Emulsion paint solutions (EPS) are constantly used to decorate and protect different materials in the environment. The occupational exposure of professional painters and paint factory workers to EPS may predispose them to systemic toxicity. This work investigated the effects of EPS exposure on renal function indices in albino rats to assess potential renal toxicity. Twenty male albino rats weighing between 120-140g were collected and divided into four groups. Two groups were exposed to periodic intraperitoneal administration of 2.5mg/kg body weight (bw) of the EPS for 14days while the other two groups received the same dose of distilled water and served as control. The rats were sacrificed after 7and14days respectively, and their blood collected and analyzed for heavy metals, urea, creatinine and electrolytes, using standard methods. The rat kidneys were also excised, weighed and analyzed for total protein and histopathology. Results showed that bw, kidney weight, serum creatinine, urea and electrolytes decreased significantly(p<0.05) in the exposed groups compared to control. However, urea and Na+ increased significantly(p<0.05) after the initial 7days exposure. Kidney total protein increased by 20.83% and Pb, Ni, and Cd were detected in the exposed rats. Results of kidney histopathology showed intact renal tubules and glomeruli. These results suggest that exposure of albino rats to EPS caused significant alterations in the steady-state levels of renal function biomarkers. Therefore, prolonged exposure may exert deleterious effects on renal function.

1. Renal Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common Emulsion Paint Solution
Renal Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common
Emulsion Paint Solution
1*Felix U. Igwe, 2Nekabari Kpakol and 3Awolayeofori Dokubo
1,3Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Rivers State University, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Rivers
State, Nigeria
2Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, Rivers State University, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Rivers State,
Nigeria
Emulsion paint solutions (EPS) are constantly used to decorate and protect different materials in
the environment. The occupational exposure of professional painters and paint factory workers
to EPS may predispose them to systemic toxicity. This work investigated the effects of EPS
exposure on renal function indices in albino rats to assess potential renal toxicity. Twenty male
albino rats weighing between 120-140g were collected and divided into four groups. Two groups
were exposed to periodic intraperitoneal administration of 2.5mg/kg body weight (bw) of the EPS
for 14days while the other two groups received the same dose of distilled water and served as
control. The rats were sacrificed after 7and14days respectively, and their blood collected and
analyzed for heavy metals, urea, creatinine and electrolytes, using standard methods. The rat
kidneys were also excised, weighed and analyzed for total protein and histopathology. Results
showed that bw, kidney weight, serum creatinine, urea and electrolytes decreased
significantly(p<0.05) in the exposed groups compared to control. However, urea and Na+
increased significantly(p<0.05) after the initial 7days exposure. Kidney total protein increased by
20.83% and Pb, Ni, and Cd were detected in the exposed rats. Results of kidney histopathology
showed intact renal tubules and glomeruli. These results suggest that exposure of albino rats to
EPS caused significant alterations in the steady-state levels of renal function biomarkers.
Therefore, prolonged exposure may exert deleterious effects on renal function.
Keywords: Renal toxicity, Emulsion paint exposure, Albino rats, Serum electrolytes, Heavy metals, Histopathology.
INTRODUCTION
Paint solutions are chemical mixtures applied asamist,
liquid or pastethat forms adherent films on the surface of
an object and protects or adds color to the object to which
it is applied (Freitag and Stoye, 2008). Freshly painted
surfaces look good and provide some protection and
special desirable aesthetic appeal to objects, homes,
offices, business places, and the environment. However,
regular and occupational exposure to paint solutions may
be associated with systemic toxic effects.
Varieties of chemical compounds are used in the
manufacturing of paint products. These include pigments,
metals, extenders, binders, solvents, and other additives.
Some of the common solvents used such as toluene,
xylene, ketones, alcohols, esters, glycol, ethers or their
derivativesare known environmental toxins (Lundberg and
Milatou-Smith, 1998). Workers in the paint manufacturing
industries and professional painters are potentially
exposed to these chemicals although the patterns and
levels of exposure to individual agents may differ (Hugo et
al., 2011).
*Corresponding Author: Felix U. Igwe; Department of
Biochemistry, Faculty of Science, Rivers State University,
Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.
Email: igwe.felix@ust.edu.ng;
Co-Authors 2
Email: nkpakol@gmail.com
3
Email: dokubo.awolayeofori@ust.edu.ng
Research Article
Vol. 5(1), pp. 102-108, June, 2020. © www.premierpublishers.org. ISSN: 1822-424X
International Journal of Toxicology and Environmental Health

2. Renal Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common Emulsion Paint Solution
Igwe et al. 103
In toxicokinetics the kidney playsa vital role as the principal
organ involved in the excretion of xenobiotics. The kidneys
are a pair of bean-shaped organ located at the back of the
upper abdominal region of mammals that filters blood,
removes wastes and regulates the body’s fluid and
electrolyte balance (Alasiaet al., 2010). As the kidneys
filter blood, they create urine, which drains through the
urethras to the bladder. Each kidney contains several
nephrons which serve as the microscopic filter units
(Dantzler, 1989).
Analyses of blood and urine samples are essential in the
evaluation of kidney (renal) function and toxicity. Alasia,
et al., (2010) reported higher mean blood lead levels and
altered renal function parameters among subjects
occupationally exposed to lead. Lead, cadmium, nickel
and other heavy metals used as part of the components of
paint solutions have been reported to have adverse health
implications (Orishet al., 2007). Brown, et al., (2002)
reported that exposure to paints may cause an increased
risk of several kinds of cancer, including lung, bladder and
pancreas cancer.
Pina-Calva, et al., (1991) also reported an increased
frequency of chromosomal aberrations in railroad car
painters. Their study indicated higher values of
chromosomal sister chromatid exchange micronuclei in
lymphocytes and in oral mucosa cells. DNA damage,
detected by the comet assay in leukocytes,was reported
for workers exposed to automobile coatings and paints in
general (Testa et al., 2005). In-vivo genotoxic studies have
also demonstrated that dust and fumes of lead-based
paints caused chromosomal damage (Madhavi et al.,
2008). Lundberg et al.(1998) investigated the mortality and
cancer incidence among Sweden paint industry workers
with long term exposure to organic solvents. Their results
indicated that exposure to paint solutions may cause an
increased risk of cancers.
Many studies have been conducted on the effects of paint
solutions on several biochemical parameters, however,
very littlehas been reported about renal toxicity following
exposure to paint solutions. Therefore, this study is aimed
at investigating the alterations in renal function indices of
adult albino rats exposed to a common emulsion paint
solutionused in Nigeria.
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Paint Sample Collection
A commonly used emulsion paint solution was obtained
from a paint factory located in Port Harcourt, Rivers State,
Nigeria and brought to the laboratory. The paint solution
was stored at room temperature in its original container.
Experimental Animals
Twenty (20) male albino rats weighing 120 - 140g were
procured from the University of Port Harcourt animal
house and transferred to the laboratory of the Department
of Biochemistry, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt,
Nigeria. The rats were housed in separate metal cages,
fed with standard rodent feed and water ad libitum and
allowed to acclimatize for seven days before treatment
commenced. They were maintained at room temperature
and standard laboratory conditions, in accordance with
established ethical guidelines on the care and use of
laboratory animals.
Study Design
After acclimatization, the rats were weighed and separated
into four (4) groups, with five (5) rats in each group,
according to the treatment regimen. Two groups
(designated as “Treated”) were fed and exposed to sub-
lethal dose of 2.5mg/kg body weight (bw)of the emulsion
paint solution intraperitoneally, every 48 hours while the
other two groups (designated as “Control”) were equally
fed and treated with 2.5 mg/kg bw of distilled water. After
7 days, 10 rats (5 Control and 5 Treated) were weighed
and sacrificed while the remaining 10 rats (5 Control and 5
Treated) were sacrificed after 14 days. Their blood
samples were collected by cardiac puncture into plain
sample bottles and allowed to clot before being
centrifugation at 2000 rpm for 5 minutes to obtain
serum.Besides, their kidneys were carefully excised,
weighed and processed for histopathology and total
protein assay.
Serum Analyses
Serum creatinine was determined using a “Map lab plus
semi-automated laboratory analyzer”. Serum urea was
measured by Berthelot’s method and serum potassium,
sodium and chloride ion contents were determined by
spectrophotometric methods as described by Sood (1990).
To determine the heavy metals content in the serum, the
test serum sample was initially acidified to pH 2 with nitric
acid and aspirated into a GBC 902 double beam atomic
absorption spectrophotometer (AAS) already calibrated
with standards.
Kidney Total Protein Assay
A portion of the excised kidneys were weighed and
homogenized in 50mM phosphate buffer of pH 7.4, to give
a 10% (w/v) kidney homogenate. The homogenate was
filtered and the filtrate used to determine total protein by
Biuret method as described by Sood (1990)
Histopathology Assay
Part of the excised kidney was fixed immediately in 10%
formalin and subsequently processed, sectioned, stained
and examined microscopically in accordance with the
method reported by Toroset al., (2013). The results were
interpreted by the Pathologist.

3. Renal Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common Emulsion Paint Solution
Int. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 104
Statistical analyses
The differences among treated and control groups were
determined using SPSS for WindowsXP Software (version
13.0). Group comparisons were done using the analysis of
variance (ANOVA) test. Significant differences between
control and treated were assessed by the least significant
difference (LSD) and student’s t-test. All data were
expressed as mean ± Standard error of the mean; p-
values less than 0.05 were considered to be significant.
RESULTS
Serum Kidney Function Parameters
Results of the serum creatinine, urea, and electrolytes
content ofthe male albino rats exposed to emulsionpaint
solution for seven (7) days are presented in Table 1. There
is a 13.98% decrease in creatinine and a 12.28% decrease
in potassium content in the serum of the exposed albino
rats compared to control. Conversely, there are 43.83%,
6.72%, and 4.55% increase in urea, sodium and chloride
content respectively among the treated albino rats
compared to control. The changes in creatinine, urea,
potassium, and sodium contents were statistically
significant (p<0.05)
Table 1: Levels of serum kidney function parameters in albino rats after seven days exposure to emulsion paint solution
Group Serum Kidney Function Parameters
Creatinine (mg/dL) Urea (mg/dL) K+ (mmol/L) Na+ (mmol/L) Cl- (mmol/L)
Control 0.93±0.06a 1.23±0.59a 5.7±0.31a 125.0±2.52a 105.0±7.57a
Treated 0.80±0.10b 2.19±0.36b 5.00±0.26b 134.0±2.65b 110.0±3.00a
% change 13.98 43.83 12.28 6.72 4.55
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values in the same column with different superscript are considered
to be significantly different (p≤0.05)
Results of the serum creatinine, urea, and electrolytes
content of male albino rats after fourteen (14) days
exposure to emulsion paint solution are presented in Table
2. There are decrease in creatinine (15.87%), urea
(30.08%), potassium (8.05%), sodium (10.95%), and
4.42% increase in chloride content in the treated albino
rats compared to controls. The decrease in serum urea
and sodium content are statistically significant (p<0.05).
Table 2: Levels of serum kidney function parameters in albino rats after fourteen days exposure to emulsion paint solution
Group Serum Kidney Function Parameters
Creatinine (mg/dL) Urea (mg/dL) K+ (mmol/L) Na+ (mmol/L) Cl- (mmol/L)
Control 0.63±0.29a 4.52±2.29a 6.96±1.32a 137±3.48a 108±5.57a
Treated 0.53±0.06 a 3.16±1.58b 6.40±1.09a 122±4.99b 113±6.24a
% change 15.87 30.08 8.05 10.95 4.42
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation. Values in the same column with different superscript are considered
to be significantly different (p≤0.05)
Serum Heavy Metal Content
The serum Lead (Pb), Nickel (Ni) and Cadmium (Cd)
content of male albino rats exposed to emulsion paint
solution is contained in Table 3. Pb was not detected (ND)
after seven daysof treatment. However, there is a 6.38 %
decrease in serum Pb content of the treated albino rats
after 14 daysof exposure.Ni was detected in the treated
albino rats after 7 days exposure. Cadmium level
increased by 81.25% after 7 days and decreased by
13.51% after 14 days of exposure to the paint solution
compared to control.
Table 3: Serum levels of some heavy metals in albino rats exposed to emulsion paint solution
Group Heavy Metal Content (ppm)
Seven days Exposure Fourteen days Exposure
Lead Nickel Cadmium Lead Nickel Cadmium
Control ND ND 0.003 0.094 0.075 0.037
Treated ND 0.053 0.016 0.088 ND 0.032
% Change 0.00 100.00 81.25 6.38 100.00 13.51
Values are expressed as mean of triplicate determinations. ND= Non Detectable
Kidney Total Protein Content
The kidney total protein content of male albino rats
exposed to emulsion paint solution is presented in Table
4. There is a 20.0% increase after 7 daysof treatment and
a 20.83% increase after 14 days of treatment compared to
the control. The increases are statistically significant
(p≤0.05)

4. Renal Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common Emulsion Paint Solution
Igwe et al. 105
Table 4: Kidney total protein content of albino rats
exposed to emulsion paint solution
Group Total Protein Content (g/L)
Seven days Exposure Fourteen days
Exposure
Control 12.00 ± 1.414a 19.00 ± 1.414a
Treated 15.00 ± 1.121b 24.00± 1.243b
% Change 20.00 20.83
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation.
Valuesin the same column with different superscript are
considered to be significantly different (p≤0.05)
Body / Kidney Weight
The bodyweight, kidney weight and relative kidney weight
of the male albino rats exposed to emulsion paint solution
arepresented in Table 5. Body weight decreased by
48.93% after 7 days of treatment and 65.70% after 14 days
of treatment compared to control. Kidney weight
decreased by 44.0% after 7 days of treatment and 63.73%
after 14 days of treatment compared to control. A 9.0%
increase in relative kidney weight was consistent for the 7
days and 14 days treatment period.
Table 5: Relative Kidney Weight of albino rats exposed to emulsion paint solution
Group Body Weight
(g)
Kidney
Weight (g)
Relative
Kidney
Weight
Body Weight (g) Kidney
Weight (g)
Relative
Kidney
Weight
Sevendays Exposure Fourteendays Exposure
Control 150.0±7.91a 1.5±0.24a 0.010±0.01 193.0±8.34a 1.93±0.23 a 0.01±0.01
Treated 76.6±7.57 b 0.84±0.11b 0.011±0.01 66.2±5.97b 0.70±0.10 b 0.011±0.01
% Change 48.93 44.0 9.0 65.70 63.73 9.0
Values are expressed as mean ± standard deviation.Valuesin the same column with different superscript are considered
to be significantly different (P≤0.05)
Histopathology of the Kidney
Results of the histopathology of renal tissues of albino rats
exposed to emulsion paint solutions are presented in
Figures 1 and 2. The histology of the renal tissues treated
with the emulsion paint solutions showed intact renal
tubule (RT) and Glomerulus (GM) with normal architecture
and in good histological conditions.
Control Treated
Figure 1: Histomicrograps of renal tissues exposed to emulsion paint solution for seven days.
RT = Renal Tubule, GM = Glomerulus. Photo magnification = 400X.

5. Renal Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common Emulsion Paint Solution
Int. J. Toxicol. Environ. Health 106
Control Treated
Figure 2: Histomicrograps of renal tissues exposed to emulsion paintsolution for fourteen days.
RT = Renal Tubule, GM = Glomerulus. Photo magnification = 400X.
DISCUSSION
Alterations in the levels of serum kidney function indices
are often used to assess the renal toxicity potential of
xenobiotics. In Table 1,the serum urea levels of the
exposedgroup were significantly (p<0.05) higher than
those of the control. This implies that the rate of filtration
and subsequent excretion of urea in theblood may have
been affected by the absorption and bioavailability of the
emulsion paint solution. Urea is a molecule produced in
the liver as an end product of protein metabolism, so blood
levels of urea will rise when the efficiency of the kidney is
being compromised (Chatterjea and Shinde, 2012).
The significant (p<0.05) decrease in serum potassium
content may be attributed to anabnormal increase in blood
pH and/or decreased reabsorption of potassium ions at the
renal tubules. Since potassium ion is a major electrolyte in
intracellular fluids, a consistent decrease in serum
potassium levels may lead to hypokalemia, a condition
implicated in some cardiac diseases as well. In humans,
the reference range for serum potassium is 3.6 - 5.0
mmol/L. Potassium levels below 3.0 mmol/L are
associated with arrhythmia (irregular heartbeat),
tachycardia (rapid heartbeat) and cardiac arrest (Palmer,
2015).
The observed increase in serum sodium and chloride ion
levels after 7 days exposure (Table 1) may be attributed to
decreased glomerular filtration rates of the ions and/or
increased tubular reabsorption induced by the absorption
and bioavailability of xenobiotics such as the test paint
solution (Orish et al., 2007). Increased serum sodium
content, which may lead to hypernatremia, is undesirable.
Too much sodium inthe blood increases the osmolarity of
blood causing high blood pressure, edema (swelling) and
severe problems such as heart failure and pulmonary
edema or fluid in the lungs (Cotter et al., 1998).
However,there was decreased serum sodium ion content
following continuous exposure to the test emulsion paint
solution (Table 2). This decrease is in line with the findings
of Orish et al., (2007) who reported decreased serum
sodium ion levels amongst paint factory workers in Nkpor,
Nigeria.
The significant (p<0.05) decrease in serum creatinine
levels following exposure to the emulsion paint solution,
may be attributed to an induced inhibition of muscular
catabolism of creatine to creatinine or faster glomerular
elimination of the serum creatinine. Creatinine is excreted
exclusively by the kidneys, and its level in blood is
proportional to the glomerular filtration rate (Stevens et al.,
2008).The observed progressive decrease in serum
creatinine and potassium content as well asa decrease in
urea and sodium contents, after 14 days exposure (Table
2) may be attributed to a consistent altered glomerular
filtration rate of the kidney following continuous exposure
to the test emulsion paint solution. Orish et al., (2007)
reported similar decreases amongst paint factory workers
in Nigeria. The subsequent reduction in serum electrolytes
may alter the blood electrolyte balance which affects
endocrine balance, acid-base balance, water balance and
other homeostatic conditions necessary for metabolism
(Chatterjea and Shinde, 2012).
There is a 4.42% increase in serum chloride level after 14
days ofexposure. This is at variance with the usual trend
in the transport of electrolytes across plasma membranes
as sodium and chloride are mainly found in extracellular
fluids and are co-transporter as symports (Gamba, 2009).
However, alteration in plasma membrane structure or
integrity by xenobiotics may affect such cell membrane
function associated with electrolyte translocation.

6. Renal Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common Emulsion Paint Solution
Igwe et al. 107
The trend in the serum heavy metal content was irregular
(Table 3). Pb was not detected in the albino rats during the
initial 7 days of exposure but was present after 14 days of
exposure. This delayed presence in the blood may be due
to gradual bioaccumulation of Pb during the exposure
period. The 6.38% decrease in serum Pb content in the
treated rats compared to control after 14 days ofexposure
suggests a comparative increase in the excretion of serum
Pb in the exposure group.
The Ni level (0.053 ppm) detected in the rats after 7 days
of exposure suggests that some additional Ni present in
the paint solution and absorbed into the bloodstream could
be responsible for its presence and detection in blood. The
suggested induced increase in glomerular filtration rates
following exposure to emulsion paint solution could be
responsible for the observed significant (P<0.05) decrease
after 14 days exposure as the Ni was cleared (not
detected). The 81.25% rise in serum Cd after 7 daysof
exposure compared to controls may be attributed to the Cd
being absorbed from the test paint solution. Increased
excretion rate following continuous exposure to paint
solution is further demonstrated as a 13.51% decrease in
serum Cd was observed after 14 days ofexposure. The
detection of such heavy metals as Pb, Cd and Ni in the
serum of the exposed rats is an indication of potential
toxicity. Orish, et al.,(2007) had reported that the presence
of Pb, Cd, and Ni in the system has adverse health
implications.
Variation in total protein content of organs may be used to
assess cellular activity within the target organ. Increased
cellular activity may manifest as an increased synthesis of
enzymes and other proteins (Chatterjea and Shinde,
2012).Kidney total protein content significantly (p<0.05)
increased following exposure to the emulsion paint
solution (Table 4). This suggests an increased cellular
activity of the renal tissues. The presence of the emulsion
paint solution in systemic circulation may induce genomic
modifications leading to increased synthesis of enzymes
and other proteins to enhance glomerular filtration rates
and other metabolic activities necessary for effective
excretion of the xenobiotic. This further substantiates the
observed decrease in serum creatinine, urea and
electrolyte levels. However, when such genomic
modifications affect the control sequence in DNA, cancer
may result. Brown, et al., (2002) had reported that
exposure to paints may cause an increased risk of several
kinds of cancer, including lung, bladder and pancreas
cancer.
The observed decrease in body weight and kidney weight
of the rats exposed to the emulsion paint solution (Table
5) shows the impact of the paint solution on metabolic
processes associated with growth and body mass
development. The suggested induced rise in glomerular
filtration rate which resulted in increased loss of serum
electrolytes also manifested as weight loss. The
progressive reduction in kidney weight and a 9.0% rise in
relative kidney weight (a toxicity index) suggest that the
paint solution is exerting a deleterious effect on renal cells
and kidney function (Dantzler, 1989).
The integrity of renal cells during the study period was
assessed through histopathology of the kidney (Figures 1
and 2). Histology of the renal tissues exposed to the test
emulsion paint solution showed renal tubules and
glomeruli in good histological conditions like those of the
control rats. This implies that the renal cell architecture has
not been disrupted and adaptive changes of renal cells
resulting from exposure to the test emulsion paint solution
are still effective within the exposure period.
CONCLUSION
In this study, the exposure of albino rats to a common
emulsion paint solution caused significant alterations in its
renal activity as measured by various kidney function
parameters. Serum creatinine, urea, K+ and Na+ levels of
the exposed groups changed significantly (p<0.05)
compared to controls. Body weight and kidney weight
decreased significantly (p<0.05), kidney total protein
content increased significantly (p<0.05) and Pb, Ni, and Cd
were detected in the exposed groups compared to
controls. Histology of the renal tissues showed renal
tubules and glomeruli in good histological condition.
These results suggest an induced alteration in cellular
activity of renal tissues as well as distortion of the serum
electrolytes balance in the rats exposed to the test
emulsion paint solution. Therefore, prolonged exposure to
emulsion paint solutions may affect renal cell metabolism
and exert undesirable effects on renal function.
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Accepted 15 June 2020
Citation: Igwe FU, Kpakol N, Dokubo A (2020). Renal
Toxicity Studies of Albino Rats Exposed to Common
Emulsion Paint Solution. International Journal of
Toxicology and Environmental Health, 4(2): 102-108.
Copyright: © 2020 Igwe et al. This is an open-access
article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License, which permits unrestricted
use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium,
provided the original author and source are cited.