3. From cricoid cartilage at C6 to gastric cardia (25cm).
Cervical, thoracic and abdominal portions
Passes diaphragm at T10
Has an upper sphincter, the cricopharyngeus and lower
sphincter at the region of esophageal hiatus of
diaphragm
Held loosely in the hiatus by thickened fascia, the
phreno-esophageal ligament.
3 C6
T10
4. Blood supply:
Inferior thyroid artery in cervical region
bronchial arteries, branches from
thoracic aorta
inferior phrenic and left gastric arteries
4
5. Venous drainage:
To inferior thyroid veins in the neck,
Hemi-azygous and azygous veins in
thorax
left gastric veins in abdomen
5
6. Nerve supply:
Sympathetic: from pre-ganglionic
fibres from T5 and T6
Post ganglionic fibres from cervical
vertebra, celiac ganglia
Parasympathetic: from glossopharyngeal,
recurrent laryngeal, vagus nerve
6
11. Oesophageal peristalsis is initiated by swallowing (primary) or luminal
distension (secondary) and progresses distally at around 2–4 cm/s
The lower sphincter relaxes momentarily 2–3 seconds before the
peristaltic wave arrives and pressures of about 80 mmHg. Disruption of
any part of this process can result in difficulties with swallowing and/or
pain.
11
12. Between the outer longitudinal muscle layer and the inner circular
layer is a nerve plexus (Auerbach’s or myenteric plexus) receiving
parasympathetic motor innervation to smooth muscle cells from
vagal nuclei.
Between the inner muscular layer and the submucosa is another
nerve plexus (Meissner’s or submucosal plexus), which relays signals
from the numerous free nerve endings in the mucosa and
submucosa to vagal afferent fibres. This sensory information is sent
back to the brain via the vagus nerve trunks.
12
13. 13
Lower oesophageal sphincter usually prevents
reflux by the following mechanisms:
a physiological high-pressure zone (not a true
sphincter) in the lower end of the oesophagus
the mucosal rosette at the cardia, which acts like a plug
the angle at which the oesophagus joins the stomach
between the left border of the oesophagus and the
fundus (angle of His)
the diaphragmatic sling (crura), which acts like a
pinchcock at the lower end of the oesophagus
the high-pressure area at the lower end of the
oesophagus, caused by the positive intra-abdominal
pressure.
15. Dysphagia
Difficulty in swallowing.
Onset:
Sudden foreign body
Over weeks carcinoma
Over years achalasia, benign strictures
Site correlates poorly with the site of obstruction
Progression:
Rapid in carcinoma
Slowly in achalasia
Severity:
Difficulty in swallowing solids initially carcinoma
If liquids initially achalasia
15
16. Table 16-1. CAUSES OF DYSPHAGIA
Intraluminal Intramural Extrinsic
Pharynx/upper oesophagus Foreign body Pharyngitis/tonsillitis Thyroid enlargement
Moniliasis Pharyngeal pouch
Sideropenic web
Corrosives
Carcinoma
Myasthenia gravis
Bulbar palsy
Body of oesophagus Foreign body Corrosives Mediastinal lymph nodes
Peptic oesophagitis Aortic aneurysm
Carcinoma
Lower oesophagus Foreign body Corrosives Para-oesophageal hernia
Peptic oesophagitis
Carcinoma
Diffuse oesophageal
spasm
Systemic sclerosis
Achalasia
Post-vagotomy
16
17. Impacted foreign bodies
Anatomical areas of narrowing:
Arches of the faucets
Vallecula
Piriform fossa
Cricopharyngeus
Where left bronchus crosses esophagus
Where the arches of aorta cross the esophagus
Diaphragm
Gastro-esophageal junction
Can present with severe distress, chest pain and retching.
There maybe perforation hematemesis, mediastinitis
17
18. Impacted foreign bodies
Investigation:
Chest X-ray – may show radio-opaque foreign body, perforation
Water-soluble contrast
Endoscopy
Management:
Conservative – ask patient to cough or by using Heimlich manoeuvre
Endoscopic removal – either by flexible endoscopy under sedation or rigid endoscopy
under general anesthesia
18
19. Achalasia
Failure of relaxation of the lower esophageal sphincter – as
disease progress, obstructed esophagus dilates and peristalsis
becomes uncoordinated
Due to partial or complete degeneration of the myentric
plexus of Auerbach and in later stages due to loss of dorsal
vagal nuclei.
Infestation with Trypanosoma cruzi
19
20. Achalasia
Clinical features:
30-40 age group, F > M
Progressive dysphagia over years – for both solids and liquids
Retrosternal pain – decreases gradually as esophagus loses peristaltic activity
Weight loss, halitosis, regurgitation, aspiration pneumonia, recurrent chest infection
Predispose to squamous cell carcinoma of esophagus
Investigations:
Barium swallow –
Dilatation of esophagus followed by tapered narrowing end
Chest X-ray –
Widened mediastinum, fluid level behind heart
Endoscopy
Esophageal manometry
20
23. Achalasia
Management:
Balloon dilatation of lower sphincter (risk of perforation)
Patients who require more than 2 dilatations should be considered for surgery
Endoscopic injection of gastro-esophageal junction with botulinum
toxin
Heller’s cardiomyotomy
Either thoracic or abdominal approach
Complications: perforation, reflux esophagitis, stricture, esophageal
diverticulum, recurrent dysphagia if inadequate myotomy done
To prevent perforation – abdominal approach preferred plus a partial
anterior fundoplication carried out
23
25. Plummer – Vinson Syndrome
Post-cricoid web that results in dysphagia.
The web is related to iron deficiency anaemia, but may be congenital or
traumatic in origin.
The squamous epithelium becomes hyperplastic and there is hyperkeratosis
and desquamation, which leads to web formation.
Clinical features
Middle-aged females
Dysphagia is the main presenting complaint,
Symptoms and signs of anaemia, including koilonychia, smooth tongue and
angular stomatitis
25
26. Plummer – Vinson Syndrome
Investigations
FBC hypochromic microcytic anaemia and serum ferritin levels
will be low.
Barium swallow narrowing of the upper oesophagus with a
web in the anterior wall
Endoscopy for confirmation
Management
Web is dilated endoscopically and biopsies should also be taken,
as there is an association with post-cricoid carcinoma.
Iron deficiency status is corrected by oral iron therapy.
26
28. Gastro-esophageal Reflux
Retrograde flow of gastric acid through an incomplete cardiac sphincter into lower
esophagus
Clinical features:
Heartburn – retrosternal burning pain, radiating to epigastrium and to neck
Regurgitation of acid contents into the mouth (waterbrash)
Dysphagia
28
29. Gastro-esophageal Reflux
Investigations:
Barium swallow and meal
Endoscopy - confirmatory
Ph monitoring and esophageal manometry
Ambulatory 24-hour pH monitoring – gold standard
Manometry exclude other motility disorders, to ensure
there is adequate muscular contraction
29
30. Gastro-esophageal Reflux
Management:
General
Weight loss, sleeping with additional pillows, raising head of the bed, avoid
smoking, coffee, alcohol
Medical
H2 receptor antagonists or proton pump inhibitor – reduces acid secretion
Metoclopramide improves esophageal muscle tone, promote gastric
emptying
Anti-reflux surgery
For those whose symptoms are not controlled with medical treatment, those
with recurrent strictures, young patients who do not wish to continue acid
suppression therapy
Most common: Nissen fundoplication
Others include: Toupet and Watson repairs
30
32. Tumors of Esophagus
Benign tumors:
< 1% of esophageal neoplasms
Most common is benign mixed stromal cell tumor (GIST)
Asymptomatic, may cause bleeding and dysphagia
Treated by local enucleation
32
33. Carcinoma of the esophagus
Male to female ratio is 3:1
Adenocarcinoma :
Predominantly a disease of western white males
Mostly lower and middle oesophagus (in Barrett’s oesophagus)
Risk factors: reflux, obesity
Squamous cell carcinoma :
Far East and black males
Risk factors: alcohol, smoking, leucoplakia, achalasia, consumption of
salted fish, chewing tobacco and betel nuts
33
34. Carcinoma of the esophagus
Clinical features:
Dysphagia that progresses from solids to liquids
Retrosternal pain on swallowing (odynophagia)
Regurgitation and aspiration pneumonia
Metastatic disease enlarged cervical nodes, jaundice,
hepatomegaly, hoarseness, chest pain
Investigations:
Confirmed by endoscopy and biopsy
Staging done by:
Endoscopic ultrasonography – for local tumor stage and
nodal spread
Chest X-ray, Abdominal ultrasound, CT – for distant
metastases
Routine blood tests
34
36. Carcinoma of the esophagus
Management:
Surgical resection
Patient with disease confined to the esophagus and who are fit
for surgery should be considered for resection.
1. Ivor Lewis two-phase esophagectomy
This involves a laparotomy during which the stomach is fully mobilized
on its vascular pedicles, along with the lower oesophagus.
Then, right thoracotomy to resect the oesophagus
The mobilized stomach is brought up into the chest and anastomosed to
the proximal oesophagus.
This is the preferred choice for middle and lower-third tumours
36
38. Carcinoma of the esophagus
Left thoracolaparotomy:
For tumors around the esophago-gastric junction.
Transhiatal esophagectomy:
Involves two surgeons, one operating through neck and the other in the abdomen
Stomach is mobilized as for the Ivor Lewis procedure and the oesophagus is mobilized
through the hiatus.
The surgeon operating in the neck mobilizes the upper oesophagus and extends the
dissection into the chest.
The stomach is brought up into the neck and anastomosed to the proximal oesophagus.
For elderly patients with lower oesophageal tumours, in whom a thoracotomy should
be avoided if possible
38
40. Complications
Chest infections
Adequate chest drainage, good analgesia and chest physiotherapy
Anastomotic leakage
in the first few days after surgery a technical failure (results from ischaemia in
the proximal part of the mobilized stomach.
Early re-operation and revision of the anastomosis is the treatment of choice.
Leaks that occur later well controlled by the chest drains, and provided the
patient remains stable, can be managed non-operatively by nutritional support,
antibiotics and nasogastric drainage.
Assessment of the anastomosis is obtained by water-soluble contrast swallow
and/or careful endoscopy.
40
41. Radiotherapy and Chemotherapy
Used with curative intent in patients not suitable for surgical
resection.
Post-operative radiotherapy and/or chemotherapy (adjuvant
therapy) provide no additional survival advantage in patients
with resectable disease
41
42. Palliation
For patients with extensive disease and who are
unfit for surgery.
Main aim is to relief symptoms particularly
dysphagia
Endoscopic dilatation
Stent insertion
Laser ablation
Radiotherapy and chemotherapy
Analgesia and terminal care
42