16. Innate immunity is the bodys first lie of defence against foreig.pdf
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Fe2O3(s)+3CO(g)=======>2Fe(s)+3CO2(g) 50.0g Fe2O3*(1 mol Fe2O3/ 159.69 g Fe2O3)*(2 mol Fe/1 mol Fe2O3)*(55.85 g Fe/1 mol Fe) 34.97 g Fe [ theoretical yield] % of yield = practical/theoretical * 100 = 32.8/34.97 *100 = 93.80 % Solution Fe2O3(s)+3CO(g)=======>2Fe(s)+3CO2(g) 50.0g Fe2O3*(1 mol Fe2O3/ 159.69 g Fe2O3)*(2 mol Fe/1 mol Fe2O3)*(55.85 g Fe/1 mol Fe) 34.97 g Fe [ theoretical yield] % of yield = practical/theoretical * 100 = 32.8/34.97 *100 = 93.80 %.
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The word “Immuis” means free from burden and “immunitas” means exemption from government taxes and this provided the English terminology Immunity.
Immunity is a broad definition: This is a protective or defense mechanism of our body, which leads us to a healthy life.
Inborn or Innate immunity: It is present at birth; This is our First Line Of Defense.
Acquired or Specific: It is not present at birth but becomes part of our immune system as the lymphoid system develops.
1970: WHO defined immunity as immune response to antigen ( Foreign body) in form of:-
Humoral (activation of B-lymhocytes).
Cellular (by activation of T-lymphocytes).
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This document discusses microbial pathogenesis and infectious diseases. It defines different types of microorganisms like saprophytes and parasites and different types of infections like primary and secondary infections. It describes various sources of infection like endogenous normal flora and exogenous sources like other humans, animals, insects, soil and water. It also discusses different modes of transmission of infections and various virulence factors that contribute to microbial pathogenicity. These include factors for adhesion, invasiveness, toxigenicity, plasmids, bacteriophages and more. Finally, it briefly outlines different types of infectious diseases like endemic, epidemic, pandemic diseases and specific clinical infections.
Vaccination Principle, Types and Application
Introduction:
Vaccination is a critical tool for preventing the spread of infectious diseases. In this presentation, we will explore the science behind vaccines, their impact on public health, and some of the challenges and controversies surrounding vaccination.
Section 1: Basics of Vaccination
- We will start by discussing the basic principles of vaccination, including how vaccines work, the different types of vaccines, and how they are developed and tested.
- We will also explore some common vaccine ingredients and their safety profile.
Section 2: History and Impact of Vaccination
- Vaccines have had a profound impact on public health, helping to eradicate or control many deadly diseases, such as smallpox, polio, and measles.
- We will discuss the history of vaccination and some of the major milestones in vaccine development and deployment.
- We will also look at the current state of vaccine-preventable diseases around the world and the role of vaccination in reducing their burden.
Section 3: Vaccine Controversies and Challenges
- Vaccination has not been without controversy, with some individuals and groups expressing concerns about vaccine safety, efficacy, and mandatory vaccination policies.
- We will explore some of the most common vaccine myths and misconceptions and the scientific evidence behind them.
- We will also discuss some of the challenges facing vaccination programs, such as vaccine hesitancy, access, and equity.
Conclusion:
Vaccination is one of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and protect public health. Despite some challenges and controversies, vaccines have a proven track record of safety and efficacy. As we continue to face new and emerging infectious threats, vaccination will remain a critical tool in our fight against disease.
Vaccination
The immune system protects the body from pathogens through specialized cells and organs. It is composed of immune cells that circulate throughout the body searching for and destroying foreign substances. Natural immunity is present at birth while acquired immunity develops after exposure to antigens, activating an immune response. Children have immature immune systems at birth relying on maternal antibodies that wane by age one when their own antibody production begins. Vaccines work by creating immune memory to pathogens before disease occurs. They have been developed for many infectious diseases and have different formulations including live attenuated, subunit, toxoid, and recombinant types.
Relation of Insect Endosymbionts with Immunity System.
This document discusses the relationship between insect endosymbionts and the insect immunity system. It describes how endosymbionts like Wolbachia and Spiroplasma can provide benefits to insects like increased resistance to pathogens. The document outlines the types of immunity in insects and how endosymbionts can enhance both humoral and cellular immunity through increased antimicrobial peptide production and immune gene expression. Several studies are cited showing endosymbionts reduce susceptibility of insects to bacterial, viral, parasitic and parasitoid infections. The conclusion discusses using endosymbionts to help control mosquito-borne diseases and illnesses in beneficial insects.
Vaccines and sera
1. Vaccines contain weakened or killed pathogens that stimulate the immune system to develop antibodies against diseases.
2. There are several types of vaccines including live attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit and recombinant.
3. Diphtheria toxoid is prepared from toxins produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The toxins are treated with formalin to remove toxicity while retaining antigenicity.
Live bacterial vaccines review
This document provides an overview of live bacterial vaccines, focusing on attenuated pathogens and food-related lactic acid bacteria used as vaccine vehicles. It discusses the advantages of live bacterial vaccines, including their mimicry of natural infection and intrinsic adjuvant properties. However, it also outlines some safety concerns, such as the risk of reversion to virulence for attenuated pathogens. The document reviews several examples of attenuated pathogens currently being developed as vaccines, and food-related lactic acid bacteria that have been studied as potential vaccine delivery vehicles due to their generally recognized as safe status. It concludes that while live bacterial vaccines show promise, very few have reached the market due to challenges in developing safe and effective candidates.
Microorganisms Vaccine And Antibiotics
Vaccines work by introducing a small, weakened amount of a virus or bacteria into the body to trigger an immune response and develop antibodies without causing illness. They are designed using different strategies depending on the pathogen, including weakening or inactivating viruses and neutralizing bacterial toxins. Antibiotics, meanwhile, are drugs that treat bacterial infections by killing or stopping the growth of bacteria.
a.) Topoisomerase-Topoisomerases are enzymes used in the overwindin.pdf
NaCN(aq) ? Na+(aq) + CN-(aq) Assuming that NaCN is an ionic compound
(composed of a monatomic cation and a polyatomic anion) it will completely dissociate in water,
therefore [NaCN] = [CN-] Then, since HCN (Prussic Acid) is a weak acid, write the equilibrium
equation between the acid and its conjugate base: ..... H2O(l) + CN-(aq) ? HCN(aq) + OH-(aq)
Pure solids and liquids are ignored in equilibrium reactions, so water is ignored. I ........ ..........
0.1 . . | . . . . 0 . . . . . 0 C ...... ............ -x . . | . . . .+x . . . . +x E ...... .......... 0.1 . . | . . . . x . . . . . x
Since Ka was given, change it to Kb by using: Ka * Kb = Kw 4.9*10^(-10) * Kb = 10^(-14) Kb
= 2.0*10^(-5) Then set up the base dissociation constant equation (since it was written with a
CN- (base) on the left and HCN (acid) on the right). It is assumed that x is significantly smaller
than [CN-], just to make the calculations easier (avoiding quadratics). Kb = [HCN] [OH-] / [CN-
] 2.0*10^(-5) = x² / 0.1 x² = 2.0*10^(-6) x = [OH-] = 1.4*10^(-3) M pOH = -log[OH-] = -
log(1.4*10^(-3)) = 2.8 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 2.8 = 11.2
Solution
NaCN(aq) ? Na+(aq) + CN-(aq) Assuming that NaCN is an ionic compound
(composed of a monatomic cation and a polyatomic anion) it will completely dissociate in water,
therefore [NaCN] = [CN-] Then, since HCN (Prussic Acid) is a weak acid, write the equilibrium
equation between the acid and its conjugate base: ..... H2O(l) + CN-(aq) ? HCN(aq) + OH-(aq)
Pure solids and liquids are ignored in equilibrium reactions, so water is ignored. I ........ ..........
0.1 . . | . . . . 0 . . . . . 0 C ...... ............ -x . . | . . . .+x . . . . +x E ...... .......... 0.1 . . | . . . . x . . . . . x
Since Ka was given, change it to Kb by using: Ka * Kb = Kw 4.9*10^(-10) * Kb = 10^(-14) Kb
= 2.0*10^(-5) Then set up the base dissociation constant equation (since it was written with a
CN- (base) on the left and HCN (acid) on the right). It is assumed that x is significantly smaller
than [CN-], just to make the calculations easier (avoiding quadratics). Kb = [HCN] [OH-] / [CN-
] 2.0*10^(-5) = x² / 0.1 x² = 2.0*10^(-6) x = [OH-] = 1.4*10^(-3) M pOH = -log[OH-] = -
log(1.4*10^(-3)) = 2.8 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 2.8 = 11.2.
A) There are several factors taken into consideration before giving .pdf
Tanzania is seeking a credit rating to raise capital for infrastructure projects through bond issues. It has shown strong economic growth of 7% in 2014, reducing poverty and increasing incomes, allowing it to advance from low- to middle-income status. Tanzania recently issued a $500 million bond with a 5-year maturity to be repaid in semi-annual installments, though the price faced speculation. Further bond issues may have higher coupons given Tanzania's continued growth, with proceeds still intended for infrastructure development.
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This document discusses different types of vaccines. There are three main types: whole organism vaccines, purified vaccines, and DNA vaccines. Whole organism vaccines use weakened or killed pathogens and can be attenuated (like measles and polio vaccines) or inactivated. Purified vaccines use isolated components of pathogens like capsular polysaccharides or toxins. DNA vaccines introduce DNA sequences that cause the body to produce antigens and activate an immune response. The document provides examples and details on each type of vaccine.
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This is an immunology lecture for medical students. it helps student to understand the importance of immunization in clinical practice. resident doctors can also benefit immensely with this lecture.
Vaccine and immunity
This document discusses vaccination and immunity. It describes passive immunization, which provides rapid but temporary protection through administration of preformed antibodies. It also discusses principles of vaccination, including inducing memory responses using non-toxic antigens to provide long-term protection. Effective vaccines are described as being safe, protective, inducing long-lasting immunity, cost-effective, and easy to administer. Approaches to vaccine design include use of intact pathogens, subunits, vectors, and adjuvants. The immune response to vaccines is also summarized, including the roles of innate immunity, antigen presentation, memory responses, and the goal of vaccination to generate antigen-specific immune cells providing protection.
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1. Microorganisms are classified based on their relationship with humans as commensals, pathogens, parasites, and opportunistic pathogens.
2. Pathogens have the ability to cause disease, known as pathogenicity, while virulence refers to the degree of pathogenicity.
3. Microbes can be transmitted via various routes including ingestion, inhalation, direct contact, sexual contact, bloodborne transmission, vectors, and vertical transmission.
4. For an infection to occur, a pathogen must first adhere to and invade host tissues, then survive the host's immune response through various mechanisms.
Vaccine
Vaccines work by stimulating the immune system to recognize and destroy pathogens like bacteria and viruses. There are several types of vaccines including whole organism vaccines using live attenuated or killed pathogens, purified components like exotoxins or capsular polysaccharides, recombinant vector vaccines using attenuated viruses expressing pathogen genes, experimental DNA vaccines, and multivalent subunit vaccines combining multiple antigens. Adjuvants are often included in vaccines to boost the immune response.
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Introduction To Immunity and Immunological Products
The word “Immuis” means free from burden and “immunitas” means exemption from government taxes and this provided the English terminology Immunity.
Immunity is a broad definition: This is a protective or defense mechanism of our body, which leads us to a healthy life.
Inborn or Innate immunity: It is present at birth; This is our First Line Of Defense.
Acquired or Specific: It is not present at birth but becomes part of our immune system as the lymphoid system develops.
1970: WHO defined immunity as immune response to antigen ( Foreign body) in form of:-
Humoral (activation of B-lymhocytes).
Cellular (by activation of T-lymphocytes).
Mechanism of bacterial pathogenesis
This document discusses the mechanisms of bacterial pathogenesis. It defines key terms like commensal, opportunistic pathogen, pathogen, virulence, infection, and portal of entry. It describes bacterial virulence factors such as capsules, adhesins, invasiveness, exoenzymes, and toxins. It also discusses concepts like infecting dose, clinical manifestations, and the evolution of infection.
Infection
This document discusses microbial pathogenesis and infectious diseases. It defines different types of microorganisms like saprophytes and parasites and different types of infections like primary and secondary infections. It describes various sources of infection like endogenous normal flora and exogenous sources like other humans, animals, insects, soil and water. It also discusses different modes of transmission of infections and various virulence factors that contribute to microbial pathogenicity. These include factors for adhesion, invasiveness, toxigenicity, plasmids, bacteriophages and more. Finally, it briefly outlines different types of infectious diseases like endemic, epidemic, pandemic diseases and specific clinical infections.
Vaccination Principle, Types and Application
Introduction:
Vaccination is a critical tool for preventing the spread of infectious diseases. In this presentation, we will explore the science behind vaccines, their impact on public health, and some of the challenges and controversies surrounding vaccination.
Section 1: Basics of Vaccination
- We will start by discussing the basic principles of vaccination, including how vaccines work, the different types of vaccines, and how they are developed and tested.
- We will also explore some common vaccine ingredients and their safety profile.
Section 2: History and Impact of Vaccination
- Vaccines have had a profound impact on public health, helping to eradicate or control many deadly diseases, such as smallpox, polio, and measles.
- We will discuss the history of vaccination and some of the major milestones in vaccine development and deployment.
- We will also look at the current state of vaccine-preventable diseases around the world and the role of vaccination in reducing their burden.
Section 3: Vaccine Controversies and Challenges
- Vaccination has not been without controversy, with some individuals and groups expressing concerns about vaccine safety, efficacy, and mandatory vaccination policies.
- We will explore some of the most common vaccine myths and misconceptions and the scientific evidence behind them.
- We will also discuss some of the challenges facing vaccination programs, such as vaccine hesitancy, access, and equity.
Conclusion:
Vaccination is one of the most effective ways to prevent the spread of infectious diseases and protect public health. Despite some challenges and controversies, vaccines have a proven track record of safety and efficacy. As we continue to face new and emerging infectious threats, vaccination will remain a critical tool in our fight against disease.
Vaccination
The immune system protects the body from pathogens through specialized cells and organs. It is composed of immune cells that circulate throughout the body searching for and destroying foreign substances. Natural immunity is present at birth while acquired immunity develops after exposure to antigens, activating an immune response. Children have immature immune systems at birth relying on maternal antibodies that wane by age one when their own antibody production begins. Vaccines work by creating immune memory to pathogens before disease occurs. They have been developed for many infectious diseases and have different formulations including live attenuated, subunit, toxoid, and recombinant types.
Relation of Insect Endosymbionts with Immunity System.
This document discusses the relationship between insect endosymbionts and the insect immunity system. It describes how endosymbionts like Wolbachia and Spiroplasma can provide benefits to insects like increased resistance to pathogens. The document outlines the types of immunity in insects and how endosymbionts can enhance both humoral and cellular immunity through increased antimicrobial peptide production and immune gene expression. Several studies are cited showing endosymbionts reduce susceptibility of insects to bacterial, viral, parasitic and parasitoid infections. The conclusion discusses using endosymbionts to help control mosquito-borne diseases and illnesses in beneficial insects.
Vaccines and sera
1. Vaccines contain weakened or killed pathogens that stimulate the immune system to develop antibodies against diseases.
2. There are several types of vaccines including live attenuated, inactivated, toxoid, subunit and recombinant.
3. Diphtheria toxoid is prepared from toxins produced by Corynebacterium diphtheriae. The toxins are treated with formalin to remove toxicity while retaining antigenicity.
Live bacterial vaccines review
This document provides an overview of live bacterial vaccines, focusing on attenuated pathogens and food-related lactic acid bacteria used as vaccine vehicles. It discusses the advantages of live bacterial vaccines, including their mimicry of natural infection and intrinsic adjuvant properties. However, it also outlines some safety concerns, such as the risk of reversion to virulence for attenuated pathogens. The document reviews several examples of attenuated pathogens currently being developed as vaccines, and food-related lactic acid bacteria that have been studied as potential vaccine delivery vehicles due to their generally recognized as safe status. It concludes that while live bacterial vaccines show promise, very few have reached the market due to challenges in developing safe and effective candidates.
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Vaccines work by introducing a small, weakened amount of a virus or bacteria into the body to trigger an immune response and develop antibodies without causing illness. They are designed using different strategies depending on the pathogen, including weakening or inactivating viruses and neutralizing bacterial toxins. Antibiotics, meanwhile, are drugs that treat bacterial infections by killing or stopping the growth of bacteria.
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More from prateekvirk85
a.) Topoisomerase-Topoisomerases are enzymes used in the overwindin.pdf
NaCN(aq) ? Na+(aq) + CN-(aq) Assuming that NaCN is an ionic compound
(composed of a monatomic cation and a polyatomic anion) it will completely dissociate in water,
therefore [NaCN] = [CN-] Then, since HCN (Prussic Acid) is a weak acid, write the equilibrium
equation between the acid and its conjugate base: ..... H2O(l) + CN-(aq) ? HCN(aq) + OH-(aq)
Pure solids and liquids are ignored in equilibrium reactions, so water is ignored. I ........ ..........
0.1 . . | . . . . 0 . . . . . 0 C ...... ............ -x . . | . . . .+x . . . . +x E ...... .......... 0.1 . . | . . . . x . . . . . x
Since Ka was given, change it to Kb by using: Ka * Kb = Kw 4.9*10^(-10) * Kb = 10^(-14) Kb
= 2.0*10^(-5) Then set up the base dissociation constant equation (since it was written with a
CN- (base) on the left and HCN (acid) on the right). It is assumed that x is significantly smaller
than [CN-], just to make the calculations easier (avoiding quadratics). Kb = [HCN] [OH-] / [CN-
] 2.0*10^(-5) = x² / 0.1 x² = 2.0*10^(-6) x = [OH-] = 1.4*10^(-3) M pOH = -log[OH-] = -
log(1.4*10^(-3)) = 2.8 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 2.8 = 11.2
Solution
NaCN(aq) ? Na+(aq) + CN-(aq) Assuming that NaCN is an ionic compound
(composed of a monatomic cation and a polyatomic anion) it will completely dissociate in water,
therefore [NaCN] = [CN-] Then, since HCN (Prussic Acid) is a weak acid, write the equilibrium
equation between the acid and its conjugate base: ..... H2O(l) + CN-(aq) ? HCN(aq) + OH-(aq)
Pure solids and liquids are ignored in equilibrium reactions, so water is ignored. I ........ ..........
0.1 . . | . . . . 0 . . . . . 0 C ...... ............ -x . . | . . . .+x . . . . +x E ...... .......... 0.1 . . | . . . . x . . . . . x
Since Ka was given, change it to Kb by using: Ka * Kb = Kw 4.9*10^(-10) * Kb = 10^(-14) Kb
= 2.0*10^(-5) Then set up the base dissociation constant equation (since it was written with a
CN- (base) on the left and HCN (acid) on the right). It is assumed that x is significantly smaller
than [CN-], just to make the calculations easier (avoiding quadratics). Kb = [HCN] [OH-] / [CN-
] 2.0*10^(-5) = x² / 0.1 x² = 2.0*10^(-6) x = [OH-] = 1.4*10^(-3) M pOH = -log[OH-] = -
log(1.4*10^(-3)) = 2.8 pH = 14 - pOH = 14 - 2.8 = 11.2.
A) There are several factors taken into consideration before giving .pdf
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here heat capacity of calorimeter = (50 x 4.186 x ( 37.92 - 29.11 ) - 50 x 4.186 x (
29.11 - 20.91 ))/dt = 127.673/dt where dt is the change in temp .. it is not given so i have
mentioned it as dt
Solution
here heat capacity of calorimeter = (50 x 4.186 x ( 37.92 - 29.11 ) - 50 x 4.186 x (
29.11 - 20.91 ))/dt = 127.673/dt where dt is the change in temp .. it is not given so i have
mentioned it as dt.
2a) The inheritance pattern is Autosomal recessive.Parents are not.pdf
gases do not have a fixed volume as they are to be compressed.
Solution
gases do not have a fixed volume as they are to be compressed..
3.) 2 methyl 2 penteneSolution3.) 2 methyl 2 pentene.pdf
H2CrO4 ? 2 H+ + CrO42- Ka = 5.83 x 10-8 Initial .0375 2(.150) 0 Change - x +x
+x Eq. .0375 -x .3 + x x Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] 5.83E-8 = (.3 + x)(x)/(.0375 - x) Let\'s assume
that the value of [H+] is within +- 5%, so we can simplify the above eq. to make calculations
simpler. 5.83E-8 = (.3x + x^2)/(.0375) x = [CrO4^2-] = 7.3E-9 mol/L
Solution
H2CrO4 ? 2 H+ + CrO42- Ka = 5.83 x 10-8 Initial .0375 2(.150) 0 Change - x +x
+x Eq. .0375 -x .3 + x x Ka = [H+][A-]/[HA] 5.83E-8 = (.3 + x)(x)/(.0375 - x) Let\'s assume
that the value of [H+] is within +- 5%, so we can simplify the above eq. to make calculations
simpler. 5.83E-8 = (.3x + x^2)/(.0375) x = [CrO4^2-] = 7.3E-9 mol/L.
2) Answer is The cloud storage provider ensures that you have a bac.pdf
FOR ACIDIC MEDIUM: First separate into half-reactions. Second balance all
elements other than \"O\" and \"H\" Third balance \"O\" with \"H2O\" Fourth balance \"H\" with
\"H+\" ions Fifth balance charge with electrons then repeat for the second half reaction. make
sure the electrons are on opposite sides of you half reactions. (one reaction should have them in
the reactants, the other the products) make the electrons \"cancel\" each other by multiplying the
other half reaction by the number of the electrons. then add the two half reactions together by
combining like terms.
Solution
FOR ACIDIC MEDIUM: First separate into half-reactions. Second balance all
elements other than \"O\" and \"H\" Third balance \"O\" with \"H2O\" Fourth balance \"H\" with
\"H+\" ions Fifth balance charge with electrons then repeat for the second half reaction. make
sure the electrons are on opposite sides of you half reactions. (one reaction should have them in
the reactants, the other the products) make the electrons \"cancel\" each other by multiplying the
other half reaction by the number of the electrons. then add the two half reactions together by
combining like terms..
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a. Sn2/E2 mixture (secondary; strong nucleophile) b. Mostly Sn2 with some E2
(primary; strong nucleophile) c. E2 (secondary and very hindered, blocking Sn2) d. Sn1/E1
mixture (tertiary; water indicates it\'s going Sn1/E1) a. cyanide b. alcohol c. ester
Solution
a. Sn2/E2 mixture (secondary; strong nucleophile) b. Mostly Sn2 with some E2
(primary; strong nucleophile) c. E2 (secondary and very hindered, blocking Sn2) d. Sn1/E1
mixture (tertiary; water indicates it\'s going Sn1/E1) a. cyanide b. alcohol c. ester.
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