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ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology

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...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure . ...... ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Instructor: Dr. E.L. Ndetto Department of Physical Sciences Sokoine University of Agriculture Office: Old Lib. room 5, SMC Mazimbu Email: ndettoel@suanet.ac.tz 2016/2017 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course info Course structure ⇒ Taught: Semester 1 (ENV1, IRWE1, AQU1, ENGIN1), view timetable ⇒ Credits: 6 ⇒ Teaching: Lecture (30 hours); Tutorial (10 hours); Assignment (6 hours); Independent study (8 hours); Practical (10 hours) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course info Course structure ⇒ Taught: Semester 1 (ENV1, IRWE1, AQU1, ENGIN1), view timetable ⇒ Credits: 6 ⇒ Teaching: Lecture (30 hours); Tutorial (10 hours); Assignment (6 hours); Independent study (8 hours); Practical (10 hours) Course assessment ⇒ Assignments (10 %); ⇒ 2 Tests (30 %): Dec. 20/21, 2016 and Jan. 24/25, 2017; ⇒ University Examination (60 %), Feb. 13, 2017 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course info Course structure ⇒ Taught: Semester 1 (ENV1, IRWE1, AQU1, ENGIN1), view timetable ⇒ Credits: 6 ⇒ Teaching: Lecture (30 hours); Tutorial (10 hours); Assignment (6 hours); Independent study (8 hours); Practical (10 hours) Course assessment ⇒ Assignments (10 %); ⇒ 2 Tests (30 %): Dec. 20/21, 2016 and Jan. 24/25, 2017; ⇒ University Examination (60 %), Feb. 13, 2017 References ⇒ Ahrens, C.D., Meteorology Today ⇒ Riehl, H, Introduction to the atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Intended learning outcomes Upon successful completion of the course, a student should be able to: Describe the structure of the atmosphere in different ways Partition the global energy budget as: – Short wave radiation – Long wave radiation Describe the processes and formation of certain weather phenomena Discuss the methods for weather analysis Ascertain the use of meteorology in aviation Figure 1 : Urban atmosphere Source: Modified, Vogt, 2000 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course contents Introduction Structure of the atmosphere Global energy budget Atmospheric processes and weather phenomena Analytical methods in meteorology Introduction to Aviation Meteorology ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. Figure 2 : Weather or climate ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. Figure 2 : Weather or climate Climate is the mean state of weather elements (e.g. rainfall) over a period of time ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ⇒ Agriculture ⇒ Air transport Weather and climate affect us ⇒ Drought ⇒ Storms ⇒ Climate change ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ⇒ Agriculture ⇒ Air transport Weather and climate affect us ⇒ Drought ⇒ Storms ⇒ Climate change ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ⇒ Agriculture ⇒ Air transport Weather and climate affect us ⇒ Drought ⇒ Storms ⇒ Climate change Research and well understanding of the universe ♡ See: Ferguson’s careers in focus: Meteorology ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 3/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Topic 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 3/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Presentation outline ...1 Introduction ...2 What is the atmosphere? ...3 Evolution of the atmosphere ...4 Composition of the atmosphere ...5 The vertical profile of atmosphere by temperature ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 4/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Figure 3 : The atmosphere of the Earth Questions to ponder: What is an atmosphere? How did it occur? How is it kept around the Earth? Why is it so important for living organisms ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces Invisible and odourless ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces Invisible and odourless Its properties support living organisms ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 6/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which cause various weather phenomena Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human daily life ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 6/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which cause various weather phenomena Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human daily life Upper layer is less dense, limit between the atmosphere and interstellar space is difficult to estimate hence its height too ⇒ Multiple reflection and radiant flux from dawn to twilight: 80 km ⇒ Shooting stars observation: 250 km, (Aurora Borealis) and 1000 km (Aurora Australis) ⇒ Satellite orbits irregularities observation: 3500 km ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 6/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which cause various weather phenomena Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human daily life Upper layer is less dense, limit between the atmosphere and interstellar space is difficult to estimate hence its height too ⇒ Multiple reflection and radiant flux from dawn to twilight: 80 km ⇒ Shooting stars observation: 250 km, (Aurora Borealis) and 1000 km (Aurora Australis) ⇒ Satellite orbits irregularities observation: 3500 km The atmosphere follows the Earth’s rotation with a velocity of about 300 − 600 km/h (c.f. Earth’s rotation) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 7/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Mass of the atmosphere: ⇒ Given, g = 9.81 ms−1 and the Earth’s radius as, Re = 6.371 x 103 m ⇒ If the average pressure at the surface is, P0 = 1, 013.25 x 102 Nm2 ⇒ Then the mass of the atmosphere can be estimated as: Ma = 5.27 x 1018 kg ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 7/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Mass of the atmosphere: ⇒ Given, g = 9.81 ms−1 and the Earth’s radius as, Re = 6.371 x 103 m ⇒ If the average pressure at the surface is, P0 = 1, 013.25 x 102 Nm2 ⇒ Then the mass of the atmosphere can be estimated as: Ma = 5.27 x 1018 kg The masses of the Earth’s ocean and the solid crust are respectively as Mo = 1.35 x 1021 kg; Mc = 5.98 x 1021 kg 50 % of its mass is within the 5.5 km height while 99 % is within a 40 km height It converts only 3 % of the energy received from the Sun into kinetic energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 8/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Evolution of the atmosphere Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo Lengai Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago) ⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3) ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 8/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Evolution of the atmosphere Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo Lengai Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago) ⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3) ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface The dense atmosphere ⇒ Gases: H20, CO2 ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot interior, through out-gassing ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 8/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Evolution of the atmosphere Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo Lengai Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago) ⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3) ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface The dense atmosphere ⇒ Gases: H20, CO2 ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot interior, through out-gassing Today’s atmosphere consists mainly of Nitrogen and Oxygen gases, due to biological and chemical processes ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 9/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Climate change Figure 5 : Keeling curve Source: http://co2now.org/ As CO2 increases, Earth’s average temperature also rises Climate change is a major and sustained (over decades or so) change from one climatic condition to another ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 9/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Climate change Figure 5 : Keeling curve Source: http://co2now.org/ As CO2 increases, Earth’s average temperature also rises Climate change is a major and sustained (over decades or so) change from one climatic condition to another Global warming is that change in which Earth’s average temperature is increasing Abrupt climate change is a sudden, rapid change from one climate state to another ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 10/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition of the atmosphere In the lower layers, the atmosphere is composed of: A mixture of gasses which comprise the dry air Water in all three phases (vapor, liquid and solid) Aerosols (solid or liquid particles suspended in air) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 11/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition of the atmosphere Table 1 : Composition of the atmosphere by volume permanent gas % volume variable gas % volume Nitrogen (N2) 78.08 water vapour (H2O) 0 − 4 Oxygen (O2) 20.95 carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.04 Argon (Ar) 0.93 methane (CH4) 0.00018 Neon (Ne) 0.0018 nitrous oxide (N2O) 0.00003 Helium (He) 0.0005 ozone (O3) 0.000004 Hydrogen (H2) 0.6 ∗ 10−4 aerosol (dust, soot,) 0.1 ∗ 10−5 Xenon (Xe) 0.9 ∗ 10−5 CFCs, HFCs 0.1 ∗ 10−7 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 12/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition in lower atmosphere The composition of dry air remains constant until the height of 80 km and ratio remains the same though density decreases with height Such atmosphere is well mixed and is termed as homosphere (constant atmospheric composition) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 12/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition in lower atmosphere The composition of dry air remains constant until the height of 80 km and ratio remains the same though density decreases with height Such atmosphere is well mixed and is termed as homosphere (constant atmospheric composition) Above the height of 80 km the air composition changes constantly Such atmosphere is not well mixed and is termed as heterosphere (variable atmospheric composition) N2 concentration is controlled by Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil; tiny ocean-dwelling plankton in oceans and decaying of plant; and animal matter Oxygen is a necessary component for the creation and the maintenance of life on Earth ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 13/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure O2 is controlled by photo-dissociation (upper atmosphere); organic matter decays; breathing; and photosynthesis Water vapour (H2O) is a very important gas in atmosphere, but varies greatly in space and time, with a range of 0 − 4 % ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 13/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure O2 is controlled by photo-dissociation (upper atmosphere); organic matter decays; breathing; and photosynthesis Water vapour (H2O) is a very important gas in atmosphere, but varies greatly in space and time, with a range of 0 − 4 % The quantity of water vapor is reduced by height and the rate of change can be described as: ez = e0 x 10−z/c where ez and e0 are the water vapour pressure at height z (in meters) and at the Earth’s surface respectively, with the constant c to be equal to 5, 000 m Processes influencing its concentration include condensation, evaporation and precipitation. Also sublimation of ice and evapotranspiration of plants supply the atmosphere with water vapour ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 14/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g. latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes) H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of Earths outgoing radiant energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 14/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g. latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes) H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of Earths outgoing radiant energy The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat energy close to Earth’s surface, maintaining the average air temperature near the surface much warmer than it would be otherwise Carbon dioxide (CO2) is available in small proportion of about 0.04 percent as a natural component. It is also an important natural greenhouse gas ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 14/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g. latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes) H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of Earths outgoing radiant energy The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat energy close to Earth’s surface, maintaining the average air temperature near the surface much warmer than it would be otherwise Carbon dioxide (CO2) is available in small proportion of about 0.04 percent as a natural component. It is also an important natural greenhouse gas However, its concentration has risen by almost 30 % beginning of measurements at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii in 1958 Presently, the annual increase is more than 0.5 percent (2.0 ppm/year); and by the end of this century, its concentration is likely to exceed 550 ppm ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 15/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Earth’s average surface temperature has warmed by more than 0.8 ◦ C over the last 100 years; the warming is due to increase of greenhouse gases Figure 6 : Processes influencing concentration of CO2 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 15/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Earth’s average surface temperature has warmed by more than 0.8 ◦ C over the last 100 years; the warming is due to increase of greenhouse gases CO2 enters the atmosphere through vegetation decay; volcanic eruption, the exhalation of animal life, burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation Figure 6 : Processes influencing concentration of CO2 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 15/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Earth’s average surface temperature has warmed by more than 0.8 ◦ C over the last 100 years; the warming is due to increase of greenhouse gases CO2 enters the atmosphere through vegetation decay; volcanic eruption, the exhalation of animal life, burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation Phytoplankton fixation; Photosynthesis and chemical weathering reduce it Figure 6 : Processes influencing concentration of CO2 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 16/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The oceans hold more than 50 % of total atmospheric CO2 content Other greenhouse gases include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Since 1990s, CH4 has been on increase. Sources appear to be from the breakdown of plant material by certain bacteria in rice paddies, wet oxygen-poor soil, biological activity of termites, and biochemical reactions in the stomachs of cows ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 16/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The oceans hold more than 50 % of total atmospheric CO2 content Other greenhouse gases include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Since 1990s, CH4 has been on increase. Sources appear to be from the breakdown of plant material by certain bacteria in rice paddies, wet oxygen-poor soil, biological activity of termites, and biochemical reactions in the stomachs of cows N2O is also rising at the rate of about one-quarter of a percent. Sources may be as industrial byproduct, from soil through a chemical process involving bacteria and certain microbes Ultraviolet light from the sun destroys nitrous oxide CFCs was up until mid-1990s with concentration increasing. They used to be widely used as propellants in spray cans, as refrigerants, as propellants for the blowing of plastic-foam insulation, and as solvents for cleaning electronic microcircuit ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 17/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure They play a part in destroying the gas ozone in the stratosphere and have the potential for raising global temperatures CFCs are gradually being phased out through a global agreement called the Montreal Protocol CHFCs as a replacement for CFCs, do not damage stratospheric ozone, rather they are still powerful greenhouse gases Ozone (O3) near the Earth’s surface is the primary ingredient of photochemical smog, pollution which irritates the eyes, throat and damages vegetation But about 97% of ozone occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere, as oxygen atoms combine with oxygen molecules. This ozone shields plants, animals, and humans from the suns harmful ultraviolet rays ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 18/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Impurities from both natural and human sources are also present in the atmosphere: soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest fires; and fine ash particles from volcano Figure 7 : Aerosols ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 18/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Impurities from both natural and human sources are also present in the atmosphere: soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest fires; and fine ash particles from volcano Primary aerosols are those emitted directly in particulate form, whereas, the secondary are formed from vapour molecules in air Figure 7 : Aerosols ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 18/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Impurities from both natural and human sources are also present in the atmosphere: soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest fires; and fine ash particles from volcano Primary aerosols are those emitted directly in particulate form, whereas, the secondary are formed from vapour molecules in air Several physicochemical processes (e.g. nucleation, condensation, coagulation) contribute to change of size and shape of these particles Figure 7 : Aerosols ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 19/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The size of aerosols ranges from a few nanometres (nm) to several tens of micrometers (mm) Aerosols are removed from the atmosphere mainly through dry and wet deposition processes Aerosols have several important impacts on the environment such as: ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 19/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The size of aerosols ranges from a few nanometres (nm) to several tens of micrometers (mm) Aerosols are removed from the atmosphere mainly through dry and wet deposition processes Aerosols have several important impacts on the environment such as: ⇒ Act as condensation nuclei for cloud formation ⇒ Participate in chemical reactions in the atmosphere and affect the ecosystems (e.g. ozone hole formation in the stratosphere, eutrophication, acidification) ⇒ Affect human health ⇒ Modify the Sun’s radiation intensity through light scattering and absorption ⇒ Decrease visibility at high ambient particle concentrations ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 20/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Table 2 : Main atmospheric composition of the planets Diameter (km) Dist. to sun (mil. km) Sfc temp. Main comp. Sun 1, 392 ∗ 103 5, 800 Mercury 4880 58 260∗ Venus 12, 112 108 480 CO2 Earth 12, 742 150 15 N2 O2 Mars 6, 800 228 −60 CO2 Jupiter 143, 000 778 −110 H2 He Saturn 121, 000 1, 428 −190 H2 He Uranus 51, 800 2, 869 −215 H2 CH4 Neptune 49, 000 4, 498 −225 N2 CH4 Pluto 3, 100 5, 900 −235 CH4 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important greenhouse gases ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important greenhouse gases ⇒ Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV ) radiation. At the surface, ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important greenhouse gases ⇒ Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV ) radiation. At the surface, ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog ⇒ The majority of water vapour on our planet is believed to have come from its hot interior through out-gassing ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 22/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Layers of the Atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 23/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Layers of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is vertically divided into a series of layers The layers can be defined due to changes in: air temperature, gases composition, or electrical properties ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 23/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Layers of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is vertically divided into a series of layers The layers can be defined due to changes in: air temperature, gases composition, or electrical properties By temperature variation, the layers are: ⇒ troposphere ⇒ stratosphere ⇒ mesosphere ⇒ thermosphere ⇒ exosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 24/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere Up to an altitude of about 11 km, air temperature decreases with height by 6.5 ◦ C/km since the Earth’s surface warms the air above it We call the rate as temperature lapse rate If air temperature increase with height the rate is temperature inversion. So the lapse rate exhibits daily, seasonal, and spatial variation ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 24/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere Up to an altitude of about 11 km, air temperature decreases with height by 6.5 ◦ C/km since the Earth’s surface warms the air above it We call the rate as temperature lapse rate If air temperature increase with height the rate is temperature inversion. So the lapse rate exhibits daily, seasonal, and spatial variation The rising and descending air currents (convection) keeps the troposphere well stirred. Thus, it contains all of the weather Wind velocity increases with height due to friction at the Earth’s surface ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 25/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere The rising and descending air currents (convection) keeps the troposphere well stirred. Thus, it contains all of the weather Wind velocity increases with height due to friction at the Earth’s surface Figure 9 : Thunderstorm strike in troposphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 26/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere ... The wind velocity is maximum at the upper troposphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 26/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere ... The wind velocity is maximum at the upper troposphere The tropopause height is higher above regions with anticyclone systems (high pressure) and lower above regions with cyclone systems(low pressure) The tropopause is not continuous. At the breaks the troposphere mixes with stratosphere; and jet streams exist. A jet stream is narrow channel of high winds, often at speeds above 100 knots Figure 10 : Position of jetstreams at the troppause height ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour Air temperatures at the tropopause range from −70 ◦ C or colder over the tropics, to nearly −40 ◦ C over the poles ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour Air temperatures at the tropopause range from −70 ◦ C or colder over the tropics, to nearly −40 ◦ C over the poles The tropopause is generally higher in summer than in winter, and is expected to rise in warmer climates as well ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 28/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. Troposphere can be easily studied using an instrument called radiosonde ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 28/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. Troposphere can be easily studied using an instrument called radiosonde Radiosonde data include: ⇒ air temperature, ⇒ pressure, ⇒ humidity It can ascend up to an altitude of about 30 km (see Wyoming data) Figure 11 : Radiosonde launching ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 29/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere The air temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, hence a temperature inversion ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 29/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere The air temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, hence a temperature inversion The inversion region, and the lower isothermal layer, inhibit vertical currents from the troposphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 29/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere The air temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, hence a temperature inversion The inversion region, and the lower isothermal layer, inhibit vertical currents from the troposphere The layer is stratified due to the inversion; and vertical motion is very minimal ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 30/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Ozone occurs naturally; and it is responsible for the inversion ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 30/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Ozone occurs naturally; and it is responsible for the inversion Ozone absorbs energetic ultraviolet(UV) solar energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 30/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Ozone occurs naturally; and it is responsible for the inversion Ozone absorbs energetic ultraviolet(UV) solar energy Ozone is highly concentrated at 25 km level. Maximum stratospheric air temperature occurs near 50 km since temperature of fewer molecules of less dense air at 50 km is raised rapidly by absorption of intense solar energy; More absorption of solar heating energy; and slow downward transfer of energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 31/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Since water vapour is very less (0.05 % of that found near the surface), stratospheric air is very dry and clouds are very rare, except for occasional penetrating thunderstorm in the lower stratosphere A sudden stratospheric warming occurs at a height of 30 km over polar latitudes. Air temperatures can change dramatically from one week to the next, by more than 50 ◦ C ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 31/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Since water vapour is very less (0.05 % of that found near the surface), stratospheric air is very dry and clouds are very rare, except for occasional penetrating thunderstorm in the lower stratosphere A sudden stratospheric warming occurs at a height of 30 km over polar latitudes. Air temperatures can change dramatically from one week to the next, by more than 50 ◦ C This could be due to sinking air associated with circulation changes in late winter or early spring; the poleward displacement of strong jet stream winds in the lower stratosphere The stratopause could be at the height of 50 − 55 km and temperature is close to 0 ◦ C ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 32/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Mesosphere In the mesosphere (middle atmosphere), air becomes colder with height up to an elevation near 85 km ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 33/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Mesosphere The lowest atmospheric temperature (−90 ◦ C) occurs in this layer The decrease of temperature with height is partly due to little ozone to absorb solar radiation; Hence, the air molecules lose more energy than they absorb resulting into an energy deficit and cooling ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 34/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Mesosphere Though percentage of nitrogen and oxygen is still about the same as at sea level, life is difficult here as air is less dense It is in this layer where meteors heat up and become visible The mesopause tops the layer and is also the upper limit of the homosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 35/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere (hot layer), oxygen molecules absorb energetic solar rays, ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 35/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere (hot layer), oxygen molecules absorb energetic solar rays, Absorption warm the air temperature ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 35/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere (hot layer), oxygen molecules absorb energetic solar rays, Absorption warm the air temperature Temperatures vary from day to day since the amount of solar energy affecting the region is strongly influenced by solar activity ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 36/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere, the mean free path of molecules is of the order of a kilometre due to low density (c.f. less than one millionth of a centimetre at the surface) The bulk of the ionosphere is in the thermosphere (starts in upper mesosphere, near 60 km ) It is an electrified region with fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons The dazzling auroras occur over polar regions when charged particles from the sun interact with air molecules ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 37/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere The thermopause is not well defined. It is estimated to be at 500 − 1, 000 km and it changes radically with the amount of sunlight falling on it. Temperature as well is not well defined either, but values over 1, 000 ◦ C are sometimes reported Molecules at the top of the thermosphere can move distances of about 10 km before colliding with other molecules ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 37/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere The thermopause is not well defined. It is estimated to be at 500 − 1, 000 km and it changes radically with the amount of sunlight falling on it. Temperature as well is not well defined either, but values over 1, 000 ◦ C are sometimes reported Molecules at the top of the thermosphere can move distances of about 10 km before colliding with other molecules Thus, many of the lighter and faster-moving molecules travelling in the right direction actually escape Earth’s gravitational force The heterosphere then starts from about the base of the thermosphere to the top of the atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 38/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere In this layer, air is so rarefied; Nearly no collision of gas molecules, Few molecules escape Earth’s gravitational field ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 39/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting the Earth in the exosphere layer Atoms and molecules exit into space ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 39/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting the Earth in the exosphere layer Atoms and molecules exit into space The atmosphere gradually gives way to the radiation belts and magnetic fields of outer space ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 39/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting the Earth in the exosphere layer Atoms and molecules exit into space The atmosphere gradually gives way to the radiation belts and magnetic fields of outer space The exosphere represents the upper limit of our atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 40/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Lecture 4 Change of meteorological parameters with height Air temperature Air Density Air Pressure ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 41/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ The structure of the Earth’s atmosphere can be described in terms of variation of some parameters with respect to height from the surface: air temperature, pressure and density ⇒ In terms of temperature variation, the Earth’s atmosphere consists of layers like: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere ⇒ Most of the weather activities occurs in the troposphere, though it is the thinnest of the layers ⇒ Ozone occurs abundantly in the stratosphere and is the source of the inversion observed in the layer. Though ozone is concentrated at the level of about 25 km, the maximum air temperature is found at the upper part of the layer near 60 km ⇒ However, it is mainly the absorption of sun rays by oxygen molecules that cause the inversion observed in the thermosphere layer ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 42/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Change of atmospheric parameters The vertical structure of the atmosphere changes continuously but mainly due to physical parameters like: ⇒ Air temperature ⇒ Air pressure ⇒ Air density The atmospheric air can be become warmer or cooler from purely mechanical causes (potential temperature changes) Inside the atmosphere, air temperature changes continuously adiabatically The temperature lapse rate is expressed as: γ = −δT/δz ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 43/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature lapse rate and inversions The moisture in the atmosphere affects the lapse rate hence its value for dry and moist air is different: ⇒ Theoretical dry vertical lapse rate equals to 1 ◦ C/100 m ⇒ The moist vertical adiabatic lapse rate occurs in an air mass with water vapour and during its ascent it is cooled adiabatically ⇒ Due to condensation of water vapour, latent heat is released hence the rate of temperature decrease with height is smaller: γ = −0.5 ◦ C/100 m The ideal law of gasses can be used in conjunction with lapse rate to estimate air temperature at high altitudes: p = ρ(R/M) ∗ T or p = ρRa ∗ T R is the universal gas constant (8.314Jmol−1 K− 1; Ra is the specific constant of gasses, i.e. 287.05Jkg− 1K− 1 for dry air ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 44/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature inversion Figure 13 : Schematic representation of temperature inversion Sometimes a temperature inversion occurs hence an inversion layer is created The layer is characterized by the height of the inversion base and its own height The temperature inversions can be divided according to the height at which they occur as: ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 45/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature inversion Figure 14 : Schematic representation of a surface - subsidence inversion Surface inversions Occur due to cooling of the Earth’s surface during the night Subsidence inversions - occur when the cold air masses are descending from the upper atmosphere to the Earth’s surface Subsidence inversions last longer (few days) than a surface (hours) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 46/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature inversions Figure 15 : Schematic representation of a frontal inversion Frontal inversions, occur when, at a specific height in the lower troposphere, warm air masses override a cold air layer which extends to the Earth’s surface Thermal inversions are not very deep. The temperature inversion may occur for a few meters or a few 100 m from the Earth’s surface An inversion is directly related to other weather phenomena (e.g. fog), visibility reduction and air pollution ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 47/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Variation of air pressure and density Figure 16 : Both air pressure and air density decrease Gravity holds air molecules close to Earth’s surface So squeezing (compressing) the air molecules closer together Gravity also influences the weight of the air ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 48/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation The density of air (or any substance) is determined by the masses of atoms and molecules and the amount of space between them So the molecular density of air is the number of molecules in a given volume More molecules are near Earth’s surface than at higher levels; air density is greatest at the surface and decreases upwards Air molecules are in constant motion. The resulting collision of air molecules exert a push (force) on the colliding surface Air molecules occupy space have weight ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 49/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation The weight of the air molecules acts as a force upon the Earth Atmospheric pressure (air pressure) is the amount of force exerted over an area of surface The mass of air above the surface affects the surface air pressurendettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 50/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation Atmospheric pressure always decreases with increasing height. Like air density, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly at higher levels The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be measured in terms of the total mass of air above any point Millibar (mb) is the most common unit used on surface weather maps. Its metric equivalent is hectopascal (hPa) The variation of density with height can also be estimated using the ideal gas equation Integrate the ideal gas equation to get: dp = ρRadT + RaTdpndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 51/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation When the atmosphere is balanced hydrostatically dp = −ρgdz Then, we get: −ρgdz = ρRadT + RaTdρ Divide the equation with density (ρ) and rearrange it to get: d(lnρ) = −g/(RaT) dz − d(lnT) Suppose the layer examined is isothermal, (i.e. temperature is constant), then d(lnρ) = −g/(Ra ¯T) dz Integrate the equation from z1 = 0 to z2 = z with corresponding values of density ρ0 and ρz, we finally get: ρz = ρ0 ∗ e (gz/Ra ¯T) So in an isothermal atmosphere, the air density decreases exponentially with heightndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 52/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation If the average temperature in the troposphere is about 250 K, one can show that: ρz = ρ0 ∗ 10 −(z/17) Meaning that in the troposphere the air density decreases with a factor of 10 every 17 km of height (i.e. in the same way as the pressure) The change of the atmospheric pressure with height can be easily estimated by using the hydrostatic equation dp(z)/dz = −ρ(z)g And also by using the ideal gas equation: ρ(z) = Map(z)/RT(z) We obtain: dp(z)/dz = Magp(z)/RT(z) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 53/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation Let H(z) = RT(z)/Mag be the characteristic length for the pressure decrease with height Then we obtain: dlnp(z)/dz = −1/H(z) If the variation of temperature against height is very negligible, the characteristic length is independent of height (i.e. H(z) = H = constant) dp(z)/dz = −ρ(z)g So upon integrating the equation, we get: p(z)/p0 = e (z/H) In the troposphere, the average temperature is about 250 K, one can also show that: p(z) = p0 ∗ 10 −(z/17) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 54/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Review questions ...1 Briefly explain the production and natural destruction of carbon dioxide near Earths surface. Give two reasons for the increase of carbon dioxide over the past 100-plus years. ...2 How does the atmosphere protect inhabitants at Earth’s surface ...3 On the basis of temperature, list the layers of the atmosphere from the lowest layer to the highest. ...4 Even though the actual concentration of oxygen is close to 21 percent (by volume) in the upper stratosphere, explain why, without proper breathing apparatus, you would not be able to survive there ...5 Show that between the surface and the height of 11 km, the temperature (◦ C) at height z is T(z) = 15 − 0.0065z ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology

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ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology

  • 1. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure . ...... ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Instructor: Dr. E.L. Ndetto Department of Physical Sciences Sokoine University of Agriculture Office: Old Lib. room 5, SMC Mazimbu Email: ndettoel@suanet.ac.tz 2016/2017 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 2. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course info Course structure ⇒ Taught: Semester 1 (ENV1, IRWE1, AQU1, ENGIN1), view timetable ⇒ Credits: 6 ⇒ Teaching: Lecture (30 hours); Tutorial (10 hours); Assignment (6 hours); Independent study (8 hours); Practical (10 hours) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 3. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course info Course structure ⇒ Taught: Semester 1 (ENV1, IRWE1, AQU1, ENGIN1), view timetable ⇒ Credits: 6 ⇒ Teaching: Lecture (30 hours); Tutorial (10 hours); Assignment (6 hours); Independent study (8 hours); Practical (10 hours) Course assessment ⇒ Assignments (10 %); ⇒ 2 Tests (30 %): Dec. 20/21, 2016 and Jan. 24/25, 2017; ⇒ University Examination (60 %), Feb. 13, 2017 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 4. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course info Course structure ⇒ Taught: Semester 1 (ENV1, IRWE1, AQU1, ENGIN1), view timetable ⇒ Credits: 6 ⇒ Teaching: Lecture (30 hours); Tutorial (10 hours); Assignment (6 hours); Independent study (8 hours); Practical (10 hours) Course assessment ⇒ Assignments (10 %); ⇒ 2 Tests (30 %): Dec. 20/21, 2016 and Jan. 24/25, 2017; ⇒ University Examination (60 %), Feb. 13, 2017 References ⇒ Ahrens, C.D., Meteorology Today ⇒ Riehl, H, Introduction to the atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 5. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Intended learning outcomes Upon successful completion of the course, a student should be able to: Describe the structure of the atmosphere in different ways Partition the global energy budget as: – Short wave radiation – Long wave radiation Describe the processes and formation of certain weather phenomena Discuss the methods for weather analysis Ascertain the use of meteorology in aviation Figure 1 : Urban atmosphere Source: Modified, Vogt, 2000 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 6. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 0/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Course contents Introduction Structure of the atmosphere Global energy budget Atmospheric processes and weather phenomena Analytical methods in meteorology Introduction to Aviation Meteorology ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 7. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 8. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 9. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 10. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 11. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 12. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 13. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 14. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. Figure 2 : Weather or climate ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 15. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 1/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Introduction Are weather and climate the same? – Now it is so hot here – It is usually hot in Dar in December – The sky is cloudy presently – August is our foggiest month Weather is the state of the atmosphere at some place and time, in terms of temperature, air pressure, humidity, etc. Figure 2 : Weather or climate Climate is the mean state of weather elements (e.g. rainfall) over a period of time ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 16. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 17. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ⇒ Agriculture ⇒ Air transport Weather and climate affect us ⇒ Drought ⇒ Storms ⇒ Climate change ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 18. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ⇒ Agriculture ⇒ Air transport Weather and climate affect us ⇒ Drought ⇒ Storms ⇒ Climate change ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 19. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 2/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Why study Meteorology? It a science of the atmosphere; widely applied in many sectors: ⇒ Agriculture ⇒ Air transport Weather and climate affect us ⇒ Drought ⇒ Storms ⇒ Climate change Research and well understanding of the universe ♡ See: Ferguson’s careers in focus: Meteorology ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 20. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 3/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Topic 1 The Earth’s Atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 21. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 3/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Presentation outline ...1 Introduction ...2 What is the atmosphere? ...3 Evolution of the atmosphere ...4 Composition of the atmosphere ...5 The vertical profile of atmosphere by temperature ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 22. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 4/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Figure 3 : The atmosphere of the Earth Questions to ponder: What is an atmosphere? How did it occur? How is it kept around the Earth? Why is it so important for living organisms ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 23. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 24. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 25. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 26. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces Invisible and odourless ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 27. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 5/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The Earth’s atmosphere Definition It is the gaseous cover of Earth, rotating with it; its constituents are kept close to the Earth’s surface by gravity Higher at the Equator due to centrifugal forces Invisible and odourless Its properties support living organisms ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 28. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 6/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which cause various weather phenomena Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human daily life ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 29. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 6/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which cause various weather phenomena Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human daily life Upper layer is less dense, limit between the atmosphere and interstellar space is difficult to estimate hence its height too ⇒ Multiple reflection and radiant flux from dawn to twilight: 80 km ⇒ Shooting stars observation: 250 km, (Aurora Borealis) and 1000 km (Aurora Australis) ⇒ Satellite orbits irregularities observation: 3500 km ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 30. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 6/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Medium of complex thermodynamic and mechanical processes which cause various weather phenomena Atmospheric dynamics cause weather conditions that affect human daily life Upper layer is less dense, limit between the atmosphere and interstellar space is difficult to estimate hence its height too ⇒ Multiple reflection and radiant flux from dawn to twilight: 80 km ⇒ Shooting stars observation: 250 km, (Aurora Borealis) and 1000 km (Aurora Australis) ⇒ Satellite orbits irregularities observation: 3500 km The atmosphere follows the Earth’s rotation with a velocity of about 300 − 600 km/h (c.f. Earth’s rotation) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 31. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 7/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Mass of the atmosphere: ⇒ Given, g = 9.81 ms−1 and the Earth’s radius as, Re = 6.371 x 103 m ⇒ If the average pressure at the surface is, P0 = 1, 013.25 x 102 Nm2 ⇒ Then the mass of the atmosphere can be estimated as: Ma = 5.27 x 1018 kg ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 32. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 7/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure General characteristics ... Mass of the atmosphere: ⇒ Given, g = 9.81 ms−1 and the Earth’s radius as, Re = 6.371 x 103 m ⇒ If the average pressure at the surface is, P0 = 1, 013.25 x 102 Nm2 ⇒ Then the mass of the atmosphere can be estimated as: Ma = 5.27 x 1018 kg The masses of the Earth’s ocean and the solid crust are respectively as Mo = 1.35 x 1021 kg; Mc = 5.98 x 1021 kg 50 % of its mass is within the 5.5 km height while 99 % is within a 40 km height It converts only 3 % of the energy received from the Sun into kinetic energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 33. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 8/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Evolution of the atmosphere Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo Lengai Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago) ⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3) ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 34. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 8/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Evolution of the atmosphere Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo Lengai Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago) ⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3) ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface The dense atmosphere ⇒ Gases: H20, CO2 ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot interior, through out-gassing ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 35. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 8/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Evolution of the atmosphere Figure 4 : Volcano eruption at Mt. Oldoinyo Lengai Early atmosphere (4.6 bil. years ago) ⇒ Gases: (H, He, CH4, NH3) ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot surface The dense atmosphere ⇒ Gases: H20, CO2 ⇒ Source: Earth’s hot interior, through out-gassing Today’s atmosphere consists mainly of Nitrogen and Oxygen gases, due to biological and chemical processes ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 36. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 9/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Climate change Figure 5 : Keeling curve Source: http://co2now.org/ As CO2 increases, Earth’s average temperature also rises Climate change is a major and sustained (over decades or so) change from one climatic condition to another ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 37. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 9/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Climate change Figure 5 : Keeling curve Source: http://co2now.org/ As CO2 increases, Earth’s average temperature also rises Climate change is a major and sustained (over decades or so) change from one climatic condition to another Global warming is that change in which Earth’s average temperature is increasing Abrupt climate change is a sudden, rapid change from one climate state to another ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 38. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 10/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition of the atmosphere In the lower layers, the atmosphere is composed of: A mixture of gasses which comprise the dry air Water in all three phases (vapor, liquid and solid) Aerosols (solid or liquid particles suspended in air) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 39. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 11/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition of the atmosphere Table 1 : Composition of the atmosphere by volume permanent gas % volume variable gas % volume Nitrogen (N2) 78.08 water vapour (H2O) 0 − 4 Oxygen (O2) 20.95 carbon dioxide (CO2) 0.04 Argon (Ar) 0.93 methane (CH4) 0.00018 Neon (Ne) 0.0018 nitrous oxide (N2O) 0.00003 Helium (He) 0.0005 ozone (O3) 0.000004 Hydrogen (H2) 0.6 ∗ 10−4 aerosol (dust, soot,) 0.1 ∗ 10−5 Xenon (Xe) 0.9 ∗ 10−5 CFCs, HFCs 0.1 ∗ 10−7 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 40. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 12/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition in lower atmosphere The composition of dry air remains constant until the height of 80 km and ratio remains the same though density decreases with height Such atmosphere is well mixed and is termed as homosphere (constant atmospheric composition) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 41. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 12/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Composition in lower atmosphere The composition of dry air remains constant until the height of 80 km and ratio remains the same though density decreases with height Such atmosphere is well mixed and is termed as homosphere (constant atmospheric composition) Above the height of 80 km the air composition changes constantly Such atmosphere is not well mixed and is termed as heterosphere (variable atmospheric composition) N2 concentration is controlled by Nitrogen-fixing bacteria in the soil; tiny ocean-dwelling plankton in oceans and decaying of plant; and animal matter Oxygen is a necessary component for the creation and the maintenance of life on Earth ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 42. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 13/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure O2 is controlled by photo-dissociation (upper atmosphere); organic matter decays; breathing; and photosynthesis Water vapour (H2O) is a very important gas in atmosphere, but varies greatly in space and time, with a range of 0 − 4 % ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 43. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 13/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure O2 is controlled by photo-dissociation (upper atmosphere); organic matter decays; breathing; and photosynthesis Water vapour (H2O) is a very important gas in atmosphere, but varies greatly in space and time, with a range of 0 − 4 % The quantity of water vapor is reduced by height and the rate of change can be described as: ez = e0 x 10−z/c where ez and e0 are the water vapour pressure at height z (in meters) and at the Earth’s surface respectively, with the constant c to be equal to 5, 000 m Processes influencing its concentration include condensation, evaporation and precipitation. Also sublimation of ice and evapotranspiration of plants supply the atmosphere with water vapour ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 44. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 14/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g. latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes) H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of Earths outgoing radiant energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 45. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 14/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g. latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes) H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of Earths outgoing radiant energy The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat energy close to Earth’s surface, maintaining the average air temperature near the surface much warmer than it would be otherwise Carbon dioxide (CO2) is available in small proportion of about 0.04 percent as a natural component. It is also an important natural greenhouse gas ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 46. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 14/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Water vapour supplies the atmosphere with thermal energy, e.g. latent heat to weather storms (thunderstorms and hurricanes) H2O is a potent greenhouse gas, strongly absorbing a portion of Earths outgoing radiant energy The greenhouse effect is the trapping of heat energy close to Earth’s surface, maintaining the average air temperature near the surface much warmer than it would be otherwise Carbon dioxide (CO2) is available in small proportion of about 0.04 percent as a natural component. It is also an important natural greenhouse gas However, its concentration has risen by almost 30 % beginning of measurements at Mauna Loa Observatory in Hawaii in 1958 Presently, the annual increase is more than 0.5 percent (2.0 ppm/year); and by the end of this century, its concentration is likely to exceed 550 ppm ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 47. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 15/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Earth’s average surface temperature has warmed by more than 0.8 ◦ C over the last 100 years; the warming is due to increase of greenhouse gases Figure 6 : Processes influencing concentration of CO2 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 48. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 15/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Earth’s average surface temperature has warmed by more than 0.8 ◦ C over the last 100 years; the warming is due to increase of greenhouse gases CO2 enters the atmosphere through vegetation decay; volcanic eruption, the exhalation of animal life, burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation Figure 6 : Processes influencing concentration of CO2 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 49. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 15/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Earth’s average surface temperature has warmed by more than 0.8 ◦ C over the last 100 years; the warming is due to increase of greenhouse gases CO2 enters the atmosphere through vegetation decay; volcanic eruption, the exhalation of animal life, burning of fossil fuels, and deforestation Phytoplankton fixation; Photosynthesis and chemical weathering reduce it Figure 6 : Processes influencing concentration of CO2 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 50. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 16/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The oceans hold more than 50 % of total atmospheric CO2 content Other greenhouse gases include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Since 1990s, CH4 has been on increase. Sources appear to be from the breakdown of plant material by certain bacteria in rice paddies, wet oxygen-poor soil, biological activity of termites, and biochemical reactions in the stomachs of cows ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 51. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 16/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The oceans hold more than 50 % of total atmospheric CO2 content Other greenhouse gases include methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs) Since 1990s, CH4 has been on increase. Sources appear to be from the breakdown of plant material by certain bacteria in rice paddies, wet oxygen-poor soil, biological activity of termites, and biochemical reactions in the stomachs of cows N2O is also rising at the rate of about one-quarter of a percent. Sources may be as industrial byproduct, from soil through a chemical process involving bacteria and certain microbes Ultraviolet light from the sun destroys nitrous oxide CFCs was up until mid-1990s with concentration increasing. They used to be widely used as propellants in spray cans, as refrigerants, as propellants for the blowing of plastic-foam insulation, and as solvents for cleaning electronic microcircuit ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 52. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 17/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure They play a part in destroying the gas ozone in the stratosphere and have the potential for raising global temperatures CFCs are gradually being phased out through a global agreement called the Montreal Protocol CHFCs as a replacement for CFCs, do not damage stratospheric ozone, rather they are still powerful greenhouse gases Ozone (O3) near the Earth’s surface is the primary ingredient of photochemical smog, pollution which irritates the eyes, throat and damages vegetation But about 97% of ozone occurs naturally in the upper atmosphere, as oxygen atoms combine with oxygen molecules. This ozone shields plants, animals, and humans from the suns harmful ultraviolet rays ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 53. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 18/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Impurities from both natural and human sources are also present in the atmosphere: soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest fires; and fine ash particles from volcano Figure 7 : Aerosols ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 54. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 18/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Impurities from both natural and human sources are also present in the atmosphere: soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest fires; and fine ash particles from volcano Primary aerosols are those emitted directly in particulate form, whereas, the secondary are formed from vapour molecules in air Figure 7 : Aerosols ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 55. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 18/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Impurities from both natural and human sources are also present in the atmosphere: soil dust; sea sprays; smoke from forest fires; and fine ash particles from volcano Primary aerosols are those emitted directly in particulate form, whereas, the secondary are formed from vapour molecules in air Several physicochemical processes (e.g. nucleation, condensation, coagulation) contribute to change of size and shape of these particles Figure 7 : Aerosols ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 56. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 19/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The size of aerosols ranges from a few nanometres (nm) to several tens of micrometers (mm) Aerosols are removed from the atmosphere mainly through dry and wet deposition processes Aerosols have several important impacts on the environment such as: ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 57. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 19/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure The size of aerosols ranges from a few nanometres (nm) to several tens of micrometers (mm) Aerosols are removed from the atmosphere mainly through dry and wet deposition processes Aerosols have several important impacts on the environment such as: ⇒ Act as condensation nuclei for cloud formation ⇒ Participate in chemical reactions in the atmosphere and affect the ecosystems (e.g. ozone hole formation in the stratosphere, eutrophication, acidification) ⇒ Affect human health ⇒ Modify the Sun’s radiation intensity through light scattering and absorption ⇒ Decrease visibility at high ambient particle concentrations ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 58. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 20/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Table 2 : Main atmospheric composition of the planets Diameter (km) Dist. to sun (mil. km) Sfc temp. Main comp. Sun 1, 392 ∗ 103 5, 800 Mercury 4880 58 260∗ Venus 12, 112 108 480 CO2 Earth 12, 742 150 15 N2 O2 Mars 6, 800 228 −60 CO2 Jupiter 143, 000 778 −110 H2 He Saturn 121, 000 1, 428 −190 H2 He Uranus 51, 800 2, 869 −215 H2 CH4 Neptune 49, 000 4, 498 −225 N2 CH4 Pluto 3, 100 5, 900 −235 CH4 ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 59. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 60. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 61. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 62. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important greenhouse gases ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 63. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important greenhouse gases ⇒ Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV ) radiation. At the surface, ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 64. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 21/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ Earth’s atmosphere is a mixture of many gases. Near the surface, nitrogen (N2) occupies about 78 % ⇒ Water is the only substance in our atmosphere that is found naturally as a gas (water vapour), as a liquid (water), and as a solid (ice) ⇒ Both water vapour (H2O) and carbon dioxide (CO2) are important greenhouse gases ⇒ Ozone (O3) in the stratosphere protects life from harmful ultraviolet (UV ) radiation. At the surface, ozone is the main ingredient of photochemical smog ⇒ The majority of water vapour on our planet is believed to have come from its hot interior through out-gassing ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 65. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 22/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Layers of the Atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 66. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 23/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Layers of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is vertically divided into a series of layers The layers can be defined due to changes in: air temperature, gases composition, or electrical properties ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 67. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 23/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Layers of the Atmosphere The atmosphere is vertically divided into a series of layers The layers can be defined due to changes in: air temperature, gases composition, or electrical properties By temperature variation, the layers are: ⇒ troposphere ⇒ stratosphere ⇒ mesosphere ⇒ thermosphere ⇒ exosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 68. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 24/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere Up to an altitude of about 11 km, air temperature decreases with height by 6.5 ◦ C/km since the Earth’s surface warms the air above it We call the rate as temperature lapse rate If air temperature increase with height the rate is temperature inversion. So the lapse rate exhibits daily, seasonal, and spatial variation ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 69. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 24/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere Up to an altitude of about 11 km, air temperature decreases with height by 6.5 ◦ C/km since the Earth’s surface warms the air above it We call the rate as temperature lapse rate If air temperature increase with height the rate is temperature inversion. So the lapse rate exhibits daily, seasonal, and spatial variation The rising and descending air currents (convection) keeps the troposphere well stirred. Thus, it contains all of the weather Wind velocity increases with height due to friction at the Earth’s surface ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 70. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 25/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere The rising and descending air currents (convection) keeps the troposphere well stirred. Thus, it contains all of the weather Wind velocity increases with height due to friction at the Earth’s surface Figure 9 : Thunderstorm strike in troposphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 71. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 26/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere ... The wind velocity is maximum at the upper troposphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 72. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 26/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere ... The wind velocity is maximum at the upper troposphere The tropopause height is higher above regions with anticyclone systems (high pressure) and lower above regions with cyclone systems(low pressure) The tropopause is not continuous. At the breaks the troposphere mixes with stratosphere; and jet streams exist. A jet stream is narrow channel of high winds, often at speeds above 100 knots Figure 10 : Position of jetstreams at the troppause height ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 73. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 74. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 75. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 76. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour Air temperatures at the tropopause range from −70 ◦ C or colder over the tropics, to nearly −40 ◦ C over the poles ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 77. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 27/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. The tropopause is on averages at 11 − 12 km height over temperate regions; 7 − 8 km over polar regions; and 16 − 17 km in the equatorial region Troposphere is the thinnest of the layers; contains about 80 % of the mass and almost all of the water vapour Air temperatures at the tropopause range from −70 ◦ C or colder over the tropics, to nearly −40 ◦ C over the poles The tropopause is generally higher in summer than in winter, and is expected to rise in warmer climates as well ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 78. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 28/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. Troposphere can be easily studied using an instrument called radiosonde ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 79. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 28/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Troposphere .. Troposphere can be easily studied using an instrument called radiosonde Radiosonde data include: ⇒ air temperature, ⇒ pressure, ⇒ humidity It can ascend up to an altitude of about 30 km (see Wyoming data) Figure 11 : Radiosonde launching ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 80. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 29/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere The air temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, hence a temperature inversion ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 81. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 29/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere The air temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, hence a temperature inversion The inversion region, and the lower isothermal layer, inhibit vertical currents from the troposphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 82. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 29/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere The air temperature increases with height in the stratosphere, hence a temperature inversion The inversion region, and the lower isothermal layer, inhibit vertical currents from the troposphere The layer is stratified due to the inversion; and vertical motion is very minimal ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 83. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 30/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Ozone occurs naturally; and it is responsible for the inversion ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 84. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 30/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Ozone occurs naturally; and it is responsible for the inversion Ozone absorbs energetic ultraviolet(UV) solar energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 85. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 30/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Ozone occurs naturally; and it is responsible for the inversion Ozone absorbs energetic ultraviolet(UV) solar energy Ozone is highly concentrated at 25 km level. Maximum stratospheric air temperature occurs near 50 km since temperature of fewer molecules of less dense air at 50 km is raised rapidly by absorption of intense solar energy; More absorption of solar heating energy; and slow downward transfer of energy ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 86. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 31/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Since water vapour is very less (0.05 % of that found near the surface), stratospheric air is very dry and clouds are very rare, except for occasional penetrating thunderstorm in the lower stratosphere A sudden stratospheric warming occurs at a height of 30 km over polar latitudes. Air temperatures can change dramatically from one week to the next, by more than 50 ◦ C ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 87. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 31/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Stratosphere Since water vapour is very less (0.05 % of that found near the surface), stratospheric air is very dry and clouds are very rare, except for occasional penetrating thunderstorm in the lower stratosphere A sudden stratospheric warming occurs at a height of 30 km over polar latitudes. Air temperatures can change dramatically from one week to the next, by more than 50 ◦ C This could be due to sinking air associated with circulation changes in late winter or early spring; the poleward displacement of strong jet stream winds in the lower stratosphere The stratopause could be at the height of 50 − 55 km and temperature is close to 0 ◦ C ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 88. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 32/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Mesosphere In the mesosphere (middle atmosphere), air becomes colder with height up to an elevation near 85 km ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 89. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 33/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Mesosphere The lowest atmospheric temperature (−90 ◦ C) occurs in this layer The decrease of temperature with height is partly due to little ozone to absorb solar radiation; Hence, the air molecules lose more energy than they absorb resulting into an energy deficit and cooling ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 90. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 34/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Mesosphere Though percentage of nitrogen and oxygen is still about the same as at sea level, life is difficult here as air is less dense It is in this layer where meteors heat up and become visible The mesopause tops the layer and is also the upper limit of the homosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 91. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 35/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere (hot layer), oxygen molecules absorb energetic solar rays, ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 92. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 35/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere (hot layer), oxygen molecules absorb energetic solar rays, Absorption warm the air temperature ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 93. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 35/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere (hot layer), oxygen molecules absorb energetic solar rays, Absorption warm the air temperature Temperatures vary from day to day since the amount of solar energy affecting the region is strongly influenced by solar activity ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 94. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 36/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere In the thermosphere, the mean free path of molecules is of the order of a kilometre due to low density (c.f. less than one millionth of a centimetre at the surface) The bulk of the ionosphere is in the thermosphere (starts in upper mesosphere, near 60 km ) It is an electrified region with fairly large concentrations of ions and free electrons The dazzling auroras occur over polar regions when charged particles from the sun interact with air molecules ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 95. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 37/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere The thermopause is not well defined. It is estimated to be at 500 − 1, 000 km and it changes radically with the amount of sunlight falling on it. Temperature as well is not well defined either, but values over 1, 000 ◦ C are sometimes reported Molecules at the top of the thermosphere can move distances of about 10 km before colliding with other molecules ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 96. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 37/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Thermosphere The thermopause is not well defined. It is estimated to be at 500 − 1, 000 km and it changes radically with the amount of sunlight falling on it. Temperature as well is not well defined either, but values over 1, 000 ◦ C are sometimes reported Molecules at the top of the thermosphere can move distances of about 10 km before colliding with other molecules Thus, many of the lighter and faster-moving molecules travelling in the right direction actually escape Earth’s gravitational force The heterosphere then starts from about the base of the thermosphere to the top of the atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 97. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 38/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere In this layer, air is so rarefied; Nearly no collision of gas molecules, Few molecules escape Earth’s gravitational field ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 98. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 39/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting the Earth in the exosphere layer Atoms and molecules exit into space ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 99. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 39/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting the Earth in the exosphere layer Atoms and molecules exit into space The atmosphere gradually gives way to the radiation belts and magnetic fields of outer space ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 100. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 39/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Exosphere Figure 12 : A satellite orbiting the Earth in the exosphere layer Atoms and molecules exit into space The atmosphere gradually gives way to the radiation belts and magnetic fields of outer space The exosphere represents the upper limit of our atmosphere ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 101. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 40/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology Lecture 4 Change of meteorological parameters with height Air temperature Air Density Air Pressure ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 102. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 41/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Recap ⇒ The structure of the Earth’s atmosphere can be described in terms of variation of some parameters with respect to height from the surface: air temperature, pressure and density ⇒ In terms of temperature variation, the Earth’s atmosphere consists of layers like: Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere and Exosphere ⇒ Most of the weather activities occurs in the troposphere, though it is the thinnest of the layers ⇒ Ozone occurs abundantly in the stratosphere and is the source of the inversion observed in the layer. Though ozone is concentrated at the level of about 25 km, the maximum air temperature is found at the upper part of the layer near 60 km ⇒ However, it is mainly the absorption of sun rays by oxygen molecules that cause the inversion observed in the thermosphere layer ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 103. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 42/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Change of atmospheric parameters The vertical structure of the atmosphere changes continuously but mainly due to physical parameters like: ⇒ Air temperature ⇒ Air pressure ⇒ Air density The atmospheric air can be become warmer or cooler from purely mechanical causes (potential temperature changes) Inside the atmosphere, air temperature changes continuously adiabatically The temperature lapse rate is expressed as: γ = −δT/δz ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 104. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 43/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature lapse rate and inversions The moisture in the atmosphere affects the lapse rate hence its value for dry and moist air is different: ⇒ Theoretical dry vertical lapse rate equals to 1 ◦ C/100 m ⇒ The moist vertical adiabatic lapse rate occurs in an air mass with water vapour and during its ascent it is cooled adiabatically ⇒ Due to condensation of water vapour, latent heat is released hence the rate of temperature decrease with height is smaller: γ = −0.5 ◦ C/100 m The ideal law of gasses can be used in conjunction with lapse rate to estimate air temperature at high altitudes: p = ρ(R/M) ∗ T or p = ρRa ∗ T R is the universal gas constant (8.314Jmol−1 K− 1; Ra is the specific constant of gasses, i.e. 287.05Jkg− 1K− 1 for dry air ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 105. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 44/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature inversion Figure 13 : Schematic representation of temperature inversion Sometimes a temperature inversion occurs hence an inversion layer is created The layer is characterized by the height of the inversion base and its own height The temperature inversions can be divided according to the height at which they occur as: ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 106. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 45/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature inversion Figure 14 : Schematic representation of a surface - subsidence inversion Surface inversions Occur due to cooling of the Earth’s surface during the night Subsidence inversions - occur when the cold air masses are descending from the upper atmosphere to the Earth’s surface Subsidence inversions last longer (few days) than a surface (hours) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 107. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 46/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Temperature inversions Figure 15 : Schematic representation of a frontal inversion Frontal inversions, occur when, at a specific height in the lower troposphere, warm air masses override a cold air layer which extends to the Earth’s surface Thermal inversions are not very deep. The temperature inversion may occur for a few meters or a few 100 m from the Earth’s surface An inversion is directly related to other weather phenomena (e.g. fog), visibility reduction and air pollution ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 108. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 47/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Variation of air pressure and density Figure 16 : Both air pressure and air density decrease Gravity holds air molecules close to Earth’s surface So squeezing (compressing) the air molecules closer together Gravity also influences the weight of the air ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 109. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 48/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation The density of air (or any substance) is determined by the masses of atoms and molecules and the amount of space between them So the molecular density of air is the number of molecules in a given volume More molecules are near Earth’s surface than at higher levels; air density is greatest at the surface and decreases upwards Air molecules are in constant motion. The resulting collision of air molecules exert a push (force) on the colliding surface Air molecules occupy space have weight ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 110. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 49/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation The weight of the air molecules acts as a force upon the Earth Atmospheric pressure (air pressure) is the amount of force exerted over an area of surface The mass of air above the surface affects the surface air pressurendettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 111. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 50/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation Atmospheric pressure always decreases with increasing height. Like air density, air pressure decreases rapidly at first, then more slowly at higher levels The pressure at any level in the atmosphere may be measured in terms of the total mass of air above any point Millibar (mb) is the most common unit used on surface weather maps. Its metric equivalent is hectopascal (hPa) The variation of density with height can also be estimated using the ideal gas equation Integrate the ideal gas equation to get: dp = ρRadT + RaTdpndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 112. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 51/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation When the atmosphere is balanced hydrostatically dp = −ρgdz Then, we get: −ρgdz = ρRadT + RaTdρ Divide the equation with density (ρ) and rearrange it to get: d(lnρ) = −g/(RaT) dz − d(lnT) Suppose the layer examined is isothermal, (i.e. temperature is constant), then d(lnρ) = −g/(Ra ¯T) dz Integrate the equation from z1 = 0 to z2 = z with corresponding values of density ρ0 and ρz, we finally get: ρz = ρ0 ∗ e (gz/Ra ¯T) So in an isothermal atmosphere, the air density decreases exponentially with heightndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 113. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 52/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation If the average temperature in the troposphere is about 250 K, one can show that: ρz = ρ0 ∗ 10 −(z/17) Meaning that in the troposphere the air density decreases with a factor of 10 every 17 km of height (i.e. in the same way as the pressure) The change of the atmospheric pressure with height can be easily estimated by using the hydrostatic equation dp(z)/dz = −ρ(z)g And also by using the ideal gas equation: ρ(z) = Map(z)/RT(z) We obtain: dp(z)/dz = Magp(z)/RT(z) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 114. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 53/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Air pressure and density variation Let H(z) = RT(z)/Mag be the characteristic length for the pressure decrease with height Then we obtain: dlnp(z)/dz = −1/H(z) If the variation of temperature against height is very negligible, the characteristic length is independent of height (i.e. H(z) = H = constant) dp(z)/dz = −ρ(z)g So upon integrating the equation, we get: p(z)/p0 = e (z/H) In the troposphere, the average temperature is about 250 K, one can also show that: p(z) = p0 ∗ 10 −(z/17) ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology
  • 115. ...... .... . ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ...... ..... ..... ..... ..... . .... . ..... . ..... .... . 54/ 39 Introduction Earth’s atmosphere Evolution Composition Vertical structure Review questions ...1 Briefly explain the production and natural destruction of carbon dioxide near Earths surface. Give two reasons for the increase of carbon dioxide over the past 100-plus years. ...2 How does the atmosphere protect inhabitants at Earth’s surface ...3 On the basis of temperature, list the layers of the atmosphere from the lowest layer to the highest. ...4 Even though the actual concentration of oxygen is close to 21 percent (by volume) in the upper stratosphere, explain why, without proper breathing apparatus, you would not be able to survive there ...5 Show that between the surface and the height of 11 km, the temperature (◦ C) at height z is T(z) = 15 − 0.0065z ndettoel@2016 ENV 111: Introduction to Meteorology