Infant Observations

Infant Observations
The reading "Some Remarks on Infant Observation, A. Freud", was very interesting as it was based
on the observation of newborns/infants and mother and infant relationship by students who are
training to be physicians and psychotherapist. The field of human development from a new born
baby throughout childhood development is focused on changing the way we think about children's
mind. The core of Ana Freud's theory is to gain solid understanding of what is normal in the
newborn infant period. Through observations the students were able to understand the mental life of
the baby and the exchanges of thoughts and feelings between infants and their mother.
I never worked with newborn/infants however, has a mother I can relate with the theory. As
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1.Introduction. Halogen Bonding, Xb, Is The Product Of
1.Introduction
Halogen bonding, XB, is the product of a non–covalent interaction between a halogen X and a
negative site B (e.g., Lewis base). The halogen, X, is usually part of an R–X molecule where R can
be another halogen, an organic or an inorganic electron–donating–group. Halogen bonding (XB) is
in some ways analogous to hydrogen bonding (HB). In the latter, a hydrogen atom is shared between
an atom, group or molecule that "donates" and another that "accepts" it.[1–3] In halogen bonding, it
is a halogen atom X that is shared between a donor R and an acceptor Y. Thus the two forms of
interaction can be illustrated by:
HB : R_H...Y
XB : R_X...Y
Because of their high electronegativity; halogen atoms in halo–organics are classically ... Show
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More recent studies of the halogen bond in the solid state have been conferred by both Pennington et
al and Laurence et al. [19–21]
The seventies and the eighties of the last century witnessed the further extension of the experimental
inspections by introducing infrared spectroscopy of Lewis base–dihalogen complexes isolated in
solid inert gas matrices at temperatures low enough to cease reaction, even when the dihalogen was
ClF or F2. Lattice effects in cryogenic matrices are lesser than those present in Hassel's crystals
however, they are not fully absent. [22–37]
The introduction of supersonic expansion techniques endorsed studying the rotational spectra of
HF...ClF12 and HF...Cl2 13 in active isolation via molecular beam electric resonance spectroscopy.
Klemperer et al referred to such complexes as anti–hydrogen bonded, with HF acting as a Lewis
base. The advantage of the supersonic

Intermolecular Forces Lab Report
Introduction
The strengths of intermolecular forces such as dipole–dipole, London dispersion and hydrogen
bonding of various substances change over a wide range. However, intermolecular forces are much
weaker than covalent bonds and ionic bonds. It requires less energy to overcome intermolecular
attractions of molecules in a liquid to vaporize them as compared to the energy needed to break their
covalent bonds. When molecules change from solid to liquid to gas, the molecules themselves do
not change while their intermolecular forces change.
Dipole–dipole forces occur between molecules which are polar neutral. Polar molecules interact
when the positive end of one molecule is close to the negative end of another molecule. The
strengths of intermolecular ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Both 1–bromobutane and 1–iodobutane have dipole–dipole forces interaction. However, 1–
iodobutane requires more energy for it to vaporize than 1–bromobutance since the strengths of
intermolecular forces increase with an increase in polarity (more dipole–dipole forces interaction) of
molecules. 1–iodobutane is more polar than 1–bromobutane.
1, 3–dibromopropane has a higher heat of vaporization (47.890KJ/mol) than that of 1–butanol
(41.9KJ/mol) over the same temperature range (413–550K). 1, 3–dibromopropane has stronger
dipole–dipole interaction between the bromine attached to carbon number one and three
respectively. Even though 1–butanol has hydrogen bonding forces, the existence of two atoms in the
structure of propane make 1, 3–dibromopropane stronger than 1–butanol. Therefore, 1, 3–
dibromopropane needs more energy as compared to 1–butanol for it to vaporize.
1, 3–propanediol has more heat of vaporization (57.2 KJ/mol) than 1, 3–dibromopropane
(47.890KJ/mol) at the same temperature range (332–448K). 1, 3–propanediol has stronger hydrogen
bonding interactions at carbon number one and three of propane as compared to the dipole–dipole
interactions that take place at carbon one and three of propane. Hence, more energy is needed to
vaporize 1, 3–propanediol than 1, 3–dibromopropane.
Part

Classifying Mystery Solids Lab Report
Maria Hagop Hagop 1 SCH4U Ms. Johnson November 6, 2015 Classifying Mystery Solids
Introduction: Solids are composed of atoms, ions or molecules arranged in a pattern that is
represented in three dimensions, they all have a definite shape and volume, they are virtually
incompressible and they do not flow readily. The four main types of crystalline solids are Ionic
crystals, molecular crystals, covalent network crystals and metallic crystals. The type of a crystalline
solid can be determined by testing its properties such as hardness, melting point, ... Show more
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Procedure: 1. The physical properties of the solids were observed. 2. The hardness of the solids were
tested using mortar and pestle. 3. The conductivity of the solids were tested using electrical
apparatus. 4. The melting points of the solids were tested by placing them in crucibles and heating
them using a hot plate. 5. The conductivity of the melted solids (liquids) were tested using an
electrical apparatus. 6. The solubility of the solids were tested using a micro tray, by placing them in
water and oil to observe their polarity, 7. The conductivity of the solutions were tested using a an
electrical apparatus. Hagop3 Observations: Mystery solid number Physical properties Hardness
Conductivity as a solid Melting points Conductivity in liquid form Solubility in water and oil
Conductivity in solution form 2a –white –solid –in small pieces –very

Age Bonding Research Paper
I have learned that in this day and age bonding is an important step for babies and children to grow
properly. Bonding is the process where parents and child decide that they are special to each other. A
strong bond is the groundwork for later growth or attachment. It has been said that babies become
attached to family members or friends who rarely, if ever, feed them. Toddlers that sleep alone and
are often separated from their parents during the day sometimes develop a strong attachment to a
stuffed animal or blanket, which is perfectly natural. It is also just as important for children to bond
with their father as well as their mother. In the present day more fathers a stepping up to the plate
and taking more responsibilities with

Intermolecular Forces
Oakland Schools Chemistry Resource Unit Intermolecular Forces Brook R. Kirouac David A.
Consiglio, Jr. Southfield‐Lathrup High School Southfield Public Schools Bonding: Intermolecular
Forces Content Statements: C2.2: Chemical Potential Energy Potential energy is stored whenever
work must be done to change the distance between two objects. The attraction between the two
objects may be gravitational, electrostatic, magnetic, or strong force. Chemical potential energy is
the result of electrostatic attractions between atoms. C3.3: Heating Impacts Heating increases the
kinetic (translational, rotational, and vibrational) energy of the atoms composing elements and the
molecules or ions composing compounds. As the kinetic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Now we will focus on intermolecular forces. The Nature of Intermolecular Forces: The
Intermolecular Forces (forces between molecules) are weaker than Intramolecular Forces (The
Chemical Bonds within an Individual Molecule). This distinction is the reason we define the
molecule in the first place. The properties of matter result from the properties of the individual
molecule (resulting from chemical bonding) and how the molecules act collectively (resulting from
intermolecular forces). Intermolecular Forces are longest–ranged (act strongly over a large distance)
when they are electrostatic. Interaction of Charge Monopoles (simple charges) is the longest–
ranged electrostatic force. Charge–Charge forces (found in ionic crystals) For like charges (+,+) or
(–,–), this force is always repulsive. For unlike charges (+,–), this force is always attractive. Charge–
Dipole Forces: An uncharged molecule can still have an electric dipole moment. Electric Dipoles
arise from opposite but equal charges separated by a distance. Molecules that possess a dipole
moment are called Polar molecules (remember the polar covalent bond?). Water is polar and has a
dipole moment of 1.85 Debye. The Debye is a unit of dipole moment and has a value of 3.336 x 10–
30 Coulomb meter. When salt is dissolved in water, the ions of the salt dissociate from each other
and associate with the dipole of the water molecules. This results in a solution

Atoms Or Covalent Bonding
Covalent bonding occurs when atoms share pairs of electrons. Atoms will covalently bond with
other atoms in order to gain more stability. Nonmetals will readily form covalent bonds with other
nonmetals. Although it is said that atoms share electrons when they form covalent bonds, they do
not usually share the electrons equally. Something called Electronegative is where how much an
atom wants to bond. The smaller the atom the closer to the protons. The smaller the atom the closer
to the protons. When you share the electrons it is called Covalent or Covalent bonding. Covalent
bonding makes very strong connections between the atoms, so it's hard to break these molecules
apart. As you go up on the periodic table the atoms gets smaller and smaller. Molecules that join
with covalent ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The ions are atoms that have lost one or more electrons (known as cations) and atoms that have
gained one or more electrons (known as anions). Atoms can either transfer or share their valence
electrons. And is the primary interaction occurring in ionic compounds. Electrons are transferred
from one atom to another resulting in the formation of positive and negative. Electrons are
transferred from one atom to another resulting in the formation of positive and negative. Energy is
needed to remove electrons from atoms. The element forms the ion that makes the compound most
stable that makes the one in which most energy is released overall. In ionic bonding, electrons are
transferred from one atom to another resulting in the formation of positive and negative ions. Ionic
bonding is the complete transfer of valence electron(s) between atoms and is a type of chemical
bond that generates two oppositely charged ions. At a simple level, a lot of importance is attached to
the electronic structures of noble gases like neon or argon, which have eight electrons in their outer
energy

Chemical Principles For Pharmacy Technicians
UNIT NUMBER 1: CHEMICAL PRINCIPLES FOR PHARMACY TECHNICIANS
ASSIGNMENT TITLE: BONDING
INTERMOLECULAR FORCES OF ATTRACTION:
This phrase refers to the forces of attraction which occurs between two or more molecules that are in
close range of each other. They may be able to influence the physical properties of the particular
substance although some of these attractions can be very weak.
Some of the types of intermolecular forces include:
Van Der Waal 's forces
Permanent dipole – dipole attractions or forces
Ion – dipole interactions
Hydrogen bonding.
DIAGRAM:
INTERMOLECULAR BONDING:
This phrase refers to the bonds which take place and are held together within a molecule, which in
turn is able to influence the chemical properties of the particular substance.
These are bonds which are strong and there are different types of intramolecular bonding which
include:
Covalent bonds
Ionic bonds
Metallic bonds.
DIAGRAM:
IONIC BONDING:
Ionic bonding involves electrons being transferred from atoms of a metal to a non– metal, this is a
result of the electrostatic attractions which occurs between oppositely charged ions.

Ionic bonding can be found in compounds of metals in Groups 1 and 2 such as calcium and sodium
which are able to lose a negative electron in order to gain a full outer shell, which in turn become
positively charged as have lost an electron which are electrons are negative. Ionic bonding can be
found within compounds of the metal groups

Polar Covalent Bonding Lab Report
Claim: Through a experimental procedure #1 was concluded to be metallic, #2 to be polar covalent
bonding, and #7 to be polar covalent.
Reasoning:
The main motive of the lab was determine the unknown substances identity by its tested
characteristics. Considering the results of the lab, substance #1 would be a metal since it has
metallic characteristics. A few metallic characteristics are a high melting point, insoluble in water,
and a good conductor of a solid and liquid. All of these characteristic are cohesive with the
observations made. It had a melting point above 500°C, it did not dissolve in water, and it was a
good conductor as a solid and a liquid. It also looked and felt similar to what other metals do. Since
it did not dissolve in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The heat overcame the hydrogen bondings between 100°C to 500°C and the white powder melted.
Other characteristics would be solubility in water which substance #2 preformed. Polar substances
dissolve in water; "like" dissolves "like". In addition substance #2 did not dissolve hexane. Hexane
is a non polar substance and if it did not dissolve in hexane it was most likely not non polar.
Moreover, substance #7 was polar covalent with hydrogen bonds and dipole–dipole bonds.
Substance #7 is not ionic because it did not conduct in water and it did not conduct electricity while
in water. Similar to adipic acid it dissolved in the ethyl alcohol. As stated before, "like" dissolves
"like" so since ethyl alcohol is polar, substance #7 would also have to be polar. In general polar
substance tend to have a higher melting point which substance #7 had. It melted between 100°C and
500°C. Some sources of error would be the mixture of substance when determining the melting
point over the boiling water. The mixing of the substances would have altered the data. Another
source of error would be using too much substance in the dish when checking for solubility. Too
much substance would have altered

Fire Combustion Paper
The knowledge of fire behavior and the combustions that occurs within a fire has different variables
that constitute a fire. Among the fire service we deal with day to day training to keep us on our toes
in the event of a fire emergency. Firefighters train and educate themselves to know the ins and outs
of any situation we may be encountered with. Fire behavior is knowing the chemistry of the fire and
what affects it has on us while on the tactile side as well as life safety (Gann & Friedman, 2015).
Firefighter's need to know what the fire is doing and what we should expect the fire to do.
Firefighter can hinder themselves with the lack of knowledge dealing with fire behavior and it
principles. Combustion is the bonding and the association ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
With single dwelling house fires, we have to take into consideration of the contents involved in the
dwelling as well as the chain reaction of the fire itself. Throughout the fire service industry, we face
an array of household contents that fuel many fires we encounter. NFPA has given firefighters
analysis of the upholstered furniture fires throughout the US. The upholstered furniture is not always
a single fuel source it just so happens that the furniture is involved fuels the fire itself when it
becomes ignited. The trend of upholstered furniture is on the downward spiral in the modern
furniture facing the market in today's times. The furniture is usually wrapped in a fabric which can
contain synthetic, cotton, or manmade material to cover wood. The wood can be solid or
compressed material which can pose a hotter fire when ignited (Gann & Friedman, 2015). The
NFPA study showed that majority of the first item ignited was that of upholstered furniture.
Firefighters should take that into consideration while tactical stand point of many situations
involving residential fires in older dwellings. Just because of the era we are living in we don't need
to get tunnel vision when we are dispatched out to a residential house fire. The Commercial side of
firefighting can impose a totally different aspect when we associate fire with the amount of fuels
involved in the

Discussion Of The Synthesis Of Negatively Charged Anions
Lab #1
1) This compound is ionic because it did not melt when it was heated. Consequently, this indicates
that the compound must have an extremely high melting point, which is one of the characteristics of
ionic compounds due to the highly strong electrostatic force of attraction between positively charged
cations and negatively charged anions (that is, these forces of attraction are so strong that it requires
a large quantity of energy in order for the bonds to be broken). Furthermore, this compound was
highly soluble in water, which is another property of ionic compounds, as when they dissolve, the
ions dissociate and attach themselves to the polar ends of water molecules (cations are attracted to
the localized negative poles of the oxygen atoms; anions are attracted to the localized positive poles
of the hydrogen atoms). Finally, the last indicator that the compound is ionic is that the compound
was an electrolyte; that is, the compound was able to conduct electricity due to the ions present
within the solution, which move towards the oppositely ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It becomes evident that the compound involves non–polar molecules because the compound also did
not dissolve in water. Consequently, the compound was unable to conduct electricity, as the
compound was insoluble and did not contain ions, and it was unable to dissolve and form dipole–
dipole interactions with the polar water molecules. Thus, this indicates that the compound must be
non–polar, as the only forces of attraction between molecules are the London dispersion forces, as
the compound either only contains non–covalent bonds and/or is symmetrical. This assumption can
be corroborated due to the low melting point of the compound and subsequently, the very weak
intermolecular

Chemistry Bonding Assignment
Chemistry 30
Chemical Bonding – Properties of Molecules
1. For the following molecules determine which atoms are bonded (write the symbols with a bond
between them), the electronegativity difference between them, and the type of chemical bond it
represents. If the bond is ionic, state what ions are produced. If the bond is polar covalent, indicate
the direction of the dipole on the symbols from the first part.
a) KCl Electronegativity difference = K – Cl = 0.8 – 3.0 = 2.2 ionic bond K1+ Cl1– b) LiBr
Electronegativity difference = Li – Br = 1.0 – 2.8 = 1.8 ionic bond Li1+ Br1– [pic] c) HI
Electronegativity difference = H – I = 2.1 – 2.5 = 0.4 polar covalent bond ... Show more content on
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Both have London dispersion force drawing them together.
These two are isoelectronic so the London force should be the same. This is manifested in similar
boiling temperatures.
5. Why does liquid propane (C3H8) boil at a much lower temperature than gasoline (C8H18)?
Both are pure hydrocarbons and are non–polar (symmetry causes dipoles to cancel). Both have
london dispersion force. Propane has 26 electrons, gasoline has 66. Since gasoline has more
electrons, it has a higher london dispersion force and so has a higher boiling temperature than
propane.
6. Given the following molecules:
i) methane iii) butane ii) propane iv) methyl propane
a) Draw each structure
[pic] [pic] [pic] [pic]
b) Predict the order of increasing melting point. Give reasons for your answer.
methane, propane, butane, methyl propane.

fewest electrons, lowest melting point. methyl propane is more compact than butane so it packs
better in the solid phase and has the highest melting point.
c) Predict the order of increasing boiling point. Give reasons for your answer.
methane, propane, methyl propane, butane
fewest electrons, lowest boiling point. butane has more surface area in the liquid phase so more
interactions with surrounding molecules give it a higher boiling point.
7. Both krypton (b.p. –152°C) and

Two Types of Solids
March 2, 2011
Lab Report
Physical Properties of Two Types of Solids
SCH3U0
Maggie Liu
Abstract
The purpose of this lab is to study some of the physical properties of two types of solids – ionic and
molecular. The samples used are sodium chloride (ionic) and camphor (molecular). The physical
properties studied are odour, hardness, melting point, solubility in water and solubility in 2–
propanol. It is observed that some of the physical properties of sodium chloride are no odours, hard,
a high melting point, soluble in water and insoluble in 2–propanol; some of the physical properties
of camphor are a strong odour, soft, a low melting point, insoluble in water and soluble in 2–
propanol. A few conclusions can be drawn from these ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Noted the observations for each solid in both water and 2–propanol.
Observations
|Physical property |Sodium chloride |camphor |
|Odour |No odour |Strong (mint) |
|Hardness |hard |soft |
|Melting point |high |low |
|Solubility in water |soluble |insoluble |
|Solubility in 2–propanol |insoluble |soluble |
Sodium chloride does not have any odours, whereas camphor has a strong mint–like smell. It is
found that ionic compounds usually do not have odours because they are solids and the particles are
all held tightly which makes the gas nearly impossible to be released into air and make the smell,
however, many molecular solids do have odours because their particles are not held very tightly and
there is space between the particles. Vapor or gas can be produced and released into air which causes
smell. Sodium chloride is harder than camphor.

Solubility
p. 1 Megan Ly Chemistry 231L February 20, 2013
SOLUBILITY
Purpose: To better comprehend solubility behavior by investigating the solubility of various
substances in different solvents, looking at miscible and immiscible pairs of liquids, and observing
the solubility of organic acids and bases. Reference: Pavia, A Small Scale Approach to Organic
Laboratory Techniques pp. 6–
‐9 Report: Part A 1) Results in table form Solvent: ... Show more
Methyl alcohol is more polar than the other two alcohols because of the shorter carbon chain and
polar hydroxyl group. For this reason, methanol is soluble in water.
3)
p. 3
1–
‐octanol and 1–
‐butanol are both nonpolar molecules which explains why it is soluble in hexane.
Methanol is semi–
‐polar and not soluble in nonpolar hexane, even though the small bubbles indicate
that solution is taking place.
Part C 1) Results in table form Compound Water & Ethyl Alcohol O H O H O H O H H
&
H
&
Cl Cl H & O H & OH
Miscible/Immiscible Miscible
Water & Diethyl

Discuss Why Hydrogen Bonding Is Essential for Life
Discuss why hydrogen bonding is essential for life
Throughout biochemistry there are many bonds without which life as it is on earth today would not
be possible. One of the most important bonds of these is the hydrogen bond, a weak chemical bond
that is present in essential biological molecules such as water and polypeptides. A hydrogen bond is
defined by Campbell and Reece as occurring when a hydrogen atom is covalently bonded to an
electronegative atom but attracted to another electronegative atom. In water molecules, there are
several key reasons why hydrogen bonds can be formed and explaining them in water a good way to
show the chemistry. Firstly, the presence of covalent bond between the hydrogen and the oxygen
means that the ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
For metabolic reactions this is very useful because it means that the enzymes can work at their
optimum temperature, often the same as 37C core temperature, and thus the metabolic reactions
within the body are very efficient. For every 10C below optimum temperature, the rate of successive
substrate–enzyme collisions decreases by 2 to 3 times [Campbell and Reece, p862]. High specific
heat capacity also benefits marine environments by resisting temperature fluctuations, which is
perhaps why marine food chains are often many times longer than those of terrestrial organisms.
The high heat capacity of water is one of several hydrogen–bonding attributes that benefit the
marine environments, unsurprisingly, with the high surface tension and the small relative density of
ice also playing a large role in how aquatic organisms survive. The high surface tension of water is
perhaps best explained by relating it to close proximity of adjacent water molecules in aqueous
solution. This closeness is of course caused by the numerous hydrogen bonds (Fig. 2) existing
between the water molecules and is named cohesion, a word that can be defined as being united as a
whole.
Fig. 2 numerous hydrogen bonds
As a result of the molecules being united as a whole, the top of a body of water has a membrane that
is able to withstand a small downwards force before becoming pierced. The classic

Physics Chemistry : Basic Chemistry
Introductory Chemistry: Basic Chemistry
Part 1:
1. (a) Matter makes up everything in the universe, consisting of particles, the three states of matter
include;
Solids – Particles within a solid vibrate slightly due to having the least kinetic energy, this forms an
attraction between the atoms so they remain closely packed together in a regular formation.
Liquids – Particles within a liquid have slightly more kinetic energy therefore can move past one
another. They are somewhat more spaced apart in no formation, due to the additional energy being
slightly stronger the attraction between atoms.
Gases – Particles in a gas travel at high speeds due to a high level of kinetic energy. This results in
the particles being spaced apart and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When the particles have reached a certain point the kinetic energy is stronger than the attraction
between the atoms and the particles have no limitations on their movement, they have reached their
boiling point and have become a gas.
Sublimation – In some circumstances, increased temperature can result in the transition of a solid
skipping the liquid phase and go straight to a gas, this is called sublimation. This occurs when both
temperature and atmospheric pressure are below a substances triple point; a state of temperature and
pressure in which solids, liquids and gases and coexist in their equilibrium. With increased kinetic
energy, and Example, dry ice, solid CO₂ at room temperature turns into a vapour. Lowering
temperature:
Condensing – When cooled, the particles in a gas have less kinetic energy resulting in them moving
about less through loss of energy and less energy results in an attraction between the atoms. The
particles reach a point when they are sliding past each other, the condensation point, and have
become a liquid.
Freezing – When cooled further, the particles in a liquid loose more kinetic energy thus have even
less motion. With less movement the particles become more attracted to one another and come
together in a formation, when this occurs the liquid has solidified and reached its freezing point.
Deposition – The opposite of sublimation, deposition is when a

The Intermolecular Forces That Act Between Molecules And...
Lab: Intermolecular Attractions
Introduction/Background:
A solution consists of two or more different substances. The dissolving process that takes place in a
solution occurs due to the intermolecular forces that act between molecules in the solution. The
solubility rule, "Likes dissolve likes", explains why certain solutes dissolve in a given solvent, while
other solutes do not. In most cases, ionic or polar solutes dissolve in polar solvents. Similarly, non–
polar solutes dissolve in non–polar solvents. This is usually what occurs, but there are exceptions in
particular cases.
Objective: How do we investigate and describe the intermolecular forces that act between molecules
in different types of molecular substances?
Part I Procedure: 1. Pour water into the petri dish until the water fills up half of the petri dish
bottom. 2. Pour a strip of mineral oil next to the water. While doing so, try to create a straight line. 3.
Pour water into the empty half of the petri dish. 4. Place the solid iodine in one of the two sections
of water. 5. Wait and observe how the solid iodine reacts in the water. 6. Pour the ionic solid in the
other section of water. 7. Wait and observe how the ionic solid reacts in the water. 8. Lastly, observe
and make note of what happens at the interface between the oil and water.
Part I Guided Questions: 1. What happened to the iodine solid in the water? Did it dissolve? Why do
you

Atomic Bomb Definition Essay
ATOMIC NUMBER & MASS – atomic no. refers to no. of protons in the nucleus (determines what
each element is)
– Atomic mass equals total mass of protons, neutrons and electrons.
– The atomic number and atomic mass increases as you go both across the period and down the
group. The atomic mass and the atomic number increases as the nuclei gaining more neutrons and
protons.
– Going left to right on the periodic table, the atomic mass increases as protons are being added to
the nucleus, more protons attract the outer electrons the nucleus bringing them closer to the nucleus.
ATOMIC RADIUS helps measure the size of its atoms, usually distance between nucleus and its
valence electrons.
– Atomic radius increases moving down a group as energy levels ... Show more content on
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Electrons increase, which atoms contribute to the 'sea of electrons'. The melting point rises due to
bigger molecules meaning the heat energy supply must also get bigger.
– Moving across the period metals generally have a high melting point while most non–metals have
low melting points.
– The particles in a solid are held together by intermolecular forces and to convert a solid into liquid
you therefore must overcome the forces.
– Going down group 1, when any of the metals are melted, the bond (metallic) has been weakened
so the atoms then can more freely, the decrease in melting point when going down the group shows
a decrease in strength.
– Going down group 4, the bonds change from covalent to metallic, decreasing the strength of the
bonds as atoms increase and the bonds get bigger.
– melting point decreases as molecules get bigger, therefore the probability of temporary dipoles
occurring increases and this is responsible for the attractions. Molecules with greater dipoles need
more energy to break these bonds causing the melting point to be higher.
DENSITY – is the relationship between the mass and volume of a substance
– Density will increase when going down the group as mass has a large increment compared to

Atoms: Chemical Bonding
Chemical Bonding Chemical bonding is responsible for the strong mutual attraction, which prevails
between atoms. Atoms are the basic buildings blacks for all types of matter. Atoms are capable of
joining together to form molecules, which are responsible for forming most of the objects around us.
Atoms forms chemical bonds because lone atoms are extremely reactive and unstable; they form
bonds to achieve stability. Our world is made up by so many different elements, and they are
responsible for combining together in thousands of different arrangements, in different states of
matter, because of a process called chemical bonding. Many atoms, through the process of chemical
bonding, lose a few extra electrons to integrate with the octet rule. ... Show more content on
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The atoms are bound by shared electrons in a covalent bond. Even though they share electrons, they
do not share them equally. Even though most of the time covalent bonding occurs between
nonmetals, there have been times where this type of bonding occurs between a metal and a non
metal. Covalent bonds are most likely to occur when molecules have a similar electro negativity
level (Gray 76). Elements follow the octet rule because they are the most stable when they have
eight electrons in their outer shell. Therefore, by sharing those electrons they fulfill the octet rule
and the noble gas configuration. Another way covalent bonds satisfy the octet rule is too form
single, double, and triple bonds. It's easy to differentiate between those bonds, for example a single
bond is when two atoms share one pair of electrons, a double bond is when two atoms share two
pairs of electrons, and a triple bond is when two atoms share three pairs of electrons. Bond order and
length are used to describe the strength of covalent bonds; they both have a direct relationship. Bond
order is the amount of bonded pairs between two atoms. Bonding length is the distance between two
covalent bonds. Compared to ionic bonds, covalent bonds are have a lower melting and boiling
point. They are also less likely to dissolve in water. Not all the pairs of the molecules have the same
characteristics. When a pair is not sharing any electrons, that pair is called a lone pair. When a pair
is sharing electrons, they are called a bond pair. And finally, a Lewis dot structure is a great way to
illustrate a covalent

Is College Athletics A Bonding?
College Athletics: Bonding
Introduction
Every team, every group, and line up at some point has to come together to achieve a goal, it can be
classroom, game, or team oriented. Team bonding may not happen as soon as one may think time,
chemistry, agreements, and disagreements all play major roles into team bonding. 2 Studies show
that this concept is reflected in Astin's theory of involvement, which essentially suggests "students
learn by becoming involved" (1985, p. 133). 3 This relationship between team bonding and
"becoming involved goes hand in hand, for example In particular, this study examines what
contributes to the student athletes' experiences in relation to student–faculty interaction, peer
interaction, participation in student ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
These compounding factors only add to the additional building blocks of a successful team bonding,
further research even shows that College athletics is an important social institution. Hodgson (2006,
p. 2) defines institutions as "systems of established and prevalent social rules that structure social
interactions."5 Without the first stepping–stone being successful social interaction, there will be no
such thing as team bonding. A prime example of a University setting its "stepping stones" correctly
is Since its inception in the late nineteenth century, Southwestern State University has established
six core values in an attempt to display such characteristics throughout all branches of the
institution: Excellence, Integrity, Leadership, Loyalty, Respect, and Selfless Service. As a university
devoted to its stated core values, the established Southwestern State brand promise is unequivocal in
its purpose: ''to model our core values in all that we do'' (Southwestern State University, 2011a).
Which in fact places a responsibility upon a athlete who has to model and represent the University
in a certain way as shown above. Furthermore, if an athlete does not withheld these stepping–stones,
there actions are noticeable by first there coaches and teammates resulting in a negative social
interaction. Which ultimately leads to a non–team bonding aspect due to one player, which
ultimately may result in

Essay on Water
April 30 2009
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Essay on Water
Published by admin at 3:58 am under Example Essays
Introduction
Water is an essential ingredient for the existence of life as we know it. Biochemical processes occur
in aqueous environments, many of which use water. Water also plays a significant role in the process
of photosynthesis ( 6 CO2 + 6H2O + 672kcal –> C6H12O6 + 6O2 ). Photosynthesis is the most
basic and significant chemical reaction on earth, providing the primary nutrients, directly or
indirectly, for all living organisms and is the primary source of atmospheric oxygen. Without water
and its unique and unusual properties, life as we know it on earth would not exist. Water is the only
substance ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This results in a concentration of negative charges nearer the oxygen atom and thus further from the
positively charges protons that make the nuclei of the hydrogen atoms. The bond formed is
intermediate between a fully ionic bond and a purely covalent bond. There is a separation of charges
but not complete as in the formation of ions. The partial charge that is produced is symbolized by d.
In Water, one side of the molecule, where the hydrogen atoms are, will be partially positively
charged. The other side with the unshared pairs of electrons will be negatively charged. As a whole
the molecule is polar. So it can be said that the water molecule has a polar covalent bond. The
polarity of the water molecule makes mutual attraction between water molecules possible.
The Hydrogen Bond
Each molecule has a d– and d+ region. The attraction occurs between the d– and d+ regions
(remember unlike charges attract). This means that each water molecule attracts four other water
molecules to it. The hydrogen atom is attracted to the oxygen atom of the adjacent water molecule.
Each oxygen atom can associate with two hydrogen atoms of other nearby water molecule through
its unshared pair of electrons. The force of attraction between these polar molecules is not as strong
as a covalent or ionic bond but strong enough to be significant. It is important enough to be called
the HYDROGEN BOND.
It is the

Contact Angle Experiments On Self Assembled Monolayers
Student's Name
Institution
Course Name
Instructor's Name
Date of Submission
Contact Angle Experiments on Self–Assembled Monolayers
Aim
The aim of this experiment was to measure the angle between a metal surface and a liquid droplet
using a CCD camera and optics. This experiment also investigated how metal surfaces coated with
single–molecule layers of functionalized alkanethiols and alkanethiols alter the wetting behavior and
metal surface energy.
Introduction
Whenever a monolayer is attached to a metal surface, the wetting properties and behavior can be
significantly affected (Yuan & Lee, 15). In practice, densely–packed self–assembled monolayers
(SAMs) can be used to modify the macroscopic properties of a solid surface (Dilimon et al. 202).
Changes in wetting properties occur due to changes in the angle made by a liquid droplet whenever
it is in contact with the surface. This phenomenon is significant in several contexts for example, in
industrial contexts: this property is used to evaluate the cleanliness of semiconductor wafers. In such
contexts, contact angles measurements are widely used. Control of this property is also useful during
penetration of insecticides or pesticides into plants, and waterproofing of materials (Yuan & Lee,
25). While the former focuses on maximization of wetting, the latter case seeks to minimize liquid–
induced wetting (Yuan & Lee, 28). When monolayers aggregate spontaneously on a surface, they are
termed as

The Chemical Earth Research Paper
Anna McNamara – Year 11 Chemistry, Mr Thomson Chemistry Assessment: The Chemical Earth
Gather information from secondary sources to distinguish the physical properties of metals and
nonmetals. The key differences between metals and nonmetals are the physical properties which
simply outlines the specific metal and nonmetal subdivision. In some cases semimetals or metalloids
have a combination of properties which could classify them as being metals and nonmetals, hence
the name semimetals. These properties include: lustre; solubility in water; state; melting point;
boiling point; density; malleability; and conductivity. Most metals are often; appear shiny; insoluble
in water; solid at 25॰C; have high melting and boiling points; higher in density; ... Show more
The strength of this metal is medium and which provides a relatively strong frame and structure but
also allows for crumple zones to work effectively in a car accident. The percentage of Metal A in the
earth's crust is 7.5, which is quite common. This metal needs to be common due to the amount of
cars which are sought for worldwide. The reactivity of Metal A shows no obvious reactions with
water or damp air which allows people to drive cars in rain or humid weather. This metals reaction
with acid is slow and irrelevant to the usage of the material for these purposes. These properties
allow Metal A to be suitable for the main structure and body of a

Types Of Enthalpy Changes In Chemical And Chemical Changes
Enthalpy changes in chemical and physical processes– M1 and D1
By sharing electrons, atoms within a molecule that are attracted to one another is called an
intramolecular force. Between the molecules intermolecular force, the physical properties for
example the melting points and boiling points, relate to the solubility and the strength of these force.
Protons are positive components and electrons are negative components. The attractive force that
exists between the two is known as an intermolecular force due to the atoms and molecules of the
substance. Intermolecular forces have four types:
Ionic forces – This is like the dipole–dipole interaction but it differs slightly as ions are used as well
as polar molecules. ions are held together by electrostatic forces in ionic solids. The charges in an
ion are attracted to each other because they are opposites. "This force is the strongest intermolecular
force." In a crystal lattice structure, the ion forces hold the ions together.
https://www.nature.com/articles/srep35684 Dipole Forces – When a molecule has two poles they are
called dipoles or polar covalent molecules. The molecule will have a partial positive charge on one
pole whilst the other pole will have a different charge that is partially negative. Therefore, the
molecules will rearrange themselves so the charges are attracted to the opposite charge so it works.
Hydrogen Bonds– "when the hydrogen of an electronegative atom of one molecules is attached to an

Hydrochloric Reaction Lab
As I add the silver nitrate to the calcium chloride the calcium will begin bonding with the sulfate to
form solid calcium sulfate and the silver will begin bonding with chloride to form solid
silver(I)chloride. We know this because calcium is more reactive than silver and sulfate is more
reactive than cl so the two more reactive particles will bond and the two less reactive will bond.
They will both form solids because chloride ions when bonded with silver ions are insoluble and
sulfate ions when bonded with calcium ions are also insoluble. The reason that all of the previously
listed information is important to the conductivity is that if all reactants react to produce solids then
there will be no aqueous ions floating around which is essential to conduct electricity. Since we now
know that when we have and even amount of both reactant the solution produced will not conduct
electricity and we also know that each of the aqueous reactants (when isolated) will conduct
electricity, I predict as long as we have excess of one of the reactants in the final solution it will
conduct electricity. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This will result in a steady fall in conductivity of the solution as silver(I)sulfate is added to the
calcium chloride until the conductivity is nothing at all when the amount of each reactant add is
exactly even and then a steady rise in conductivity as we begin to add excess silver sulfate to the
solid silver chloride and solid calcium sulfate fill

Chemistry Solubility
Jacinta Houng
Comparing the Solubility of Chemicals in Water
"Water is known as the "universal solvent" because so many different substances dissolve in it and
we rely on this for many of our daily needs."
Introduction: Water is known as the 'universal solvent' as it is capable of dissolving a variety of
different substances and dissolves more substances than any other liquid. However the ability to be
soluble depends on a substances polarity and bonding. This then contributes to the various ways that
different types of chemicals interact in water.
Solubility is crucial to every living thing on earth as water can carry along valuable chemicals,
minerals, and nutrients necessary for survival. In fact Water covers 70% of the Earths ... Show more
However despite its name as the "universal solvent" there are many compounds that won't dissolve
or won't dissolve well in water. If the attraction is high between the opposite–charged ions in a
compound, then the solubility will be low. For example, most hydroxides exhibit low solubility in
water.
Polar molecule: H2O
Polar molecule: H2O
Aim: To investigate and compare the solubility of household chemicals in water to demonstrate the
various ways that the different types of chemicals interact in water.
Hypothesis: Substances with stronger bonds such as ionic bonds will have a low solubility whereas
substances with weaker bonds like covalent bonds will be highly soluble. Therefore sugar will have
the highest solubility followed by citric acid and then salt.
Materials: * Citric Acid * Salt * White Sugar * 600ml of water * 1 Thermometer * 1 Stirrer * 1
tablespoon * 3 transparent cups * 1 Measuring jug * Pen * Paper
Risk Assessment: A common laboratory risk is the handling of glass items. Items such as
thermometers and glass cups carry the risk of breakage, cuts and mercury poisoning. Ways to
minimize and handle this risk include: * Inspect glassware for defects or cracks before use. * Do not
handle broken glass with bare hands. Use appropriate cut–resistant gloves to handle broken glass. *
Use forceps, tongs, scoops, or other mechanical devices for removing

Synthesis And Characterisation Processes Of Pharmaceutical...
INTRODUCTION: The pharmaceutical industry has long been trying to improve the effectiveness
of certain drugs it would like to introduce and mass–produce. The concept behind many of these
drugs is sound; however, they appear to fall short when it comes to some of their chemical
properties. These properties, including solubility, stability, intrinsic dissolution and bioavailability,
affect the extent to which the body can utilize the drug effectively, and it is thus vital that drugs are
developed to have a maximum effect on an individual after administration. This is where
pharmaceutical co–crystals are the potential key to advancing drastically the design of drugs by
enhancing their bioavailability and solubility. There has been a growing interest in the design of
pharmaceutical co–crystals over the past decade and this is only going to escalate as the focus is
shifted to designing, synthesising and characterising better and more improved crystalline structures.
This report aims to examine and compare several methods in the design, synthesis and
characterisation processes of pharmaceutical co–crystals in addition to providing examples of the
effectiveness of these co–crystals in pharmaceutics.
WHAT ARE PHARMACEUTICAL CO–CRYSTALS?
It is important first to define a co–crystal, although there has been a large debate on what actually
constitutes a co–crystal.1 A co–crystal is, in essence, a "mixed crystal" or a crystal that contains two
different molecules.2 It is a solid,

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Haloalkanes
Draw 5 haloalkanes on the board and get students to do the first one on their mini whiteboards name
it and identify if it is primary secondary or tertiary. Once everyone has correctly got the first one
student can continue with the others.
Students write on their mini whiteboards whether haloalkanes will have higher or lower melting /
boiling points than alcohols by identifying what type of bonding is present.
Place a haloalkane in a beaker of water and identify if it soluble. Students in pairs reason why the
observations are seen.
Uses of haloalkanes – CFC's as fire extinguishers and the impact on the environment. Haloalkanes
are used as monomers.
Notes–
Haloalkanes are named the same as alkanes but the halide is numbered and named ... Show more
C1–C2 are gases at room temperature. C3–C4 are volatile liquids. C5 > are solids at room
temperature.
Amines have a lower melting / boiling point compared to alcohols as they have hydrogen bonding
between N–H. Nitrogen has a much lower electronegativity than oxygen so the hydrogen bonding of
alcohols are much stronger resulting in higher melting / boiling points.
Small molecule amines are soluble in water. As the alkyl chain increases the solubility decreases.
Primary amines can react with a haloalkane to form a secondary amine via a substitution reaction.
CH3NH2 + CH3CH2Cl (heat) CH3NHCH2CH3 + HCl
The secondary amines can react with a haloalkane to produce a tertiary amine.
For alkanes, alkenes, haloalkanes, amines and alcohols – draw a mini reaction scheme that shows
the formation and reactions that they can produce. Schemes should identify that alcohols are
oxidised to aldehydes, carboxylic acids and ketones depending on the starting material and type of
reaction used.
Systematic name is alkanals but aldehydes is used as it means alcohols dehydrogenated. Aldehydes
have the functional group HC=O. Question stick to where in a molecule must an aldehyde be?
Systematic name for ketones is alkanone. C=O is the functional group. Question stick for where in
the molecule must the ketone be?
Students practising naming do the first one as a class then

Equilibrium Lab Report
Chemical equilibrium is a dynamic state where the rate of the reverse reaction is equal to the rate of
the forward reaction. The chemical reaction is still occurring however the rate of reverse reaction is
matching the rate of forward reaction hence the concentration of reactants (〖Hb〗_((aq) )+ O_(2
(g))) and products (HbO_2) no longer change, resulting in an equilibrium. (b) Which direction will
equilibrium shift if the O_(2 ) concentration is increased? Higher concentration of O_(2 ) will result
in the equilibrium shifting to the right, causing some Hb and O_2 to react to make more product
HbO_(2 ) (c) Which direction will equilibrium shift if the HbO_2 concentration is increased? Higher
concentration of HbO_2 will result in the equilibrium ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Research which ion this is and state if it is a cation or an anion. Discuss the significance of this ion
in relation to oxygen transport. Iron (Fe) is a cation. Iron complexes are utilized in the transportation
of oxygen in the blood and tissues. When the iron is bound to oxygen, the haem group is bright red
(oxyhaemoglobin) however when it lacks oxygen (deoxygenated) it is blue–red in colour. 3) Explain
why O2 requires the transport protein Hb and state the percentage of oxygen transported around the
body by Hb. Only 1.5 percent of oxygen in the blood is dissolved directly into the blood itself.
Majority of oxygen which is 98.5 percent joins to hemoglobin and is then carried to the tissues. 4)
Explain where in the body the forward reaction and reverse reactions are most likely to occur,
referring to partial pressures of O2 in your explanation. Forward reaction is likely to occur in the
lungs, the partial pressure of O2 in the air is 0.2 atmospheres allowing oxygen to bind with
hemoglobin. The reverse reaction occurs in the end if the capillaries which deliver the blood to the
cells. The cells absorb oxygen reducing the concentration of oxygen in the haemoglobin, shifting the
equilibrium to the left, releasing more

Intermolecular Forces Essay
Intermolecular forces are the attractive and/or repulsive forces among independent particles, such as
molecules, atoms, or ions, within a sample of matter. These forces differ from chemical bonds, or
intramolecular forces, because chemical bonds exist between the atoms of a single molecule. For
example, intermolecular forces could be described as the forces that attract many water molecules
together, while chemical bonds refer to the bonds between the hydrogen and oxygen atoms of a
single water molecule. Chemical bonds are also generally more permanent and stronger than
intermolecular forces.
There are various types of intermolecular forces, all which differ in strength. These forces include:
ion–ion forces, dipole–dipole forces, ion–dipole forces, ion–induced dipole, dipole–induced dipole,
and London dispersion forces. The amount of charge, how it is distributed, and how long a charge
distribution will last, all factor into how strong the intermolecular forces are. ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
These forces attract ions rather strongly. In a pure ionic compound, we call these forces ionic bonds
and consider it to be an intramolecular force. In a mixture of substances, however, it is seen as an
intermolecular force since the ions are interacting without being bonded. Ion–ion forces are
repulsive if they are cation–cation or anion–anion, and are attractive if they are cation–anion.
Charge and size influence the strength of these forces. Small molecules with large charge
magnitudes would have stronger ion–ion forces acting between them because these factors would
allow for closer approach to their

The Chemical Elements Hydrogen And Oxygen
Approximately 75 percent of the Earth's surface is comprised of water. Formed by some of the
tiniest know elements that can be found, and yet water shapes and is a vital part of the biological
processes on Earth regardless on which phase of matter, namely solid, liquid, or gas, it is in.
Therefore, scientists and chemists always search for water, especially liquid water, first in other
distant planets considering that finding water on other planets is a major development in the search
of life.
Water is a substance that is composed of the chemical elements hydrogen and oxygen. A molecule
consists of two hydrogen atoms, each linked by a single covalent bond to an oxygen atom. However,
only two of the six outer–shell electrons of oxygen are used for this purpose, leaving four electrons
which are organized into two non–bonding pairs. These pairs surrounding the oxygen have a
partially negative charge mainly through electrostatic attraction increasing its electronegativity,
which tend to arrange themselves as far from each other as possible in order to minimize repulsions.
In turn, makes the hydrogen atoms to have a partially positive charge, and therefore making the two
non–bonding pairs remain closer to the oxygen atom, which exert a stronger repulsion against the
two covalent bonding pairs, effectively pushing the two hydrogen atoms closer together. This
electronic structure of water makes it possible for the molecule to bend on a special way, shown
through the figure:

Account for the Different Physical Properties and Uses of...
Diamond is a giant covalent network structure, having each Carbon atom sharing electrons with four
other Carbon atoms, therefore having four single covalent bonds formed. These Carbon covalent
bonds are extremely strong and account for two of diamond's most prominent physical properties
among all elements, hardness and a high melting point. Diamond has a high melting point due to the
fact that diamond is a covalent lattice, hence, melting this covalent lattice involves breaking many
strong covalent bonds. This melting process requires a large amount of energy and, as a result,
melting diamond requires a high temperature, approximately around 35500C. Having strong
covalent bonds, diamond also has a high level of hardness due to ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
It are these properties which allow graphite to be used to draw with (using a pencil), as the friction
against weak intermolecular forces on paper causes layers of graphite to rub off onto the paper. It is
this layered structure and the weak bonding between the "sheets" that determines the soft slippery
feel of graphite, thus, creating graphite's self lubricating property. Being used a lubricant, graphite
can be used at very high or low temperatures for many different works, such as: steelmaking, wire
die extrusion lubricant, gear lubricant for mining machinery and to lubricate locks. While natural
graphite can be used in zinc carbon batteries in electric motor brushes and other specific works.
From all of these uses, graphite also has the ability to conduct electricity, and we can the reason as
to why when looking at the electron arrangement in graphite. As each Carbon atom bonds to three
other Carbon atoms, there is a fourth electron remaining in the bonding level. These remaining
electrons in each Carbon atom form into a "sea" of delocalised electrons, moving around the whole
sheet of atoms in the one layer. It is the ability of these delocalised electrons to move freely through
their own Carbon layer, hence, making graphite a good conductor of electricity. Being a good
conductor of electricity graphite, can be used as electrodes to an arc lamp and to carry the electricity
that heats electric arc furnaces.
Due to graphite's layered structure,

Ionic and Covalent Bonding Essay
Ionic and Covalent Bonding
Ionic and covalent bonding is involved when the atoms of an element chemically combine to make
their outer shells full and to make the atoms stable.
The first type of bonding you can get is ionic bonding. Electrons are transferred from one atom to
another to try and create full outer shells, this gain and loss of electrons on the atoms results in
positive and negative ions. In these compounds you get electrostatic force, this is the force/attraction
that occurs between the positive and negative ions that hold the compound together. This type of
bonding takes place between metals and non–metals. The metals lose electrons and form cations,
whereas the non–metals gain ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
As the size of the negative ion and the charge on the positive ion both increase and the size of the
positive ions decrease, the polarisation effect increases. This polar ionic bonding gives many of the
atoms covalent characters. Sometimes one of the atoms become so highly polarised that they share
the electrons and therefore can create covalent bonds.
Covalent bonding takes place where two atoms have a single, unpaired electron in an atomic orbital;
these orbitals will therefore overlap so that the two atoms are sharing a pair of electrons. The
attraction that holds the atoms together is the force between the electron and the nuclei in each of the
atoms. Before the atoms are bonded, the single, non–bonded pairs of electrons are called lone pairs
of electrons. When the atoms combine by means of covalent bonding they form molecules.
Simple covalent compounds consist of many small molecules. The covalent bonds within the
molecules are strong but the bondings between them to form the compounds are relatively weak, the
force that occurs between them is called the intermolecular force. It takes very little energy to break
these forces; therefore simple covalent compounds have very low melting points and generally
appear as gases.
You can also get multiple bonds; this is where atoms can share more than 2

What Are The Unique Chemical Properties Of Water
Water is one of the essential components that are a prerequisite in supporting life. It can be
described as an odorless, tasteless and transparent liquid that occur naturally. Water is colorless
when it is in small amount, but adopts a bluish color when it is in large quantities. As a natural
compound, water is the most abundant and familiar liquid that exist on earth. In its natural solid
(ice) and liquid form, water is estimated to cover over 70% of the entire surface of the universe
(Sikorski, 2006). Biologically, water constitutes a huge proportion of all the living tissues in a
human body. Specifically, water comprises approximately 92% of the blood plasma, an estimate of
80% of the muscle tissues, and over 61% of the body's red blood cells (Ratner et al., 2012). Also,
water constitutes of over a half of the majority of other tissues in the human body. Since water
appears to be so ubiquitous, people tend to be unaware of the unique properties that make water an
essential compound. It is the unique physical and chemical properties of water that are unavailable
in other natural compounds that give it indisputable importance in supporting the lives and survival
of all living organisms on earth. Unique chemical properties of water and their significance to living
organisms One of the distinct chemical properties of water that make it essential in supporting life in
the universe lies in the chemical structure. Specifically, water has a simple structure that is
comprised of

Unknown 33A Solubility Analysis
The physical attributes of Unknown 33A were that it was a white, crystal, and solid that had a sweet
cherry smell. As for Unknown 33B, the physical attributes were that it was a beige, yellowish color
liquid that was translucent and had a viscosity similar to water. Also, the liquid was homogenous
and smelled sour and similar to mildew.
The purpose of using solubility analysis on an unknown is to narrow the possible unknowns given
based on the solubility analysis. Acetone was a control for ketone and was soluble in water. Hexanal
was a control for an aldehyde and was insoluble in water due to intermolecular forces, such as an
increased amount of hydrophobic area rather than hydrophilic area. As a result, by identifying the
solubility of the

Electrolytes: Ionic Bond and Sodium Chloride Essay
Week #2 Post Lab
1.) Define the following: electrolyte, nonelectrolyte
Electrolyte: A substance that dissolves in water to form solutions that conduct electricity.
Nonelectrolyte: A compound that doesn't dissociate into ions when dissolved in water.
2.) Using examples in the last link, draw beakers showing atomic scale representations of aqueous
solutions of the following compounds. Classify each as an electrolyte or nonelectrolyte. * Ba(OH)2
(aq)
* NH3 (aq)
* C3H7OH (aq)
* NaHCO3 (aq)
3.) Why would it be important to use de–ionized water when preparing the aqueous solutions in this
experiment?
It is important to use de–ionized water in this experiment because you don't want the electrolytes in
the water to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
7) Although water is a poor conductor of electricity, we are cautioned not to operate electrical
appliances around water. Why?
Water itself does not conduct electricity very efficiently, but contains trace elements (i.e. sodium)
that do contain electrolytes.
Week 2: Bright Ideas
1) Evidence: What is the evidence that leads to a claim?
This section focuses on the analysis of your data. Draw a copy of the flow chart you made in class
and attach it to your post laboratory assignments. 2) Claim: Based on the data, what is the answer to
the key question?
Write a sentence or two that answers the key question based on the evidence (it does not have to be
the "right answer" to get full credit but it does have to be supported by the data).
The reason the light bulb would light up was because of the strong electrolytes in the ionic bonds.
During the experiment, it was mostly the ionic compounds that were lighting up the light bulb while
the covalent compounds did not.

3) Reading: How do the ideas developed in the lab compare with other scientist' ideas? Start by
reading pgs 2–5 given to you in class as well one other source containing related information (like a
textbook or educational internet site). How does the flow chart you made during the experiment
compare and contrast to the flow chart on pg 5? The flow chart on page 5 was more in–depth than
mine. The chart

Chemistry Self Assessment Test
Self–assessment practice tests
Test 1 – Material from Chapters 2–4 | 45 minutes
1 The kinetic theory suggests different arrangements for the atoms or molecules in the three states of
matter. The diagrams below show how evidence suggests the particles are arranged in the three
states of matter.
1 2 3
What are the three states shown? 1 A B C D 2 gas liquid solid liquid 2 liquid gas liquid solid 3 solid
solid gas gas
The graph shows the heating curve for a metal that is solid at room temperature (25 °C). The metal
has been heated until it turns to vapour.
D Temperature / ºC
C
B A Time
Which part of the graph represents the period of time when the metal is melting?
© Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry
Self–assessment practice ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The table below shows the electronic structures of four elements. Which element is a noble gas?
Element Number of electrons Shell 1 A B C D 2 2 2 1 Shell 2 0 2 6 0
18 The reactivity of elements within a group in the Periodic Table changes with their position in the
group. What is the order of increasing reactivity of the elements in Group I and in Group VII?
Group I A B C D Cs → Li Li → Cs Li → Cs Cs → Li Group VII F→I I→F F→I I→F
© Cambridge University Press IGCSE Chemistry
Self–assessment practice test 1

6
19 The diagram shows an outline of the Periodic Table with certain elements marked.
W V Y X
Which of the elements V, W, X or Y is a metal and which is a non–metal? Non–metal A B C D Y Y
W W Metal V X X V
20 Elements in the same group of the Periodic Table have similar properties. Element X is a
colourless, unreactive gas. Which group of the Periodic Table is X in? A Group VI C Group 0 B
Group I D Group VII
21 The structure of any atom is essentially defined by two numbers. How many protons, neutrons
and electrons are present in an atom of the element with proton (atomic) number 6 and nucleon
(mass) number 14? Protons A B C D 6 8 6 8 Neutrons 8 6 8 6 Electrons 6 6 8 8
22 Metals usually form compounds involving ionic bonding. How do metals form their ions? A by
gaining protons C by losing electrons B by gaining electrons D by losing protons
23 Chlorine is a highly reactive non–metal. What particles are gained by

Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, and Polymers
Ionic Bonds, Covalent Bonds, and Polymers An attraction between atoms that allows chemical
substances to form is commonly referred to as a chemical bond. Two of the most common types of
chemical bonds are ionic bonds and covalent bonds. Both ionic and covalent bonds can be mixed
together in order to form mixtures and compounds. While the two types of chemical bonds have
several similarities, they are also vastly different. Ionic and covalent bonds are formed when two or
more elements bond together. There are 117 elements known to date. An element is defined as a
substance that is made up of a single atom. While 94 of these elements are naturally occurring, 22 of
these elements are artificial. A complete list of elements can be found on the periodic table of the
elements, arranged by atomic number and by chemical property. When substances are formed
through ionic or covalent bonding, they can be combined with other substances to form mixtures or
compounds. A compound is a pure substance that is made up of two or more substances. A
compound is a homogenous mixture that requires all elements comprising the mixture to be present
in fixed proportions. When elements are combined to make a compound, they do not retain their
individual properties. Furthermore, in order to separate a compound into its individual elemental
components, a large amount of energy must be used. Compounds form naturally and have elemental
stability; stability depends on the number of electrons that

Intermolecular Forces Lab
Theory: This lab focuses on the characteristics and properties of oxides found in period 3 of the
periodic table. Naturally, the oxides of different elements have different properties, mainly because
of their intermolecular bonds and their intramolecular bonds. Intermolecular bonds refer to the
attraction and repulsion found between neighbouring ions or molecules. These typically determine
the molecules physical properties, such as boiling/melting points, shape/state, hardness/softness,
colour, lustre, ductility, brittleness etc. Typically, those with larger and longer bonds will have
stronger properties. There are six main types of intermolecular forces, being:
Covalent networks are created when elements near the staircase of the periodic ... Show more
First off, a majority of the oxides were either white or clear in colour. Second of all, as one moves
from left to right across period three, the oxides go from more basic to more acidic, meaning the pH
of the oxides decreases further as one moves across the periodic table. Finally, moving from the left
end to the right end again, the oxides change state from solid to liquid and near the end of the table
the oxides would be gaseous. Sodium Oxide is an ionic compound, which means it has an ionic
network–structure. This is evident as it has a high melting/boiling point, and is soluble in water.
Magnesium Oxide is also an ionic compound, meaning it has an ionic network–structure. It too has a
high melting and boiling point and is soluble in water. As for Aluminum Oxide, it is likely a
covalent bond, and has a covalent network–structure. This is because it has a large melting and
boiling point, it is located near the staircase in the periodic table, and because it is insoluble in water.
There is a high chance that Silicon Dioxide is also a covalent bond with a covalent network–
structure as well, as it shares the same characteristics as Aluminum Dioxide (high melting/boiling
point, near staircase, and insoluble in water). Carbon Dioxide is a non–polar molecule, and as a
result only has London forces acting between the neighbouring molecules. This is evident as the
shape of CO2 has no dipoles and the bp/mp is

Infant Observations

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