeds. Incorporationist: a person whose plan in daily life is to live among people of varied faiths and persuasions. Rejectionist: a person whose plan of daily life is to live apart from the society, either radically indifferent to other people or hostile.
- Table 7: It is remarkable that overall the number coded exclusivists is twice that of inclusivists. Also interesting is that among Christians and Muslims coded Inclusivist, over two times were Muslim.
- Table 9: Also surprising of the 22 only 4 coded Rejectionist. * The four participants coded Rejectionist used words related to concepts that disassociated and sanctified their anti-social behavior even in light of their profession of religion and spirituality
- Building on Lofland and Stark’s 1965 Model of Religious Conversion and the sociological and criminological literature a Prison Identity Systems theory is proposed to explain the Nuanced Pathways of Religious Conversion in Prison: 1. Most religions provide pathways to explain the world and sponsor “the golden rule”. Islam and Christianity are not exceptions. 2. Religion provides one way by which prisoners may seek understanding of their self and placement in groups and society, as well to gain some level of control in portraying these identities. The religious conversion experience is a nuanced pathway; affecting “self”, and the relation of self to both a religious community (sectarian), and a world community (secular). At any pathway juncture the individual may become more incorporationist or rejectionist, or inclusivist or exclusivist.
- Strain and Desire resolution is the “goal” Helpers are the “means” Transformation is the “realization” Stigma & Labels + Prisonization = Strain Desire for Change, Knowledge & Understanding of Self and Belonging (religion is 1 alternative) Desire alone may be insufficient for change w/o Helpers (literature, prisoners, volunteer, public figures, chaplains) Helpers (called instrumental to religious change) Motivate & instill commitment by teaching, inspiring and pressuring Helpers coach beliefs & practices inclusivist, exclusivist, incorporationist, rejectionist objectives may be purely spiritual/religious or mixed with other objectives (political, social, cultural) Beliefs instilled unquestioningly is dogma Practices reinforce beliefs and commitment Transformation Remains motivated and committed through dogma and practices as old associations are departed from and new associations are established New associations through interaction enforce strong social bonds that control the transforming identities Social bonds are reflected by relationships (attachments) teachings (commitment) practices (involvement) dogma (beliefs) * being “real”; being “tested”; being “watched” by both the “old” and the “new” associations = (accountability)
- * The four participants coded Rejectionist used words related to concepts that disassociated and sanctified their anti-social behavior even in light of their profession of religion and spirituality
- failure of generalizability is not pivotal : the object in using qualitative method was to generate neutral, truthful, accurate, deep statements about a phenomenon that may be confirmed by further investigation. Small N : is not problematic. The study was an investigative pilot study. It was designed to be easily transferrable to other prison population sites to be replicated, and seek to test it’s credibility and veracity as an investigative tool. Non-random Sampling : non-probability, convenience and snowball techniques worked well as a method of recruitment with this marginalized and heavily protected population. Steps to enhance truthfulness : time at each interview to set prisoner at ease, to assure anonymity and confidentiality, to answer all questions and explain the informed consent before beginning the interview. Steps to avoid Hawthorne: stressed “their own” true-life experiences, feelings, interactions, and thoughts; did not ask direct questions about inclusive, exclusive, incorporative, or rejecting tendencies; findings verified with two studies (Hamm 2007; Pew 2012) Steps to assure reduced researcher bias and enhanced neutrality: used my professional skills and training as a correctional officer, as an educator, and as an attorney and counselor at law.
- 1. As noted by the U.S. Commission on Civil Rights (2008) restrictions on any non-Christian religion must not result in having their “free exercise” rights to practice religion unduly burdened by the state without a compelling interest; and as noted by U.S. Representative Laura Richardson in response to the singular investigation of Islam as a source of prison radicalization at the 2011 congressional “Hearing on Muslim-American Radicalization in U.S. Prisons”, which alleged the investigation to be racist and discriminatory 2. prison administrators, chaplains, psychologists, counselors; to help understand how including religion or spirituality into correctional treatment assists desistance (stopping crime). Incorporation of one’s religion or spirituality makes their treatment more effective (Norcross & Wampold, 2010; Worthington, Hook, Davis, & McDaniel, 2010).
- 4. 5. To better understand how involving the felon in an active role will promote the possible transformation to a pro-social member of society 6.