IntroductionIt is not unusual for the teachers of students wit.docx

Introduction
It is not unusual for the teachers of students with emotional and
behavioral disorders (EBD) to spend less time on academic
instruction; consequently these students may not be engaged in
academic activities as much as mainstream students. Knizter,
Setinberg, and Fleisch (1990) describe this process as
bleakness. Keeping current with research-based instructional
procedures is a valuable tool to support and develop educators'
skills in the design and delivery of effective lessons for students
with EBD (Yell, Meadows, Drasgow, & Shriner (2009).
Teaching Reading
Theorists and researchers continue to argue the best approach
for teaching reading. Should the approach be meaning-based,
code-based, or a continuum of both approaches? Should the
teaching of reading skills be based on general comprehension,
an approach of phonics and grammatical rules, or a combination
of the two? Recently, educators are focusing on a combination
of phonics and whole words.
Initially, for the code-based or rules approach, it should be
remembered that phonemic awareness and phonics are not
synonymous. Phonemic awareness is the understanding of the
sounds used to form words. Phonics is knowledge of the
specific system of knowing what letters have which sounds in
order to place them in the correct order to form the word.
When learning to read, children can learn the whole word by
sight or learn to decode and encode with the use of phonics.
Obviously they can use some of each approach, but in general a
student will be strong in one approach and have to acquire more
skills for the other approach. Students who show lower reading
levels often lack the phonemic skills. According to Yell et al.
(2009), the National Institute of Child Health and Human
Development (NICHD) reported in 2000 that letter knowledge
and phonemic awareness are the best predictors of how well a

student will learn to read in the first two years of instruction. It
should not be assumed that a student has received those skills
simply because they are past those first two years of school.
That being said, it would seem evident that a combination of the
two approaches would be most successful.
The direct instruction (DI) model has shown to increase student
achievement in reading (Gage & Berliner, (1998). For the DI
approach, many teachers incorporate different strategies through
specific objectives, curriculum, and sequence. Repeated
readings and peer-assisted techniques show improvement in
fluency, reading rates, and on-task behaviors. Mnemonics and
acronyms are often introduced to help remember academic
strategies.
Teaching Writing
There are two models which have been used to teach writing to
students.
1. Product-based writing concentrates on the mechanics of
writing and uses writing strands to progress. States may
deconstruct the mechanics in the mandated standards. These
types of writing tasks would be critiqued on spelling, grammar
usage, capitalization, and punctuation.
2. Process-based writing includes overlapping and
interactive stages:
3. Planning or prewriting;
4. Complete a first draft;
5. Revise the draft with necessary editing; and
6. Producing a final publication.
The problem with this approach is that some students have
lower fundamental writing skills and will not be able to
complete the first few steps or even a comprehensible finished
product successfully. The process approach assumes that the
writer already has the skills to complete acceptable sentences
with appropriate grammar.
Teaching Math
Approaches used for students with learning disabilities (LD)
may be applicable for students with EBD. A kinesthetic

approach may be helpful for students who do not comprehend
math on paper. The use of manipulatives can often help students
visually see the problem and answers. Working on the desk and
working on the board may also produce different results. Again,
teacher and student attitudes can directly affect the results of
skills gained.
The process of learning is diverse and dependent on variables
such as physical and cognitive development. Some students are
unable to comprehend or retain the basic mathematical skills
taught in the first few years of school. Without a solid
understanding of the basic skills, students lack a foundation to
build upon. Therefore, higher expectations are increasingly
frustrating and result in a lower self-efficacy for math. Often,
curriculum does not build in enough practice time for these
students who lack the basic skills. Teachers must be prepared to
put in extra time and effort in order to provide the needed
practice for retention. The practice should be provided in
different learning formats to compensate for individual learning
styles. Tools such as computer, paper, manipulatives, peer
tutoring, and larger surfaces such as the board in the classroom
can be utilized. Frequent assessment and monitoring of progress
will pinpoint the skill areas still needing remediation.
Conclusion
Academic instruction that is structured but engaging and covers
basic skills without being boring provide a learning
environment that helps promote the success of all students. It is
imperative that teachers and administrators be aware of the EBD
student's skill levels, interests, and attitudes. Many special-
needs children have developed an attitude of won't do or can't
do. Although these terms may look the same, they have very
different meanings in terms of teaching and learning. If students
have experienced repeated failure, it may be the case that those
students believe they cannot complete the task at hand or fear
they will fail again. Learning takes place for all children in an
alert and challenging classroom where students are engaged in
the lesson, encouraged, and scaffolded through tasks. Classes

that revolve around students seeing, hearing, and doing often
create successful learners. Techniques that work well for other
students, such as mnemonics and acronyms, can also work for
students with EBD; effective teachers in mainstream classrooms
and effective teachers in remedial and support classrooms use
the same techniques.
References
Gage, N., & Berliner, D. (1998). Educational psychology (6th
ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
Knitzer, J., Setinberg, Z., & Fleisch, B. (1990). At the
schoolhouse door: An examination of programs and policies for
children with behavioral and emotional problems. New York:
Bank Street College of Education.
Yell, M. L, Meadows, N. B., Drasgow, E., & Shriner, J. G.
(2009). Evidence-based practices for educating students with
emotional and behavioral disorders. Merrill/Pearson.
© 2010. Grand Canyon University. All Rights Reserved.
Introduction
There is a wide variety of mental and emotional health issues
present in classrooms that often manifest through inappropriate
behaviors. Past approaches to classroom management have been
mainly designed around punishment. The emphasis was on
actions taken after the behavior had happened; discipline and
teaching were thought of as separate areas in education.
However, from the early 1970s, history has shown that actions
taken by teachers prior to incidents of undesired classroom
behaviors can be the catalyst for preventing the behaviors from
occurring. That is, if they understand the need for and works to
create and maintain a proactive environment, the result will be a
classroom in which student learning increases and misbehavior
decreases (Yell Meadows, Drasgow, & Shriner, 2009).

Proactive Components
There are four components listed in the textbook (Yell et al.,
2009) that are involved in a proactive classroom management
system.
1. Attitude and behaviors of the teacher;
2. Authority from a creditable teacher;
3. Structure of the classroom; and
4. Effectiveness of the instruction.
Teachers can affect the classroom with their own beliefs and
attitudes about children with special needs. Positive attitudes
and a high self-efficacy about teaching students with special
needs are essential to successful classroom management.
Teachers may be insensitive to students' needs or be poor role
models. Some instructors may not have realistic expectations
for their special-needs students or fail to be consistent with
consequences.
The teacher needs to be the authority in special-needs
classrooms. This influence should be established in the
beginning of the school year; creditability comes through the
teacher's consistency. Many special-needs students lack
adequate structure in their daily lives; therefore consistent
schedules, expectations, and consequences can be effective. If
there is more than one adult present in the classroom, it is of
paramount importance for all staff to work together consistently
and establish the same level of expectations and protocols.
According to Yell et al. (2009), the structure of a classroom is
defined as the way in which classrooms are organized, the goal
of which is to enhance teaching and learning and lower the
incidence of problem misbehaviors. This will entail advanced
planning on the teacher's part. The teacher should instruct
students from the beginning of the year in regards to the
expected procedures, rules, and acceptable behaviors. After the
initial, basic expectations are outlined, these students may do a
very adequate job of contributing positive input towards
expectations and rules. After attending school for a few years,
most students know the general expectations but may not adhere

to them on a consistent basis. Every classroom has its own set
of rules; allowing students to have input on the rules and
expectations gives them ownership, which is something they
may have very little of in their daily lives.
Instruction needs to be delivered in such a way as to be
continually interesting to the students and cognitively engaging
to the point that they are less involved in undesirable behaviors.
Students who are academically successful are less likely to act
out and be inappropriate socially (Horner & Carr, 1997)
Teachers of students with EBD often will have a wide variety of
academic skills in the classroom. With hands-on activities and
lessons geared to their level, students can achieve greater
academic and behavioral success. There are curriculums which
provide higher interest levels while maintaining a lower
academic skill level. The teacher can use everyday examples of
how and why the skills are being taught and allow the students
to discover how they learn best. Teachers who are effective in
academic delivery with a variety of students usually have
positive classroom management skills and fewer student
behavior problems.
Overt and Covert Behaviors
Overt behaviors are exhibited in aggression and antisocial
behaviors. If these behaviors are severe enough across
environments, the child may be termed as having a conduct
disorder (CD). According to Kauffman (2001), the severity and
prevalence of conduct disorders is increasing and has a higher
incidence among males. Because of the higher incident of
aggressive behaviors, all teachers now need to be educated and
able to deal with these kinds of behaviors. Early interventions
are required, due to the quickly escalating academic failures and
peer rejections faced by students with conduct disorders. Many
people argue that violence in society has a direct correlation to
what the children see and hear through the media, games, and
music. However, Kauffman points out that research is showing
that biological and genetic elements seem to be at the base of
the more severe cases of CD. Overt and covert behaviors are

subtypes of conduct disorders, and children can exhibit
behaviors from both categories. The prognosis, both in school
and society, is very poor for these types of children and
adolescences.
Covert behaviors are often more difficult to distinguish and plan
interventions for because they can be elusive and evading.
Lying, stealing, setting fires, and running away are often not as
quickly evident as more overt behaviors. Covert behaviors can
have the same causal factors as overt behaviors, and both stem
from noncompliance issues.
When teachers, and the team, are aware of behavioral
characteristics, differences, and antecedents, they can create a
more effective plan for intervention.
Behavior Intervention Plans
"One of the greatest challenges for effective behavior support is
getting all the components of the BIP implemented consistently"
(Yell et al., 2009, p. 118). Behavior intervention plans (BIP) are
the result of the functional behavior assessment (FBA) and
target inappropriate behaviors. Often the implementation of the
BIP is executed in the classroom. The BIP is to be proactive and
preventative, relying on the development of skills from the
tasks of re-teaching, academics, and positive reinforcement.
These tasks fall on the classroom teacher and staff, with the
addition of data collection for all areas in order to track the
student's progress.
Antecedents for behaviors listed in the FBA and BIP may be
addressed in the teacher's plan for structuring the classroom.
The re-teaching of cognitive and appropriate behavioral skills
becomes imbedded in the daily effective instruction. Positive
and consistent enforcement of all plans and rules gives the
teacher authority and credibility with the students.
Conclusion
Students with EBD are going to engage in behaviors that will
interfere with daily routines and academic lessons. There will
also be a need for a crisis management plan in order to prevent
injuries. However, behaviors will decrease and skills can be

maintained when staff act and plan proactively; have a set
routine when inappropriate behaviors occur; practice effective
and frequent communication; and are consistent.
References
Kauffman, J. M. (2001). Characteristics of emotional and
behavior disorders of children and youth (7th ed.). Upper
Saddle River, NJ: Merrill/Prentice Hall.
Horner, R., & Carr, E. (1997). Behavioral support for students
with severe disabilities: Functional assessment and
comprehensive interventions. The Journal of Special Education,
31, 84-104.
.
Introduction
Just as there are many diagnoses of disorders, there are many
forms of intervention. It is important that care and concern go
into the planning of the most appropriate intervention
strategies. According to Yell, Meadows, Drasgow, and Shriner
(2009), "When developing programs for students with emotional
and behavioral disorders (EBD), the ultimate goal is to teach
them more socially appropriate and adaptive forms of behavior
that endure after they leave the school setting" (p.125).
Coping Skills
There are a number of skills that educators can help students
learn and permanently acquire for a number of stressful
situations, including cognitive restructuring, stress
management, and anger management. All of these areas can be
taught in a mandatory social skills content area just as academic
areas are taught. This curriculum of social skills instruction
should be required of every EBD program. Unfortunately, the

immediate teacher may not have the training and education to
effectively implement such a program, therefore, additional
personnel such as a social worker, psychologist, or counselor
may be required.
Implementing Cognitive Behavioral Interventions
According to Yell et al. (2009), developing and implementing
these interventions requires three components:
1. Functional assessment of the problematic behaviors;
2. Program planning and implementation, including choosing
the cognitive behavioral intervention (CBI), teaching the
procedures, and monitoring student results; and
3. Programming for generalization, so that the student will
be able to carry on the learned procedures independently.
Cognitive Restructuring
Often, the student with EBD experiences cognitive distortions
that place unrealistic demands on themselves and others,
resulting in anxiety, depression, and anger from unrealistic
fears. They can react by minimize or maximize situations or
perceived experiences that are not really happening. Distortions
occur as the student perceives the current situation while
experiencing old emotions from past similar experiences.
Violent behaviors can result, but students can be educated to
recognize and counter unrealistic thoughts.
Approaches such as rational emotive behavior therapy (REBT)
can teach the student how to discern cognitively the new
experiences from the old experience in order to rationalize
emotional and behavioral responses. The assumption is that the
EBD person experiences faulty thinking about the events rather
than the actual event itself. In the classroom, REBT is typically
implemented in small groups where peers help each other work
through misperceptions. REBT concentrates on the present and
conscious thought; present day problems are tackled instead of
the past problems, experiences, or causal factors.
Stress and Anger Management
The ultimate goal in teaching students with EBD how to control
their emotions and behaviors is to develop self-regulation and

self-management skills. When students have self-management
skills they are able to demonstrate responsible and independent
behaviors for the future or be able to use generalization. They
will learn to self-monitor and know to check in with themselves
when their behaviors may become inappropriate, regardless of
whether they are alone or with others. Students can practice
self-evaluation through the previously learned CBI techniques
and take steps to correct their behaviors where required. They
will know when and how to change their behavior before it
becomes inappropriate or a problem.
Group Therapy
Often, programs for students with EBD have a therapeutic
element included with the academics. If the teacher is the one
delivering this element, the group instruction for behaviors
might fall under the social skills area because behaviors affect
the social realm.
The therapeutic process and techniques take place within the
theoretical perspective of the leader trained in a specific style
or philosophy of human behavior, resulting in verbal or physical
approaches to therapy. The basic assumption in group therapy is
that, with the guidance of the leader, participants learn about
their feelings and attitudes from interacting with other group
members and, with support of the group, learn appropriate
behaviors. Common components found in all the approaches
include:
1. Insight or self-understanding;
2. Learning from interpersonal interaction;
3. Acceptance;
4. Self-disclosure;
5. Catharsis (a release from tension);
6. Guidance;
7. Vicarious learning; and
8. Altruism (Newcomer, 1993, p. 445).
Collaboration
It is not only students who require training in the CBI
techniques and strategies. The staff and others involved with the

student need to have the same information and to collaborate as
a team. These people are the mandated IEP team required by
IDEA, which may include additional professionals if necessary
for the assured success of the student. Accordingly, anyone who
has a contribution to make and information to share related to
the team's task should be a member of the student's IEP team.
Collaboration needs to be present between the special education
teacher and aides, administrators, regular teachers, parents or
guardians, and any contributing outside agencies. The more
consistent the approach, the more likely the student will
experience success. Successful collaboration requires successful
communication and frequent monitoring for success. There must
be commitment, skills, trust, and respect for all members, and
the student needs to be one of those members as they age.
Transition mandates that the student is included in the planning
of the IEP when they are 16 years old. However, considering
that research has shown that beginning at an earlier age may
produce successful outcomes, it is pertinent to include students
at an earlier age when possible.
Conclusion
Lack of successful appropriate behaviors and social skills often
accompany lack of academic success. Students with EBD tend
to have poor external and internal personal skills and do not
always enjoy friendships and positive self-esteem. Through CBI
training, self- monitoring, increased success, and continued
practice, the student with EBD can reverse all those areas. The
long-term outcomes can be more positive and students can be
more independent and successful due to the CBI interventions,
social skills training, and collaboration between the school staff
and other members of the IEP team.
References
Newcomer, P. L. (2002). Understanding and teaching
emotionally disturbed children and adolescents. Pro-ed, Austin,
Texas.

Introduction
Ambiguity and difficulty in defining emotional and behavioral
disorders (EBD) causes the numbers of students with EBD to
vary widely. Often this group can be the most under-identified
category in a school. Factors causing students to exhibit
emotional and behavioral disorder can be from five different
theoretical frameworks, including biological, psychoanalytical,
behavioral, phenomenological, and sociological-ecological
(Smith, Polloway, Patton, Dowdy, 2004). The aforementioned
factors may lead to numerous disorders which are all classified
under the heading of emotional disturbance.
The debate continues over which assessments to use and why.
The purpose of assessment is not only to identify the disabilities
but also to use that information to create a more individualized
program for intervention and remediation. Assessments include
both formal and informal types, and the mandated team
determines eligibility.
When considering students with EBD, there are times when the
team must determine if the behaviors are truly manifestations of
students' disabilities in order to protect them from disciplinary
measures such as suspension and expulsion. No matter what
assessments are used, there needs to be clear-cut guidelines and
procedures in order to perform an appropriate manifestation
determination, plan, placement, and necessary support services.
Classifications of Mental Health Disorders
Although IDEA has only one category for EBD, there are
various disorders that may be present or concurrent within that
disability. In order to differentiate between the various
classifications of emotional disabilities, psychologists refer to
the American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and
Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TE, 2000).

Some of the various professional psychological diagnoses may
include categories of Anxiety, Mood, and Personality Disorders;
Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD); Pervasive
Developmental Disorders; and Organic or Physical Disorders
such as thyroid dysfunction.
Although not necessarily a licensed psychologist, the classroom
teacher has been given a tremendous responsibility to assist in
identifying emotional disturbances in children. Often, they are
the first to notice something unusual. It is crucial that special
educators are aware of the signs, symptoms, and evaluation
methods for diagnosing emotional disturbances. The goals of
the assessment process are to gather relevant information about
the student, create a comprehensive picture of concerns, and
develop goals and strategies for intervention.
Assessment and Data Collection
Reliability and validity in assessments are crucial for accurate
diagnosis. According to Kauffman (2001), reliability in
assessment means the result will be the same every time is it
administered to the same person and vary very little. Validity is
determined by the assessment measuring what it is purported to
measure and not measuring irrelevant aspects or other noise.
Observations
One of the informal assessments of student behavior is
observation. Informal observations and reports of the behaviors
can be the first of the prescreening assessments. Later, there
will need to be at least one additional observation done in the
classroom for inclusion in the formal report. Discipline reports
may be collected initially for pre-referral data collection.
According to Heward (2003), there are five measurable
dimensions of behavior:
1. Rate: "How often a particular behavior occurs per
standard unit of time" (p. 288);
2. Duration: The length of time the behavior is displayed;
3. Latency: The amount of time there is to respond without
evidence of the behavior;
4. Magnitude: The intensity of the behavior, which may

range from too little or too much (e.g., the low volume of voice
or slamming of a door); and
5. Topography: The physical form of the behavior, or what
the behavior looks like when observed.
It is best practice that someone who is not with the student all
day perform the observation in order to allow for an objective
report. More than one observation can be completed to help
ensure reliability.
Behavior Assessments and Interviews
Methods of gathering information specifically on the student's
behaviors may include behavior checklists, standardized self-
reports, structured interviews, rating scales, and other
appropriate assessment techniques. Analysis of work samples
can also be useful. Here, instructors and observers are asked to
focus on observable behavior in the school setting and describe
what students do in nonbiased, objective, and behaviorally
related terms. Some assessments use a triangulation method,
requiring parents and the student to also complete the
questionnaires and rating scales.
Some specific behavior assessments that are frequently used
include Behavior Assessment System for Children (BASC),
Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales, Behavioral and Emotional
Rating Scale (BERS 2, 2nd ed.), and the Systematic Screening
for Behavioral Disorders (SSBD).
A functional behavior assessment (FBA) is often used and can
gather information from different environments, include
antecedents, and help to direct intervention plans, such as a
behavior intervention plan (BIP), which is then included in the
student's individualized education plan (IEP). Often, an
accompanying academic intervention is required in conjunction
to the behavioral intervention.
Academic Assessments
There are two different approaches when considering
achievement tests: Norm-referenced and criterion-referenced
assessments. Norm-referenced assessments compare the
student's current academic abilities ". . . to the performance

level of a national sample of students administered the same test
by the test author. This population of students is typically
called the norm or standardization sample" (Yell et al., 2009, p.
53). A criterion-referenced assessment can be individualized,
since it helps make ". . . judgments about a student's
performance in comparison to a predetermined criterion or
standard" (Yell et al., p. 53). Criterion assessments give a
percentage rather than standard scores or equivalence derived
from norm-referenced assessments. No one single type of
assessment should be used for eligibility requirements.
Curriculum-based assessments (CBA) use direct observation and
recording of the student's achievement in a local and current
curriculum. It can be very reliable, valid, and used to
understand how effective an instructional program is for a
specific student. However, different schools can use different
curriculum, and, overall, CBA can lack standardization.
Curriculum-based measurement (CBM) has standardized
procedures and can integrate components of traditional and
behavioral assessment within academic subjects such as reading,
writing, and math. These types of CBM assessments can
establish a measuring and graphing process over a length of
time to establish goals which would correlate directly to
interventions and the IEP.
Conclusion
All of the assessment results, after being interpreted by
qualified specialists, are evaluated by the special education
team. By mandates through IDEA Improvement Act, (2004), the
team consists of a local educational agency representative
(LEA), the student's regular and special education teachers, a
qualified person to interpret the testing results, the parent, and
sometimes the student. There are protocols in place to protect
the rights of the student and parents.
Ideally, the reason for any assessment should be for
intervention and a successful remediation. The programming
should focus on more than deficits, and needs to consider all
areas of the individual now and in the future. The student with

EBD is much more than just a troubled kid. There continues to
be a call for improvement in assessments and particularly for
individualization. There also needs to be more support in the
execution of interventions with continued training for all who
are involved with the student. Although there has been
tremendous headway made in the last century for assistance for
students with ED, there continues to be room for even more
improvement.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and
statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington
DC: Author.
Heward, W. L. (2003). Exceptional children: An introduction to
special education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: R .R. Donnelley.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, Pub.
L. No. 94-142, § 20 U.S.C. 1400 (2004).
Smith, T. E. C., Polloway, E. A., Patton, J. R., & Dowdy, C. A.
(2004). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive
settings (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Introduction
Disturbing behavior is constituted of many contributing factors.
In this particular society, potential causative elements may
include variables related to biological, family, school, social,
and community factors (Smith, Polloway, Patton, & Dowdy,
2004). A medical history from past and present medical
providers should be established and their credentials should be

examined as part of the whole picture. It is imperative that
interviews and any existing documentation be included in
evaluation and recommendations.
Biological Factors
Biological factors may be able to account for causal
explanations where psychological hypotheses fall short.
Children are born with a certain biological or psychological
predisposition (Rothbart, 2006; Rothbart & Bates, 2006), but
both are malleable to educational and social influences. There is
also evidence of genetic links in some behavioral and emotional
disorders such as schizophrenia (Cardno, Rijsdijk, & Sham,
2002). Research has shown that antisocial children tend to come
from homes where parents use excessive punishment, spend
little time in pro-social activities with their children,
demonstrate neglect, and show little love and affection for good
behaviors (Eisenberg et al., 2008).These cycles are usually
repeated by the children when they become parents, and
therefore are learned attributes, according to psychologists who
subscribe to the Social Learning Theory.
Family Factors
The family environment is the primary influence on children
during the first years of their lives. Before exposure to the
school setting, children have experienced factors that may well
predict how they will behave. Conversely, the way they behave
may affect how their parents behave (Heward, 2003). A child's
negative behavior can increase stress within the family and can
place the family unit at increased risk for discord and
dysfunction. In the last three decades, there has been a
substantial increase of single-parent homes due to higher
incidents of divorce and out-of-wedlock births (Heward).
Contributing factors may include economic hardship, increased
drug and alcohol use, neglect, abuse, and interpersonal
conflicts. These factors are some of the reasons that contribute
to mandated efforts to work collaboratively with parents or
guardians. According to Kauffman (2001),
With what we know about the family's role in children's

emotional or behavioral disorders, educators would be foolish to
ignore the influence of home conditions on school performance
and conduct (p. 199).
Therefore, the influences of the home environment on students
with EBD should not be underestimated.
Social Factors
Children spend the majority of their time at home and school. If
a child has demonstrated negative, age-inappropriate behaviors
(e.g., extended temper tantrums, physical violence, depression)
in the preschool atmosphere, then in all likelihood the child will
continue to demonstrate those behaviors in school. Social
rejection, incurred by continued behavioral infractions, often
leads to disciplinary action, which in turn negatively affects
children with EBD.
Cultural Factors
Cultural influences may be considered social interactions that
also affect how children behave. Exposed to a variety of
attitudes, prejudices, and expectations, children can adapt and
imitate both positive and negative behaviors. Educators should
make a concerted effort to remove any cultural bias when
evaluating students. Educators must always acknowledge
cultural differences when interacting with children diagnosed
with ED.
Behavior Intervention Models
Emotional and behavioral disabled children are a heterogeneous
group requiring different conceptual models for intervention.
The myriad of multifaceted and impulsive problem behaviors
exhibited by students with EBD are characterized as either
behavioral excesses or deficits (Yell, Meadows, Drasgow, &
Shriner, 2009). However, there are several models to choose
from when designing and implementing behavioral education
and interventions. Models used consist of the psychodynamic,
biological, humanistic, behavioral, ecological, and
psychoeducational models, and the one most frequently used at
present: The social-cognitive model.

1. The psychodynamic model theory posits a pathological
imbalance between the person's Id, Ego, and Superego. This
model is also referred to as the psychoanalytic model.
2. The biological, or biogenic, model deals with the
assumption that the behaviors are a result of neurophysiologic
mechanisms. This model may resort to drugs or surgery for
resolutions to negative behaviors.
3. The humanistic intervention model focuses on the
individual's environment where experiential learning is the rule.
This model calls for higher level thinking skills in order to
develop an awareness of one's thoughts, behaviors, interactions,
and outcomes. This model, also referred to as postmodernism or
deconstruction, contends that the behavior is the basis of the
problem that stems from reacting to environmental
circumstances. This approach concentrates on changing
antecedent or consequent events so that more positive,
acceptable behavior is acquired.
4. The ecological approach uses naturally occurring social
interactions and emphasizes socially accepted behaviors and
concepts. The underlying premise is that humans are socially
enmeshed and those interactions predict behaviors.
5. The psychoeducational model for interventions operates
from the standpoint that there are unconscious motivations and
conflicts that interfere with everyday demands of the student's
life. Therefore, a teacher's role is to instruct the student to
become aware of negative behaviors and their thoughts, to think
in terms of outcomes and alternatives, and to change initial
reactions for positive future results.
6. The social-cognitive theory, often called social learning
theory, seeks to incorporate the role of the environment and the
role of cognition in explaining the actions of one's behavior,
since behaviorism does not always explain the subtleties and
complexities of the human experience. The triadic theory within
the social-cognitive model looks at the reciprocal effects of
environment, behavior, and person-based variables (e.g.,
temperament) and seeks to provide a deeper understanding of

how personal agency or social context affects decisions.
Many leaders in the field of EBD adhere primarily to the social-
cognitive model while incorporating definitions, concepts, and
methodologies from behaviorism (Kauffman & Landrum, 2009).
Conclusion
A virtual web emerges from the contributing causes of
disturbing behavior, and it can be an exhausting feat to
determine primary versus secondary or even tertiary factors for
remediation. Schools not only respond to society, but also have
an obligation to influence families and society. Periodically, a
cause may not be immediately evident, or if it is evident, there
may not be a sensible way to remediate it. There needs to be a
balance of scientific inquiry, facts, and nonbiased assessments
and interpretations in order to best plan for appropriate behavior
interventions along with an educational model. Research and
history illustrate that an intelligent quotient (IQ) does not
change, barring some unfortunate accident or disease; however
behaviors can change with intervention; education, such as
consistent social skills training; and other proactive plans.
References
Cardno, A. G., Rijsdijk, F. V., Sham, P. C. (2002). A twin study
of genetic relationships between psychotic symptoms. American
Journal of Psychiatry, 159, 539-545.
Eisenberg, N., Michalik, N., Spinrad, T. L., Hofer, C., Kupfer,
A., Valiente, C., et al. (2008). Relations of effortful control and
impulsivity to children's sympathy: A longitudinal
study.Cognitive Development, 2, 15-25.
Heward, W. L. (2003). Exceptional children: An introduction to
special education. Upper Saddle River, NJ: R. R. Donnelley &
Sons.
Kauffman, J. M., & Landrum, T. J. (2009). Characteristics of
emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (9th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Rothbart, M. K. (2006) Temperament and the pursuit of an
integrated developmental psychology. In Appraising the human
developmental sciences: Essays in honor of Merrill-Palmer
quarterly.
Rothbart, M. K., & Bates, J. E. (2006). Temperament. In W.
Damon, R. Lerner, & N. Eisenberg (Eds.), Handbook of child
psychology: Vol. 3. Social, emotional, and personality
development (6th ed., pp. 99-106). New York: Wiley.
Smith, T. E. C., Polloway, E. A., Patton, J. R., & Dowdy, C. A.
(2004). Teaching students with special needs in inclusive
settings (4th ed.). Boston: Allyn & Bacon.
Introduction
Childhood should be a time of play, learning, and making
friends, but for some children it does not contain many of these
elements and will not leave pleasant memories. The time of
adolescence is often a time for some conflicts and turmoil.
Emotionally Disturbed
For a small percentage of the general school population those
times become more intense, frequent, and longer lasting. The
emotional and behavioral problems are real and sometimes so
devastating that they interfere with students' ability to learn.
This is the population that the Individuals With Disabilities
Education Act (IDEA Improvement, 2004) define as
Emotionally Disturbed (ED).
What is in a name? For years, there has been controversy over
the exact terminology used to incur less stigmatization while
acquiring maximum resources and interventions. There are also
debates over proper identification, the best interventions, and
how they will be determined according to primary handicapping

conditions within this population. These unresolved issues have
brought about numerous questions such as:
Is the primary interference with learning coming from
emotional issues or behavioral issues?
How can these behaviors be accurately measured and
diagnosed?
Why is it often said that this special education
population is under-identified?
History and Definitions
In order to gain a better understanding of the evolution of this
category, one needs to review the history. Before the 19th
century, handicapped individuals were referred to as imbeciles,
morons, or idiots if they were intellectually disabled and insane
if they had emotional or behavioral issues (Smith, Polloway,
Patton, & Dowdy, 2004). Problems were attributed to the
environment in which they lived and grew up. More recently, it
has been determined that there are combinations of causal
factors responsible for the emotional and behavioral problems
of these types of children. Historically, the federal government
had identified this group as Seriously Emotionally Disturbed
(SED). In 1990, the Mental Health and Special Education
Coalition (MHSEC) proposed a more functional definition of
ED to replace the more ambiguous one found in the Individuals
With Disabilities Education Act (IDEA, 1990) (cf. Christle &
Yell, 2009; Kauffman & Landrum, 2009); however, despite the
obvious advantages of the proposed new definition and the
broad support for it among special educators (Forness & Kavale,
2000), the National School Boards Association (NSBA)
objected and blocked its adoption out of concern that the
MHSEC's new definition would increase the numbers of
students identified for services as ED and put enormous
financial strain on state and local education agencies. Despite
the NSBA's rejection of the proposed definition, researchers and
practitioners in the field of special education have adopted the
abbreviation or term EBD and its more utilitarian description of
the disorder in favor of IDEA 2004's more ambiguous definition

of ED (Christle & Yell).
This contemporary issue extends to the federal definition found
in IDEA 2004. Leaders in the field of special education such as
Forness and Kavale (2000), Kauffman and Landrum (2009), and
Christle and Yell (2009) have all pointed out the inherent
problems associated with IDEA 2004's definition, not the least
of which includes ambiguity, misinterpretation, stigma, and a
fundamental misunderstanding about the nature of now-labeled
EBD which often leads to inadequate legislation, confusing
policies, and poorly designed interventions. Opposition argues
that there is still too much margin for subjectivity in
identification of these students. According to Yell, Meadows,
Drasgow, and Shriner (2009), ". . . in an effort to group related
behaviors and help distinguish the behavioral patterns of types
of EBD, two classification systems are generally used:
psychiatric and dimensional" (p. 4).
Professionals such as psychologists and psychiatrists use the
American Psychiatric Association's Diagnostic and Statistical
Manual of Mental Disorders (DSM-IV-TR) for definition and
classification of children with emotional problems. However,
the manual uses a different definition and classification system,
which adds to the confusion and can contribute to fragmented
services. Sometimes children can qualify as disabled through
one system but not the other. This is the psychiatric system.
Educators typically use dimensional systems. One such
assessment is the Child Behavior Checklist (CBCL) designed by
Achenbach and Edelbrock (1991). This checklist places
behaviors into Internalizing and Externalizing groups.
With frequent debates and changes over definition,
identification, and prevalence, it is easy to see why this
category may be one of the most underrepresented and
underserved within special education. Therefore the prevalence
of EBD is dependent on the definition of the disorder (e.g.,
IDEA versus MHSEC), what research or estimation
methodology is used to collect the data, and the prevailing
influence of social policy and economic factors (Kauffman &

Landrum, 2009). Depending on the source, and the agenda
behind the reporting, reasonable estimates for EBD range from
3% to 6% of the national student population. If students
identified by the mental health system as having oppositional
defiant disorder (ODD) or conduct disorder (CD) are included,
then prevalence rates jump as high as 2% to 16% of the U.S.
youth population (Eddy, Reid, & Curry, 2002).
Instruction
Instruction of the child or adolescent with emotional
disturbances is not likely to be a simple matter. Researchers
have only been studying this minority for about 40 years.
Compared to other disability groups, students with emotional
disturbances are more likely to have lower graduation rates,
lower reading and arithmetic scores, and are less likely to attend
postsecondary school (Kauffman, 2001).
As Kauffman and Landrum (2009) correctly point out, issues of
early identification and prevention of antisocial behavior,
placement options, similarities between general and special
education, and training in social skills have existed for well
over half a century. Today's trends in the education of children
with EBD continue to focus on:
Educating antisocial and violent students.
Integrating a variety of services for children and their
families (e.g., wrap-around services).
Applying the most effective instruction or teaching
procedures for improving academic and social skills (e.g.,
teaching social skills in the same manner of teaching academic
skills).
Applying functional behavioral assessment
technologies to determine the purposes and goals of students'
acting-out behavior and teach adaptive replacement behaviors.
Maintaining the continuum of alternative placements
mandated by the individualized education plans (IEPs) and
IDEA (1990) despite the efforts of full-inclusion proponents to
ignore or redefine the least restrictive environment (LRE) at the
public school level.

Helping secondary-level EBD students make a
successful transition from school to work or further education.
Ensuring the shift towards a more multicultural
educational philosophy does not neglect or fail to recognize that
children with EBD are human (Kauffman & Landrum, 2009;
Singh, 1996).
Any teacher who has worked in the field of special education
knows the staggering complexities involved in any student's
academic and social learning needs. As with any student with
disabilities, teachers working in the field of EBD must focus
their attention only on the alterable variables found in the
student's learning environment; otherwise they will feel
overwhelmed, paralyzed, and ineffective; these are factors that
contribute to burn-out. Alterable variables (Bloom, 1980)
include such things as academic engaged time, praise, choral
responding, judicious review of previously learned material,
fast pacing of instruction, immediate feedback and error
correction, and appropriate sequencing of activities within the
lesson. Heward (2003) suggests that the four attitudes of
science:
1. Empiricism;
2. Parsimony (i.e., focusing on simpler, logical explanations
for things first instead of tackling more complex or abstract
explanations);
3. Philosophic doubt (i.e., asking to see the supporting
evidence or data before adopting a practice); and
4. Scientific manipulation (i.e., experimenting with variables
to see which ones have control over positive outcomes).
will protect teachers against fads and other miracle cures
commonly found on the Internet or presented at conferences,
district- or state-sponsored workshops, and in-service trainings.
Conclusion
If special education teachers are to succeed in their work with
children with EBD, they must view special education as a
methodologically scientific profession and only select curricula
and instructional tools that are research-based. Olson (1999),

for example, reported on a large-scale review conducted by the
American Institutes for Research that found that of 24 school-
wide reform models being advanced in the field, only three of
the models (Direct Instruction, Success for All, and High
Schools That Work) had strong evidence of positive effects on
student learning and achievement. It is important to note that
the school-wide reform models of Response to Intervention
(RTI) and Positive Behavior Interventions and Supports (PBIS)
were not in place at the time of Olson's publication.
References
American Psychiatric Association. (1994). Diagnostic and
statistical manual of mental disorders (4th ed.). Washington
DC: Author.
Bloom, B. S. (1980). The new direction in educational research:
Alterable variables. Phi Delta Kappan, 61, 382-385.
Christle, C. A., & Yell, M. L. (2009). Introduction to emotional
and behavioral disorders. In M. L. Yell, N. B. Meadows, E.
Drasgow, & J. G. Shriner (Eds.), Evidence-based practices for
educating students with emotional and behavioral disorders (pp.
4-21). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Eddy, J. M., Reid, J. B., & Curry, V. (2002). The etiology of
youth antisocial behavior, delinquency and violence and a
public health approach to prevention. In M. R. Shinn, H. M.
Walker, & G. Stoner (Eds.), Interventions for academic and
behavior problems II: Preventive and remedial approaches (pp.
27-51). Bethesda, MD: National Association for School
Psychologists.
Forness, S. R., & Kavale, K. A. (2000). Emotional or behavioral
disorders: Background and current status of the EBD
terminology and definition. Behavioral Disorders, 25, 264-269.
Heward, W. L. (2003). Ten faulty notions about teaching and
learning that hinder the effectiveness of special education. The
Journal of Special Education, 36, 186-205.
Individuals With Disabilities Education Act, Pub. L. No. 101-
476, 104 (1990).
Individuals With Disabilities Education Improvement Act, Pub.

L. No. 94-142, § 20 U.S.C. 1400 (2004).
Kauffman, J. M., & Landrum, T. J. (2009). Characteristics of
emotional and behavioral disorders of children and youth (9th
ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.
Olson, L (1990). Following the plan. Education Week, 29, 32.
Singh, N. N. (1996). Cultural diversity in the 21st century:
Beyond E. Pluribus Unum. Journal of Child and Family Studies,
5, 121-136.
Smith, T. E., Polloway, J., Patton, C., & Dowdy, C.A. (2004).
Teaching students with special needs (5th ed.). Boston: Allyn
and Bacon.

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