End of chapter for biology, chemistry and physics notes! Hope its helpful!

1. Keeping Healthy.
You need vitamins and minerals to keep your
body healthy.
Malnourished = A person with an
unbalance diet.
Metabolic Rate = chemical reactions in your cells
work faster when you exercise.
Long term obesity can lead you to type 2
diabetes which is high blood sugar. You can stop
this by eating less carbohydrates and do more
exercise.
There are two types of cholesterol:
• Bad cholesterol can lead to heart disease.
• Good cholesterol is good for your cell membranes.
• Saturated fat increases your blood cholesterol levels.
Pathogens= Infectious disease.
Viruses reproduce inside your cell.
Semmelweissis a Doctor who realised that
infections are transferred by people to people in
a hospital and told Doctors to wash their hands
before curing someone. No one believed his
theory.
White blood cells are a part of the immune system
and they do 3 things to cure your body:
1. Ingest pathogens. (Destroys them).
2. Produces antibodies (Destroy certain pathogens).
3. Produce antitoxins (Counteracts with the toxins
which are produced by the pathogens.
Painkillers relieve the symptoms
of a disease but do not cure the
disease.Growing Cultures:
1. Sterilise the loop by heating it. (This
kills the microorganisms on them).
2. Dig the sterilised loop in bacteria and
make a zigzag streak on the agar.
3. Place the lid on top on the dish
quickly.
4. Seal the lid with tape to stop
microorganisms going in from the air.
(Do not seal all the way so oxygen can
get in.)
5. Then put it in a incubator. (At school
25*C and in the industry 35*C.)
Epidemic= Disease that spread in country. Pandemic= Disease that spread across countries.

2. Coordination and Control.
Reflex action:
Stimulus Receptor  Sensory Neuron  Relay Neuron  Motor Neuron  Muscle/Gland  Action.
Stimulus = Object. Receptor= Detects stimulus.
Sensory Neuron= Transmit impulses to the
CNS.CNS= Central Nervous System.
Relay Neuron= Passes impulses on.
FSH is made in the pituitary gland which causes the egg
to mature and oestrogen is produced.
Contraceptive pills contain oestrogen and
progesterone which stops FSH which means that
the egg doesn’t mature.
Internal Environment:
• Water Content.
• Ion Content.
• Temperature.
• Blood sugar Level.
We must keep our temperature
constant otherwise our enzymes
wont work.

3. Medicines and drugs.
Developing new medicines:
1. Tested on cells and tissue organs.
2. Tested on animals.
3. Tested on healthy people.
4. Tested on patients.
Withdrawal Symptoms= Affects you get
after you stop taking addictive drugs.
Cannabis can lead to mental illnesses.
Steroid is a drug which builds up mass
and muscles.
Strong Painkillers are banned as when athletes
get injured they may ignore it and this will cause
further damage.

4. Adaptation and Survival.
Plants need:
• Light.
• Water.
• Carbon Dioxide.
• Oxygen.
• Nutrients/ion.
Adaptation= Special Features of an
Organism.
Bigger animals have smaller surface area compared to
their volume. This means that they can contain more
energy more easily but is difficult to cool down.
Stomata: Holes through the leaves which
makes plants lose water.
Predators and Preys may be camouflaged so they
cant see each other.
Some plants will spread
their seeds over a wide
area so they do not
compete with themselves
such as:
• By animals.
• Wind.
• Mini explosions.
Non living Factors:
• Temperature.
• Rainfall.
• Light.
• Oxygen.
Living Factors:
• New predator.
• New disease.
• New plants.
• New food.
• New habitats.

5. Energy in biomass.
Decomposers= Decayed
organisms that are
microorganisms.

6. Variation, Reproduction andNew Technology.
Chromosomes= Contained in the
cell of a nucleus.
Genes= Carried by the chromosomes
thread.Gametes =Nuclei sex cells.
Asexual Reproduction= All information comes from one
parents as it does not involve fusion of gametes. As both
parents have identical genes.
Clones= Individuals who are genetically
identical to their parents.
Tissue Culture is a way to clone a plant. You take the
plant and grow them under special conditions. This was is
expensive.
Embryo Transplants are used to clone
animals. You take embryo with
unspecialised cell and split into smaller
group cells and each group has identical
cells which is then transplanted.
Adult cell cloning is another way of cloning people.
You get the nucleus and remove the unfertilised egg.
Then the nucleus is removed from the skin and is
placed in the empty egg. The new cell is given an
electric shock and this allows it to divide and
becomes into and embryo. Then this is inserted in
the womb of the mother.

7. Fundamental Ideas of Chemistry.
Elements=Substances in the
periodic table.
Atom=Element is made up of it.
Compounds= 2 or more elements
combined together.
Charges:
• Protons= +1
• Neutron= 0
• Electron= -1
Mass number= (Bottom Number).
Number of neutrons= Mass- Protons.
Covalent Bonding =Non mental.
Ionic Bonding = Mental.

8. Rocks and Building materials.
Calcium Carbonate Calcium Oxide+ Carbon dioxide
CaCO3  CaO + CO2
Advantages of limestone
quarries:
• Job for the local.
• More customers.
• Trade for local
businesses.
• Improved roads.
Disadvantages of
limestone quarries:
• Dust.
• Noise.
• More traffic.
• Loss habitats/wild life.

9. Metals andtheir uses.
Anything below carbon can
be extracted with carbon
as it is more reactive. The
ones above carbon can also
extract the compounds
below. But carbon cannot
extract the compounds
above as they are more
reactive.
Ore=Rock that contains enough metal to
make it worth extracting.
Low Carbon Steel= Easily
shaped.
High Carbon Steel= Hard.
Aluminium are low density.
Smelting= Heating the ore
strongly in a furnace.
Phytomining= Plants absorb copper
compounds from the ground. This happens
when the plants are burnt and ash is
produced from which the copper can be
extracted with.
Bioleaching= Using bacteria to produce
solution containing copper compounds.

10. Crude Oils andFuels.
Alkanes General Formula= CnH2n+2
Crude oil has hydrocarbons which is a molecule of
hydrogen and carbon. They are called alkanes.
• Hydrocarbons with the smallest molecules have
the lowest boiling point and are collected at the
top.
• Hydrocarbons with the largest molecules have the
highest boiling point and are collected at the top.
Fractions with low boiling points have low viscosity and are flammable.
Incomplete Combustion produces
carbon monoxide.
Fossil Fuels contain sulphur compounds. When it
is burnt it produces sulphur dioxide which causes
acid rain.
When fuels burn oxygen and
nitrogen in the air combine
and form nitrogen oxide
which also causes acid rain.
Burning fuels produces carbon dioxide
which causes global warming and carbon
monoxide is also produced which causes
global dimming.
Biodiesel = Made from vegetable oil.

11. Products fromoil.
Large Hydrocarbons broken into smaller
molecules is done by a process called cracking.
2 ways in cracking hydrocarbons:
1. Heating the mixture of hydrocarbon vapour and
steaming it at a high temperature.
2. Passing hydrocarbons vapour over a hot catalyst.
Alkenes formula: CnH2n
800*C +Catalyst
C10 C5H12 + C3H6 + C2H4
Decane Pentane + Propane + Ethane
Alkenes have a double bond between the 2 carbon
atoms which makes it more reactive than alkanes.
Alkenes react with bromine water which turns from
orange to colourless.
Plastic= Made from large molecules
called polymers.
Polymers= Made up from small molecules called
monomers.
Polymerisation= Reaction to make
polymers.
Ethene Poly(Ethene)
Propene Poly(Propene)
Shape memory polymers change back to
their shape when the temperature or
condition are changed.
Biodegradable= Materials that can be broken
down microorganisms.
Plastics made from non-
biodegradable polymers can have
corn starch mixed with them
which means the microorganisms
can break down the corn starch
so the plastic can break down into
small pieces which are then
mixed in soil/compost.
Ethanol Formula= C2H60
Ethanol is made from plants sugar called yeast
this process is called fermentation.
Ethanol can be made by the hydration of Ethene which
is reacted with steam at a high temperature in a
process called catalyst.

12. Plant oils. Vegetable oils = Are made by seeds, nuts
and fruits.
2 methods on extracting oils are:
1. Crushing and pressing the plant materials and then remove the
water and other impurities.
2. Distil the plants materials mixed with water and the produce a
mixture of water and oil which would be separated.
When oil is burnt in the air it can be used
as fuels which are made to make biofuels
such as biodiesels.
Vegetable oils have a carbon carbon double
bond(C=C) as they are unsaturated. Unsaturated
oils react with bromine water to make it from
orange to colourless.
Vegetable oils properties for food:
• They are cooked at high temperature.
• Changes the colour.
• Changes the smell.
• Changes the taste.
• More energy.
Unsaturated oils react with hydrogen to make the
(C=C) bounds into single bonds. This is done by
hydrogenation which is done at 60 degrees with a
nickel catalyst.
Hydrogenated oils have a higher melting
points as they are saturated. This reaction
is called hardening.
When oil and water are added together they are
separated into 2 layers. When you mix it together
they have tiny droplets which are slow to separate.
This mixture is called emulsifier.
Emulsifiers= Substances
that stops oil and water
from separating in to 2
layers.
Emulsifiers molecules have a small hydrophilic and a
long hydrophobic part. The hydrophilic (head) is
attracted to water and hydrophobic (tail) is attracted
to oil. Hydrophobic parts get into every small
molecules in the oil and this makes it surrounded by
the hydrophilic parts. This stops the water and oil
from joining and separating.

13. Our changing planet.
Tectonic Plates= Huge slabs of rock made up on the
Earths Crust and top part of the mantle.
Convection Currents= Circular motion
of matter caused by heating in fluids.
Earths atmosphere in the past:
• 4 billion years ago the Earth was full of volcanoes
which released carbon dioxide, nitrogen and
water vapour.
• As the Earth cooled down the water vapour
condensed which formed oceans and the
atmosphere mostly had carbon dioxide and water
vapour.
• 2 billions years later algae and plants evolved
which they used carbon dioxide for
photosynthesis and released oxygen in the air.
• More plants increased, carbon dioxide decreased,
oxygen increased.
Miller and Urey are scientists who both done
an experiment together to see what
scientists at that time thought was in the
early atmosphere. They done this by using a
mixture of water, ammonia, methane and
hydrogen. They used a high voltage spark to
stimulate a lightening. After a week they
found amino acid and building blocks for
protein which was produced by the
experiment.
Fractional Distillation= Process to separate
different boiling points from a liquid.
Fractional distillation of liquid air is done to produce
pure oxygen and liquid nitrogen. They are cooled at
-200 degrees and fed into a fractional distillation
column. Nitrogen is separated from oxygen and
argon further distillation is used to produce pure
oxygen and argon.

14. Energy Transfer by heating.
Infrared Radiation= Electromagnetic waves
between visible light and microwaves in the
electromagnetic spectrum.
Emit= Gives off.
Infrared radiation can travel through a vacuum. This is
how we get energy from the Sun.
Dark, matt surfaces are good emitters of infrared radiation. If
an object is painted a black, dull colour will transfer energy
and cool down quickly compared to a white shiny object.
Dark, matt surfaces are good absorbers of infrared radiation.
If an object is painted a black, dull colour will become hotter
compared to a white shiny object.
Light shiny colours are
good reflectors.
Conduction= Transfer of energy from particles to particles
in matter. (Solid are good conductors)
When solids are heated particles a the end gain
kinetic energy and vibrate more and this makes
energy to be passed to the next particles. In this
way energy is transferred.
Insulators= Material/Object which is a poor
conductor. (Liquids and gases are poor conductors)
Convection=Transfer of energy by
the bulk of movement of a
heated fluid. (Liquids)
When a liquid is heated it expands and it
becomes less dense and rises. Convection
currents transfer energy through out.
Evaporation= Turning liquid
into vapour.
Evaporation increases the:
• Surface area.
• Temperature.
• Draught of air near the liquids surface.
Condensation= Turning solids to liquids.
Condensation increases:
• Surface area.
• Temperature.
Maximise Energy Transfer to keep
things cool:
• Good conductor.
• Painted dull black.
• Air flowed around maximised.
Minimise Energy Transfer to keep
things warm:
• Good insulators.
• White and shiny.
• Convection currents by trapping air
in small pockets.
Specific Heat Capacity=
Energy needed by 1kg
of the substance to
raise its temperature by
1*C.

15. Heat Transfer.Infrared Radiation:
• Heat.
• All objects.
• Hotter objects More.
• Electromagnetic Wave. (Speed of
light).
• Different coloured surfaces emit
differently.
• Different coloured surfaces absorb
differently.
• Can detect with your skin but not your
eyes.
• Can detect with a special camera
called theromgram.
• No particles required.
• All objects emit and absorb.
Conduction:
• In metals they have atoms which are
arranged in columns and rows. They
also have electrons which are free to
move called delocalised.
• When you heat one end of the metal
the atoms inside start to vibrate
vigorously and this causes the heat
energy to pass on to the next atoms.
• The electrons also vibrate and pass
heat energy on.
• This makes metals a good conductor.
Convection (Convection Current):
• Gain energy.
• Liquid Expands.
• Less denser.
• Lighter.
• Liquid rises.
• Liquid cools.
• Liquid contracts.
• More denser.
• Falls.
Evaporation:
• The particles absorb heat energy.
• They move faster.
• Some escape from the surface
and from the force of attraction
(keeps the particles together in
liquids.)
• Remaining liquid is cool.
Condensation:
• Particles lose heat energy.
• Particles move more slowly.
• Particles then move closer
together.
• The gas condenses into a liquid
Heat
Transfer
Infrared
Radiation.
Conduction.
Evaporation.Condensation.
Convection.

16. Electrical Energy.
Electrical Appliance= Machine powered by electricity.
P= Power in Watts (W)
E=Energy in Joules (J)
T=Time taken in seconds (S)
Electrical energy supplied:
Total cost= Number of kWh X Cost per kWh
Cost Effectiveness:
• Buying the appliance.
• Installing the appliance.
• Running.
• Maintenance.
• Environmental.
• Interest charged on a loan to buy the appliance.
Payback time= Time taken for something to produce
savings to match how much it costs.
Kinetic Energy= Energy of a moving object.
A energy we get
out of a machine
is either useful
(energy
transferred) or
wasteful energy
(energy not fully
transferred).
Useful Energy
Efficiency= -------------------- X 100%
Wasted Energy

17. GeneratingElectricity.
1)Geothermal:
You build these near volcanic areas and you pump cold water
underground where the rocks heat the water and turns it into steam
causing the turbine to turn. This makes no pollution and is reliable.
2)Solar Cells:
This converts the light into electricity. This is not that reliable as there
is no light at night or on a cloudy day so this stops electricity being
produced. It also makes no polluting gases.
3)Wind Turbines:
The wind is used to turn the turbines to produce electricity. This is not
reliable as if there is no wind then it will not will also it does not make
pollution but makes a lot of noise and visual pollution which people do
not like to see.
4)Hydroelectric Scheme:
You have a dam which separates the water and at the top the water is
high and at the bottom it is low. This is reliable and only produces
visible pollution.
5)Tidal Waves:
When the tide comes it drives the turbine which generates electricity.
This is reliable and produces no pollution but does harm the
environment.
6)Wave Energy:
The wave moves up and down which drives air to the turbine which
causes it to spin. This is not reliable as you have to wait for the wave to
come and it produces no pollution.
• The step up transformer increases the voltage but decreases the current
(flow) of electricity. This is because the heating has a heating affect. This
will make the heat go through the wires and into the air which will be
wasted.
• The step down transformer will decrease the voltage.
4 3
6
U values:
High U values=
Bad.
Low U values=
Good.

18. Waves.Transverse Waves= Vibrate the particles in a
perpendicular direction in which the wave travels.
Longitudinal Waves= Vibrates the particles in a
parallel direction on where the wave travels.
Electromagnetic waves: Electric and magnetic disturbance
that travels energy from one place to another. Mechanical waves= Vibration that travels through substances.
Amplitude= Height of the wave crest.
Wavelength= Distance from 1 crest to the next.
Frequency= Number of waves passing each seconds (Hz)
V= Wave speed in metres per seconds. (m/s)
F= Frequency in hertz (Hz)
H= wavelength in metres (m)
Speed of wave= v= F X H
Reflection.
Diffraction.
Refraction.
Sound is caused by vibration in a
substance which is travelled is wave.
Musical sounds change depending on
the pitch.

19. ElectromagneticWaves.
• Visible light is used to see the different wave lengths of the different
colours.
• Microwaves to send signals to satellites and within the mobile phone
network.
The Doppler effect is the source which is moving closer to an observer the
wavelength and frequency of the wave is detected by the observer which
has shifted from the original place.