Plants reproduce through both sexual and asexual reproduction. Sexual reproduction involves the fusion of male and female gametes to form seeds and fruits. Asexual reproduction occurs through vegetative structures like roots, stems, and leaves developing into new plants via methods such as cuttings, layering, and grafting. Genes contain DNA and are located on chromosomes, with humans having 23 chromosome pairs. DNA stores and transmits genetic information through the bases adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine bonding together to form structures like genes and chromosomes. Mutations can be inherited or acquired, and genetic engineering allows transferring genes between different species.

1. FAR EASTERN UNIVERSITY
HIGH SCHOOL
Earth and Life Science
Topic 8:
The Perpetuation of Life

3. Perpetuation of Life:
• Perpetuation
comes from the
word
PERPETUATE
which means for
something to
continue. Thus,

7. • Plants reproduce in two very different ways:
– Sexual reproduction: involves the production of
seeds and fruits from specialized cells of two
plants.
– Asexual or vegetative reproduction: occurs when
a'parent' plant grows new plants from its roots,
stems, or leaves.

8. Cuttings
Layering
Grafting
Budding
Tissue Culture

10. • formation of offspring by the fusion of gametes.
• Sexual reproduction of plants mainly happens in
angiosperms or also known as flowering plants.

12. LEAF
Major site of photosynthesis.
Captures light energy and
converts to chemical energy
to provide food.

13. LEAF
Major site of photosynthesis.
Captures light energy and
converts to chemical energy
to provide food.
STEM
Connects the roots to the leaves.
Supports branches and leaves
Transports (moves) water,
minerals and food.

14. LEAF
Major site of photosynthesis.
Captures light energy and
converts to chemical energy
to provide food.
STEM
Connects the roots to the leaves.
Supports branches and leaves
Transports (moves) water,
minerals and food. ROOTS Vital
Anchors
Keeps plant upright
Absorbs water
Stores food (sugar)
– ex: radishes, carrots,
potatoes, etc.
Absorbs minerals from
the soil

15. LEAF
Major site of photosynthesis.
Captures light energy and
converts to chemical energy
to provide food.
STEM
Connects the roots to the leaves.
Supports branches and leaves
Transports (moves) water,
minerals and food. ROOTS Vital
Anchors
Keeps plant upright
Absorbs water
Stores food (sugar)
– ex: radishes, carrots,
potatoes, etc.
Absorbs minerals from
the soil
FLOWER
Attract insects to help
the plant reproduce.
Part of the plant that
has the reproductive
organs.

22. Watch the video:

29. How do Genes Work?

30. GENES
• A gene is the basic physical and functional unit
of heredity.

31. GENES
• Composed of:
– DNA -Deoxyribonucleic acid (Hereditary Material)
• Is packed into something we called:
– CHROMOSOME

34. CHROMOSOMES
• In the nucleus of each cell, the DNA molecule
is packaged into thread-like structures called
chromosomes.
• Each chromosome has a constriction point
called the centromere, which divides the
chromosome into two sections, or “arms.”

35. CHROMOSOMES

36. CHROMOSOMES
• Each cell normally contains 23 pairs of
chromosomes, for a total of 46.
• Females have two copies of the X
chromosome,
while males have one X and one Y
chromosome

37. CHROMOSOMES
• In humans, each cell normally contains 23
pairs of chromosomes, for a total of 46.
• Twenty-two of these pairs, called
AUTOSOMES, look the same in both males
and females.

38. CHROMOSOMES
• The 23rd pair, the SEX CHROMOSOMES, differ
between males and females. Females have
two copies of the X chromosome, while males
have one X and one Y chromosome.

39. How DNA
Transfer Its
Information?

40. How DNA Transfer
Its Information?
• DNA, or deoxyribonucleic acid, is the
hereditary material in humans and almost all
other organisms.
• Nearly every cell in a person’s body has the
same DNA.

41. How DNA Transfer
Its Information?
• Most DNA is located in the cell nucleus (where
it is called nuclear DNA), but a small amount
of DNA can also be found in the mitochondria
(where it is called mitochondrial DNA or
mtDNA).

42. How DNA Transfer
Its Information?
• The information in DNA is stored as a code
made up of four chemical bases:
ADENINE (A), GUANINE (G), CYTOSINE (C),
AND THYMINE (T).
• Human DNA consists of about 3 billion bases,
and more than 99 percent of those bases are
the same in all people.

43. How DNA Transfer
Its Information?
• The information in
DNA is stored as a
code made up of four
chemical bases:
ADENINE (A),
GUANINE (G),
CYTOSINE (C), AND
THYMINE (T).

44. How DNA Transfer
Its Information?
• DNA bases pair up
with each other, A with
T and C with G, to form
units called base pairs.
• Each base is also
attached to a sugar
molecule and a
phosphate molecule.

45. How DNA Transfer
Its Information?
• Together, a base, sugar, and phosphate are
called a nucleotide.
• NUCLEOTIDES are arranged in two long
strands that form a spiral called a double helix.

46. How DNA Transfer
Its Information?
• The structure of the
DOUBLE HELIX is
somewhat like a ladder,
with the base pairs
forming the ladder’s
rungs and the sugar
and phosphate
molecules forming the
vertical sidepieces of
the ladder.

47. Replication, Transcription
and Translation

48. MUTATION
• A gene mutation is a permanent alteration in
the DNA sequence that makes up a gene, such
that the sequence differs from what is found
in most people. Mutations range in size; they
can affect anywhere from a single DNA
building block (base pair) to a large segment
of a chromosome that includes multiple
genes.

49. MUTATION
• Gene mutations can be classified in two major
ways:
– Hereditary mutations are inherited from a parent
and are present throughout a person’s life in
virtually every cell in the body.
– Acquired (or somatic) mutations occur at some
time during a person’s life and are present only in
certain cells, not in every cell in the body.

50. GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Genetic engineering (GE) is the modification
of an organism’s genetic composition by
artificial means, often involving the transfer of
specific traits, or genes, from one organism
into a plant or animal of an entirely different
species. When gene transfer occurs, the
resulting organism is called transgenic or a
• GMO (genetically modified organism).

51. GENETIC ENGINEERING
• Genetic engineering is different from
traditional cross breeding, where genes can
only be exchanged between closely related
species.
• With genetic engineering, genes from
completely different species can beinserted
into one another

52. GENETIC ENGINEERING
ADVANTAGES
 Resistance to pests
 Resistance to diseases
 Productive livestock
 Miracle drugs
DISADVANTAGES
 Environmental hazards
 Health risks
 Economy

53. GENETIC ENGINEERING
 Bt corn is a genetically
modified organism where the
genes of a bacterium, Bacillus
thuringiensis (hence the name
Bt corn), are responsible for
the production of Bt delta
endotoxin. This toxin is highly
effective in killing the larvae of
European corn borer, a
common pest of corn.
 BT CORN

54. GENETIC ENGINEERING
 When the larvae of European
corn borer ingest the bt corn,
the endotoxin binds to the
insect’s gut, causing cell
destruction that then leads to
insect’s death. Farmers grow
Bt corn as an alternative to
other corn varieties, since they
do not need to spray
insecticides against the
European corn borer.
 BT CORN

55. FINAL EXAM IN EARTH AND LIFE
SCIENCE
PREPARED BY:
Bacaro
Kabigting
Nepomuceno
Francisco
STEM 15

56. Thank you!!!