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A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 1 This Guide contains aids to the pronunciation of communities and organizations listed in the Excel Database “Guide to Indigenous Organizations and Services in British Columbia” (Previously known as The Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia). The original Pronunciation Guide was created with input from First Nations and other Aboriginal organizations, as well as from the First Peoples’ Cultural Council. British Columbia has a vast wealth of First Nations languages and cultures. There are 7 distinct language families, completely unrelated to each other. Within these families there are 34 different First Nations languages and at least 93 different dialects (varieties) of those languages. Besides these 34 living languages, at least three languages which were spoken in British Columbia are now sleeping.1 All of these languages contain a rich inventory of sounds, many of which are not found in English. When preparing this Guide, we asked representatives to help us understand how to pronounce the traditional name of their community or organization. The pronunciation equivalents we have developed here are meant as an introductory guide. The final authority on a pronunciation rests with the community. We encourage you to gain a first-hand understanding of how a name is pronounced by speaking directly with, and being guided by, representatives from each community. Please note that many sounds in First Nations’ languages do not occur in English and so cannot be expressed using the English writing system. Additionally, there are often multiple variations of a pronunciation based on dialectal and other differences. The pronunciations represented below come as close as possible to the correct pronunciation, while being restrained to the English alphabet. A few of the letter combinations below are used to represent specific sounds not found in English. These are: “wh” represents a breathy ‘wh’ sound that is pronounced with friction in the throat. “thl” represents a breathy ‘l’ sound with friction in the mouth, similar to the l in ‘athlete’ “ts” at the beginning of a word sounds like the ‘ts’ in ‘cats’ First Nation communities and organizations continue to adopt Indigenous names distinct from anglicized versions or non-indigenous names. You will also find we have included several names that are cross- referenced with traditional or alternative names in brackets that may not appear in the Excel database, but may continue to be used in communities. For more information about First Nations’ languages in Bri.

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A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 1 This Guide contains aids to the pronunciation of communities and organizations listed in the Excel Database “Guide to Indigenous Organizations and Services in British Columbia” (Previously known as The Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia). The original Pronunciation Guide was created with input from First Nations and other Aboriginal organizations, as well as from the First Peoples’ Cultural Council. British Columbia has a vast wealth of First Nations languages and cultures. There are 7 distinct language families, completely unrelated to each other. Within these families there are 34 different First Nations languages and at least 93 different dialects (varieties) of those languages. Besides these 34 living languages, at least three languages which were spoken in
British Columbia are now sleeping.1 All of these languages contain a rich inventory of sounds, many of which are not found in English. When preparing this Guide, we asked representatives to help us understand how to pronounce the traditional name of their community or organization. The pronunciation equivalents we have developed here are meant as an introductory guide. The final authority on a pronunciation rests with the community. We encourage you to gain a first-hand understanding of how a name is pronounced by speaking directly with, and being guided by, representatives from each community. Please note that many sounds in First Nations’ languages do not occur in English and so cannot be expressed using the English writing system. Additionally, there are often multiple variations of a pronunciation based on dialectal and other differences. The pronunciations represented below come as close as possible to the correct pronunciation, while being restrained to the English alphabet. A few of the letter combinations below are used to represent specific sounds not found in English. These are: “wh” represents a breathy ‘wh’ sound that is pronounced with friction in the throat. “thl” represents a breathy ‘l’ sound with friction in the mouth, similar to the l in ‘athlete’ “ts” at the beginning of a word sounds like the ‘ts’ in ‘cats’ First Nation communities and organizations continue to adopt Indigenous names distinct from anglicized
versions or non-indigenous names. You will also find we have included several names that are cross- referenced with traditional or alternative names in brackets that may not appear in the Excel database, but may continue to be used in communities. For more information about First Nations’ languages in British Columbia, please visit the First Peoples’ Cultural Council’s website (www.fpcc.ca), or the First Peoples’ Language Map of B.C. (http://www.maps.fphlcc.ca/). 1 This information is taken from FPCC’s paper “Recognizing the Diversity of BC's First Nations Languages” https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/indigenous- people/aboriginal-organizations-services http://www.fpcc.ca/ http://www.maps.fphlcc.ca/ A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 2
Your comments and suggestions for improvement are welcome. Please email: [email protected] Socio-Economic Partnerships Branch Ministry of Indigenous Relations and Reconciliation Name of Organization Alternate or Previous Name Pronunciation ?aqam St. Mary's Band ?Esdilagh First Nation Alexandria Indian Band ess-dey-la Ahousaht First Nation a-howz-at Ahousaht Holistic Centre a-howz-at Aitchelitz Band a-che-leetz Akisqnuk First Nation Columbia Lake First Nation a-kissk-nook Akisqnuk Health Resource Centre a-kissk-nook Alberni Clayoquot Métis Association may-tee Ashcroft and District Métis Association may-tee A-Tlegay Fisheries Society at-le-gay Ayas Men Men Child & Family Services ay-es mun mun BC Métis Association May-tee Bonaparte Indian Band bone-eh-part Boothroyd Band booth-roid Boundary Community Métis Association Boundary Community Métis Association Boundary Community Métis Association may-tee Cariboo Chilcotin Métis Association may-tee Carrier Chilcotin Tribal Council carry-er chill-ko-tin Carrier Sekani Family Services carry-er sek-an-ee Carrier Sekani Tribal Council carry-er sek-an-ee Cayoose Creek Band kai-yuse creek Champagne and Aishihik First Nations sham-pane and eh-
zhee-ack Chawathil First Nation formerly Hope Indian Band cha-wah- thul Cheam First Nation chee-am Chemainus First Nation see Stz’uminus First Nation Cha-main- us Cheslatta Carrier Nation chess-la-ta Chilliwack Métis Association may-tee Ch'nook Indigenous Business Education Chi-nook Chrysalis Society Kris-Sull-Iss Columbia Valley Métis Association may-tee mailto:[email protected] A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 3 Conayt Friendship Society kon-ate or kun-ate Conayt Housing kon-ate or kun-ate Coqualeetza Cultural Education Centre co-ka-leetz-a Council of the Haida Nation hy-dah Cowichan Tribes cow-i-chin Cowichan Valley Métis Nation cow-i-chin / may-tee Cwenengitel Aboriginal Society kwa-nin-cha-tul
Dana Naye Ventures da-na-nay Da'naxda'xw First Nation Tanakteuk Indian Band da-naw-dawh Daylu Dena Council formerly Lower Post First Nation day-lou den-a Dene Tsaa Tse K'Nai First Nation see Prophet River First Nation de-ne tsah tsay k-nai Denisiqi Services Society den-ne-se-kai Ditidaht First Nation formerly Nitinaht First Nation dee-tee-dot Dzawada'enuxw First Nation formerly Tsawataineuk First Nation dza-wah-day-noowh Dze L K'ant Friendship Centre Society zel-kant Ehattesaht First Nation ee-hat-a-sut Elk Valley Métis Association may-tee En'owkin Centre Okanagan Indian Educational Resources Society en-ow-kin Esk'etemc ess-ke-tem Esquimalt Nation es-kwai-malt Fort Nelson Métis Society may-tee Fort St. John Métis Society may-tee Fraser Valley Métis Association may-tee Gitanmaax Band Council git-n-max Gitanyow Band Council git-n-yow Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs' Office git-n-yow Gitga'at First Nation Hartley Bay Band Council git-gat Gitksan Watershed Authorities gicks-san Gitksan Wet’suwet’en Education Society gicks-san wet-so-a- den Gitmaxmak’ay Nisga’a Prince Rupert/Port Edward Society
git-ma-mgai nis-gah Gitsegukla Band Council gits-a guk-la Gitwangak Band Council git-wan-gawk Gitxaala Nation formerly Kitkatla First Nation git-gath-la Gitxsan Child and Family Services Society gicks-san A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 4 Gitxsan Government Commission gicks-san Gitxsan Health Society gicks-san Gitxsan Hereditary Chiefs' Office gicks-san Gitxsan Treaty Society gicks-san Gitxsan Unlocking Aboriginal Justice gicks-san Gitxsan Watershed Authorities gicks-san Golden Ears Métis Society may-tee Gwa'sala-'Nakwaxda'xw Nation Tsulquate Band gwa-sal-a nawk-wa-dawh Gwawaenuk Tribe gwah-way-ee-nook Gya' Wa' Tlaab Healing Centre Society geeya-wah-tlawb
Hagwilget Village Council hag-wil-git Haida Child and Family Services Society hy-day gwai Haida Gwaii Community Futures hy-day gwai Haida Gwaii Restorative Justice, c/o Haida Tribal Society hy-day gwai Haisla Nation Council Haisla Nation, Kitamaat Village Council High-sla Halalt First Nation hull-alt Ha-Shilth-Sa Newspaper ha-shilth-sa Heiltsuk Cultural Education Centre helts-uk Heiltsuk Kaxla Society helts-uk kaks-la Heiltsuk Nation formerly Bella Bella Indian Band helts-uk Heiltsuk Tribal Council helts-uk Hesquiaht First Nation hesh-qwee-at Hiiye'yu Lelum (House of Friendship) Society he-yay-ya lay-lum Homalco First Nation hoe-mall-co Hulitan Family and Community Services Society hull-eet-n Hul'qumi'num Treaty Group hull-kuh-mee-num Hupacasath First Nation ho-putch-eh-set
Huu-ay-aht Development Corporation ho-ay-at Huu-ay-aht First Nations ho-ay-at In-SHUCK-ch Nation in-shuck-sh Interior Métis Child and Family Services may-tee A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 5 Iskut Band Council isk-cut or Alternate of is- koot Island Métis Family and Community Services Society may-tee K’ómoks First Nation co-mox Ka:'yu:'k't'h'/Che:k:tles7et'h' First Nation Kyuquot Native Tribe kai-you-cut / sheh-kluh-szet alternatively kai-you-cut /chek-tluh-set
Kackaamin Family Development Centre Association ka-kaah-min Kanaka Bar Indian Band can-a-ka bar Kaska Dena Council kas-ka Katzie First Nation kat-zee Kekinow Native Housing Society kee-kin-oh Kekuli Centre keh-koo-lee Kelowna Métis Association may-tee Kikino Métis Children & Family Services kee-kin-oh Ki-Low-Na Friendship Society key-low-nah Kispiox Band Council kiss-pea-ox Kitasoo Band Council Klemtu Band ki-ta-soo Kitkatla First Nation see Gitxaala Nation kit-cat-la Kitselas First Nation kit-sel-us Kitselas Treaty and Resource Office kit-sel-us Kitsumkalum First Nation kits-um-kale-um Kitsumkalum Health Centre kits-um-kale-um Kitsumkalum Treaty Office kits-um-kale-um Klahoose First Nation kla-hoose Kluskus Indian Band see Lhoosk’uz Dené Nation looze-k’ U z Knucwentwecw Society kanuk-when-twah Kootenay South Métis Society may-tee Ksan Historical Village and Museum Ka-san (also gicks-san?) Ktunaxa Kinbasket Aboriginal Training Council (KKATC) te-nawh-ha Kinbasket Ktunaxa Kinbasket Treaty Council te-nawh-ha Kinbasket Ktunaxa Nation Council (KNC) te-nah-ha alternatively k-
too-nah-ha Ktunaxa/Kinbasket Child & Family Services te-nah-ha / kinbasket A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 6 KUU-US Crisis Line Society koo-us Kwadacha Nation Fort Ware Indian Band kwa-da-chuh Kwakiutl Band Council kwa-gul Kwakiutl District Council kwa-gul Kwakiutl District Council Health (KDC Health) kwa-gul
Kwantlen First Nation Fort Langley Band kwant-len Kwaw-kwaw-apilt First Nation kwa-kwa-plit Kwiakah First Nation kway-ka Kwikwasut'inuxw Haxwa'mis First Nation quick-wa-sut-uh- nook / ha- kwuh-meesh Kwikwetlem First Nation kwee-kwet-lum Kw'umut Lelum Child & Family Services kwa-mut lay-lum Laich-Kwil-Tach Treaty Society lee-kwa-ta Laichwiltach Family Life Society lee-kwa-ta Lake Cowichan First Nation cow-i-chin Lalum'utul' Smun'eem Child and Family Services lay-lum-atul smah-nawm LÁU,WELNEW Tribal School lhay-wull-nough Lax Kw'alaams Band lacks-qwah-lambs Laxgalts'ap Village Government lax-galt-sap Leq’á:mel First Nation la-cam-el Lheidli-T'enneh Band clayt-clay den-ay Lheidli-T'enneh Natural Resource Office clayt-clay den-ay Lhoosk’uz Dené Nation looze-k' U z den-ay Lhtako Dene Nation Red Bluff Band Office lah-ta-ko den-ay Liard First Nation lee-ard Lil'wat Nation lil-watt Little Shuswap Indian Band shoo-shwahp Lower Similkameen Indian Band si-mil-kuh-meen Lyackson First Nation lye-ack-son Maa-Nulth First Nations maw-nawlth Maiyoo Keyoh Society My-you Kay-yo M'akola Housing Society ma-ko-la Mamalilikulla First Nation Mamalilikulla-Qwe'Qwa'Sot'Em
Band ma-ma-leelah-kwalah kwe- kwah-sum Matsqui First Nation mats-sqwee A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 7 Métis Commission for Children and Families of BC
may-tee Métis Community Services Society of BC may-tee Métis Employment and Training Program may-tee Métis Family Services may-tee Métis Matters Radio Show may-tee Métis Nation BC may-tee Métis Nation Columbia River Society may-tee Métis Nation of Greater Victoria may-tee Métis Women of British Columbia may-tee Metlakatla Governing Council met-la-cat-la Metlakatla Treaty Office met-la-cat-la Mid-Island Métis Nation Association may-tee MIKI'SIW Métis Association may-tee Moccasin Flat's Métis Society may-tee Mowachaht/Muchalaht First Nation mo-which-it/much-a-lit Musgamagw Tsawataineuk Tribal Council moos-ga-muk zow- wa-dane- nook Musqueam Indian Band mus-kwee-um Nadleh Whut'en Band nad-lee woo-ten Nak'azdli Alternate Justice Centre na-caused-lee Nak'azdli Band Necosli Band na-caused-lee ‘Namgis Community Services nhum-geez ‘Namgis First Nation nhum-geez ‘Namgis Health Centre nhum-geez Nanoose Te'mexw Treaty Association na-noose tey-muck Nat'oot'ten Nation see Lake Babine Nation nad-oo-ten Naut’sa mawt Resources Group, Inc. nawt-saw-mawt Naut'sa mawt Tribal Council nawt-saw-mawt
Nawican Friendship Centre now-i-kin Nazko First Nation nazz-co Nazko Treaty Office nazz-co Nee-Tahi-Buhn Indian Band knee-tie-boon Nelson and Area Métis Society may-tee Nenqayni Wellness Centre Society nen-ky-knee Neskonlith Indian Band ness-con-lith New Aiyansh Village Government new eye-annch A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 8 Nezul Be Hunuyeh Child & Family Services Society nezul bay hun-yeah Nicola Valley & District Métis Society may-tee Nicomen Indian Band ni-kuh-men NIL/TU,O Child & Family Services Society neeth-two-wa Nisga’a Lisims Government nis-gah liss-ums Nis'ga’a Ts’amiks Vancouver Society nis-gah tsa-miks Nisga’a Valley Health Authority nis-gah
Nisga’a Village of Gingolx nis-gah / gin-gol-lix Nisga'a Child & Family Services nis-gah Nisga'a Village of Gitwinksihlkw nis-gah / git-win-silk Nitinaht First Nation see Ditidaht First Nation dee-tee-dot Nlaka'pamux Nation Tribal Council ent-la-cap-um Nlha'7kapmx Child & Family Services ent-la-cap-um Nooaitch Indian Band new-ich North Cariboo Métis Association may-tee North East Métis Association may-tee North Fraser Métis Association may-tee North Island Métis Nation may-tee North West BC Métis Association may-tee Northern Shuswap Tribal Council Northern Secwepemc te Quelmucw shoo-shwahp Northwest BC Métis Association may-tee N'Quatqua First Nations neh-qwa-qwa Nuchatlaht First Nation new-chat-lat Nupqu Development Corporation noop-ku Nuu-chah-nulth new-chaw-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth Child and Family Services new-chaw-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth Economic Development Corporation new-cha-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth NIHB new-chaw-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council new-chaw-nulth Nuxalk Nation Bella Coola First Nation new-hawk Office of the Wet'suwet'en wet-so-a-den Okanagan Métis & Aboriginal Housing Society may-tee
OoknaKane Friendship Centre ooka-na-cane Osoyoos Indian Band oh-soy-use A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 9 Oweekeno Nation See Wuikinuxv Nation whee-kin-au Pacheedaht First Nation pah-chee-dat Pauquachin First Nation paw-kwi-chin Pauquachin Health Centre paw-kwi-chin Penelakut Tribe pen-el-a-cut Popkum First Nation c/o Sto:lo Nation pop-kwum Powell River Métis Society may-tee Prince George Métis Community Association may-tee Prince Rupert & District Metis Community may-tee Prophet River First Nation Dene Tsaa Tse K'Nai First Nation de-ne tsah tsay k-nai Qayqayt First Nation New Westminster Indian Band key-kite
Qualicum First Nation kwal-i-come Quatsino First Nation quat-see-know Quesnel Tillicum Society Native Friendship Centre qwi-nel till-i-kum Quw'utsun Syuw’entst Lelum' Culture and Education Centre ko-whuts-sun swhents lay- lum Qwallayuw Head Start qkwell-eye-you Rocky Mountain Métis Association may-tee Saik'uz First Nation sigh-cuz Sal'i'shan Institute sal-i-shan Salmon Arm Métis Association may-tee Saulteau First Nation so-tow Scia'new First Nation Beecher Bay First Nation chee-a-new Scia'new Treaty Office chee-a-new Scw'exmx Child and Family Services Society shwa-come Scw'exmx Community Health Services Society shwa-come Sechelt Indian Band Child & Family Services see-shelt
Secwepemc Child and Family Services Agency sec-wep-emc Secwepemc Cultural Education Society sec-wep-emc Semiahmoo First Nation semi-ah-moo Sexqeltqin Health Centre se-kell-keen Shackan Indian Band shack-n A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 10 shíshálh Nation Sechelt Indian Band see-shelt Shuswap Family Resource and Referral Centre shoo-shwahp Shuswap Indian Band shoo-shwahp Shuswap Nation Tribal Council shoo-shwahp Shxw’?whámél First Nation shwah-ham-ul Shxwha:y Village Skway First Nation shwhy
Simpcw First Nation North Thompson Indian Band sim-ka Siska Indian Band sis-ka Skatin Nations skah-teen Skawahlook First Nation skow-look Skidegate Band Council skid-eh-get Skin Tyee Nation skin-tye-ee Skowkale First Nation skow-cale Skuppah Indian Band scup-pa Skwah First Nation skwah Skway First Nation see Shxwha:y Village sh-why Slelemw Child Development Centre sull-ay-mu Sliammon Development Corporation sly-am-mon Snaw-Naw-As First Nation see Nanoose First Nation snaw-naw- as Snaza'ist Discovery Centre snaw-zay-ist Snc'c'amala?tn Okanagan Indian Band Early Childhood Education Centre sun-chich-she-mall-it-ton Snuneymuxw First Nation snue-ney-mowck Snuneymuxw First Nation Health Centre snue-ney-mowck Songhees Nation song-geez Songhees Treaty Office song-geez Soowahlie Indian Band sue-wall-e South Okanagan Similkameen Métis Association si-mil-kuh-meen Southern Stl'atl'imx Health Society stat-lee-um Splatsin Spallumcheen Indian Band spla-cheen Spuzzum First Nation spuz-zum Sqewlets First Nation Scowlitz First Nation scow-litz Squamish Nation squa-mish Squamish Ocean Canoe Family squa-mish
Squiala First Nation skwai-all-a Stellat'en First Nation stull-a-tin A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 11 Stitsma Employment Centre schtitz-ma Sto:lo Aboriginal Skills and Employment Training staw-low Sto:lo Nation Community Development Department and Qwi:Qwelstom staw-low Sto:lo Nation Health Services staw-low Sto:lo Nation Society staw-low Sto:lo Tribal Council staw-low Stó:lo Xwexwilmexw Treaty Association Staw-low Sts'ailes formerly Chehalis Indian Band sta-ay-liss Stswecem'c -Xgat'tem First Nation Canoe Creek Band St-wet-
lem hight-lem Stu''ate LeLum Secondary School stu-eight lay-lum Stz’uminus First Nation Chemainus First Nation sha-main-us Sulsila Lelum Wellness Centre Society sawl-see-la-lee-lum Sumas First Nation sue-mas Tahltan Band tall-tan Tahltan Health and Social Services Authority tall-tan Takla Lake First Nation tack-lah Taku River Tlingit First Nation ta-koo-river tling-get Tale'awtxw Aboriginal Capital Corporation tah-la-hout Tansi Friendship Centre Society tawn-say Te'mexw Treaty Association tey-muck T'exelc Treaty Williams Lake Indian Band teh-huwl Tillicum Lelum Aboriginal Friendship Centre till-i-kum lay-lum T'it'q'et Administration tilth-kit Tla’amin Health Tla'amin Community Health Services sly-am-mon Tla'amin Nation sly-am-mon Tla-o-qui-aht First Nation klay-o-kwee-at Tlatlasikwala First Nation Nuwitti Band tla-tla-see-kwa-la Tl'azt'en Nation tlaz-den Tl'etinqox-T'in Government Office kleh-deen-ko-teen Tlowitsis Nation tlow-eet-sees Toosey Indian Band two-zee Toquaht Nation tow-kwat
Tri-River Métis Association may-tee A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 12 Tsartlip First Nation sart-lip Tsartlip Health Centre sart-lip Tsawout First Nation say-out Tsawout Health say-out Tsawwassen First Nation tsa-wah-sen Tsay Keh Dene Band say-kay-denay TseK'hene First Nation see McLeod Lake Indian Band tse-kan- ay Ts’elxwéyeqw Tribe Management chil-kway-uhk Tseshaht First Nation say-shot Tseshaht Health Clinic say-shot Tseshaht Youth Centre say-shot Ts'ewulhtun Health Centre of the Cowichan Tribes say-wool-tun / cow-i-chin Tseycum First Nation say-come
Tŝideldel First Nation Alexis Creek Indian Band tsigh-dell-dell Tsilhqot'in National Government sill-ko-teen Tsimshian First Nations Treaty Society sim-she-an Ts'kw'aylaxw First Nation Pavilion Indian Band tisk-why-lah Tsleil-Waututh Nation Burrard Band sail-wha-tooth T'Sou-ke Nation tsa-awk Tsow-Tun Le Lum Society Residential Substance Abuse Treatment Centre sow-tun-lay-lum Tsq'escen' Canim Lake Band chess-ken Two Rivers Métis Society may-tee Tzeachten First Nation chee-ack-ten Uchucklesaht Tribe u-chuk-les-at Ulkatcho First Nations ul-kat-cho U'mista Cultural Centre oo-miss-ta Usma Nuu-Chah-Nulth Family and Child Services us-mah new-cha-nulth United Canadian Métis Nation Vancouver Métis Citizens Society may-tee Vancouver Métis Community Association may-tee Vernon & District Métis Association may-tee Waceya Métis Society may-tee Wachiay Friendship Centre Society wha-chey Wazdidadilh Aboriginal Infant & Family Development Program woss-did-a-duh
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 13 We Wai Kai First Nation wee-wa-kai Wei Wai Kum First Nation wee-wha-come Wet'suwet'en First Nation wet-so-a-den Whe-La-La-U Area Council we-lala-you Whispering Pines / Clinton Band - the Pellt'iq't People pel-tighk Wilp Si'Satxw Community Healing Centre wilp-s-sat Wilp Wilxo'oskwhl Nisga’a Institute wilp will-kosk-wuh WSÁNE? School Board wh-say-nuch Wuikinuxv Nation Oweekeno Nation whee-kin-au Wuikinuxv-Kitasoo-Nuxalk Tribal Council whee-kin-au; kit-a- soo; new- hawk Xat'súll First Nation Soda Creek hat-sull Xaxli'p Band Fountain Band hawk-leap
Xaxli'p Health Centre hawk-leap Xeni Gwet'in First Nations Government Nemaiah Band hon-ay gwi-teen Xolhemet Society o-le-met Xyolhemeylh Child and Family Services yoth-me Yakweakwioose Band ya-kweek-we-oos Yekooche First Nation yeh-koo-chee Yinka Déné Language Institute ying-kaw denay Yunesit'in Government you-neh-seh-teen Yuu?u?i??at? Government formerly Ucluelet First Nation u- clew-let Environmentalism This page intentionally left blank Environmentalism David Peterson del Mar ISBN: 978-1-4082-5558-2 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British Library
Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Peterson del Mar, David, 1957–. Environmentalism / David Peterson del Mar. p. cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4082-5558-2 (pbk.) 1. Environmentalism–History. 2. Nature conservation–History. 3. Natural areas–History. I. Title. Ge195.P478 2011 333.7209–dc22 2011001745 Set in 10/13.5pt Berkeley Book by 35 The right of David Peterson del Mar to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 2006 2006, 2012 This edition published 2012 Introduction to the series History is narrative constructed by historians from traces left by the past.
Historical enquiry is often driven by contemporary issues and, in conse- quence, historical narratives are constantly reconsidered, reconstructed and reshaped. The fact that different historians have different perspectives on issues means that there is also often controversy and no universally agreed version of past events. Seminar Studies was designed to bridge the gap between current research and debate, and the broad, popular general surveys that often date rapidly. The volumes in the series are written by historians who are not only familiar with the latest research and current debates concerning their topic, but who have themselves contributed to our understanding of the subject. The books are intended to provide the reader with a clear introduction to a major topic in history. They provide both a narrative of events and a critical analysis of contemporary interpretations. They include the kinds of tools generally omitted from specialist monographs: a chronology of events, a glossary of terms and brief biographies of ‘who’s who’. They also include bibliographical essays in order to guide students to the literature on various aspects of the subject. Students and teachers alike will find that the selection of documents will stimulate discussion and offer insight into the raw materials used by
historians in their attempt to understand the past. Clive Emsley and Gordon Martel Series Editors This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowledgements x Publisher’s acknowledgements xi Chronology xii Who’s who xiv Glossary xvii Map xxiii PART ONE ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT 1 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 DOMESTICATING THE WILD 6 Background 7 The birth of conservation 8 Nostalgia and nature loving 10 The birth of nature tourism 12 Pets 14 Environmentalism in the colonies and early US 15 3 INDUSTRIAL NATURE LOVING 18 The spread of conservation and preservation 19 Nature and nation 21 Wild nature 26
Domesticating the wild 28 4 THE FRIENDLY WILD OF POST-WAR AFFLUENCE 32 Background 33 American suburbs 34 The friendly wild 35 Meaning and ecology 38 5 THE COUNTER-CULTURE’S NATURE 41 Prosperity and alienation 41 Wild = good 43 Nature loving goes mainstream 45 Farley Mowat and the world we have lost 46 Mother nature’s sons: Cousteau and Denver 48 6 EPIPHANIES 50 Silent Spring 51 Green surge 52 Western Europe 53 The rest of the West 56 Green nationalism 58 7 RADICAL DEPARTURES 60 Background 60 Deep ecology 62 Bioregionalism and ecofeminism 64 Friends of the Earth 65 Greenpeace and Earth First! 67 8 THWARTED 70 Background 70 Western European Greens 72 Central and Eastern Europe 74
Backlash and accommodation 75 Success stories 79 Divisions 81 9 EXTREME NATURE LOVING 83 Wilderness and technology 84 Wild playgrounds 85 Consuming nature 87 Aquariums and dogs 90 Freeing Keiko and finding Nemo 93 10 ASSESSMENT 95 viii ENVIRONMENTALISM PART TWO DOCUMENTS 99 1 Beowulf 100 2 William Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey 102 3 The Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 106 4 George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature 108 5 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty 109 6 William Morris, News from Nowhere 111 7 Robert Baden-Powell, Scouting for Boys 112 8 John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierras 115 9 J.R.R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring 116 10 Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac 118 11 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring 120 12 Farley Mowat, Never Cry Wolf 121 13 Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness 123 14 Richard Adams, Watership Down 124 15 Donella H. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth: A Report
for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind 126 16 Arne Naess, ‘The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements’ 128 17 Endangered Species Act of 1973 133 18 Where You At? A Bioregional Quiz 133 19 Earth First! Action in Oregon, 1985 134 20 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 137 21 Petra Kelly, ‘Creating an Ecological Economy’ 138 22 Kyoto Protocol, 1997 139 23 Bjørn Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World 142 24 ‘10 Steps to Animal Communication’ 145 25 Al Gore, An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It 147 26 Rural Manifesto of the Countryside Alliance, 2009 149 27 Report of the League Against Cruel Sports, 2010 150 GUIDE TO FURTHER READING 152 REFERENCES 159 INDEX 169 Contents ix
Acknowledgements I am grateful to Gordon Martel, both for inviting me to write this book and for insisting that I do so boldly. He also straightened many kinks in my prose and reasoning. Josie O’Donoghue at Pearson was very helpful throughout the revision process. This book depends on the work of many researchers and writers. I am particularly indebted to Michael Bess, Jon Katz, Roderick Frazier Nash, Jennifer Price, Harriet Ritvo, Keith Thomas, and Meredith Veldman. As always, Wendy del Mar has been a wonderfully warm and supportive life partner. Peter, my son, allows me to see the whole world with new eyes. Publisher’s acknowledgements We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Photographs Plate 1. The Bridgeman Art Library and Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (Henry Lillie Pierce Fund). Plate 2.
Maurice Branger/ Roger-Viollet. Plate 3. Three Lions/Getty Images. Plate 4. NASA. Plate 5. Weyler/Greenpeace. Plate 6. Gary Crabbe/Alamy Ltd. Plate 7. Arco Images GmbH/Alamy Ltd. Plate 8. Painting by Nantucket Artist, Louis Guarnaccia. Map Map from An Inconvenient Truth, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc (Al Gore 2006) Text Poetry on pages 100–2 adapted by David Breeden from Beowulf; Extract on pages 115–6 from My First Summer in the Sierras, Houghton Mifflin ( John Muir 1911); Extract on pages 121–2 from Never Cry Wolf, McCelland & Stewart Ltd (Mowat, F 1963); Extract on pages 138–9, Reprinted from Thinking Green! Essays on Environmentalism, Feminism, and Nonviolence (1994) by Petra K. Kelly with permission of Parallax Press, Berkeley, California, www.parallax.org; Extract on pages 142–5 from The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, Cambridge University Press (1998) pp. 330–332, Copyright Bjorn Lomborg 2001, published by Cambridge Univer- sity Press, reproduced with permission; Extract on page 69, Copyright 1999, from the book Animal Talk by Penelope Smith, Reprinted with
permission of Beyond Words Publishing, Inc., Hillsboro, Oregon. All rights reserved. In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so. http://www.parallax.org Chronology 1669 French Forest Ordinance 1761 Jean Jacques Rousseau, The New Heloise 1798 William Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey 1824 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals founded in England 1831 British Association for the Advancement of Science founded 1854 Henry David Thoreau, Walden 1859 First dog show held in England 1864 George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature 1872 Yellowstone National Park established in the US 1877 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty
1879 Royal National Park established in New South Wales, Australia 1885 Banff National Park established in Canada 1889 Society for the Protection of Birds founded in Great Britain 1892 Sierra Club founded in the US 1895 National Trust founded in Great Britain 1902 Beatrix Potter, The Tale of Peter Rabbit 1905 Federation of Rambling Clubs founded in England 1907 Boy Scouts founded in England 1914 France’s first national park 1917 Spain’s first national park 1920 First national park in the Soviet Union 1934 Germany becomes the first nation to protect wolves 1942 Disney’s Bambi 1949 Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac 1952 London smog Chronology xiii
1956 Dam on Colorado River blocked in US 1962 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty 1964 Wilderness Act in US 1967 Torrey Canyon oil spill 1968 Edward Abbey’s Desert Solitaire Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau premieres Sweden’s Environmental Protection Law 1969 Radical student protests in western Europe Friends of the Earth founded in the US 1970 Earth Day 1971 Greenpeace founded in Canada 1972 Club of Rome, Limits to Growth Arne Naess coins the term ‘deep ecology’ West Germany’s Council of Environmental Experts established United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 1973 British Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
established Peter Singer coins the term ‘animal liberation’ 1975 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park founded 1978 Toxic wastes found at Love Canal in US 1980 Earth First! founded in US People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals founded in US 1983 West Germany’s Green Party wins representation in the Bundestag 1986 Accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Soviet Union 1987 World Commission on the Environment stresses sustainable development 1989 The Green Parties of the United Kingdom and France win 15 and 10 per cent of the vote, respectively, in European elections 1991 Founding of the People of Color Environmental Leadership in the US 1992 United Nations Rio de Janeiro Summit 1998 Keiko returns to Iceland 2004 Hunting Act passes UK Parliament 2006 Release of An Inconvenient Truth
Who’s who Abbey, Edward (1927–1989): US novelist and essayist, radical environmentalist. Adams, Richard (1920– ): British writer whose best known book (Watership Down, 1972) expressed sympathy for rabbits victimized by human development. Bookchin, Murray, aka Lewis Herber, (1921–2006): US socialist and a leading social ecologist who linked social and environmental exploitation. Brower, David (1912–2000): US environmentalist, founder of Friends of the Earth. Buffon, George Louis Leclerc de (1707–1788): French scientist and author, perhaps the most prominent naturalist of the eighteenth century. Carson, Rachel (1907–1964): US biologist and writer, author of Silent Spring, the book that jump-started the modern environmental movement after it appeared in 1962. Clements, Frederic Edward (1874–1945): US botanist and pioneering ecologist who emphasized climax communities and other expressions of ecological stability.
Cousteau, Jacques (1910–1997): Popular French oceanographer who achieved great fame on television. Denver, John (1943–1997): Popular US country singer who celebrated wild places. Foreman, Dave (1947– ): US environmentalist who left the Sierra Club to help found the much more radical Earth First! Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749–1832): German Romantic poet, philoso- pher, and scientist who greatly influenced European artists and scholars. Goodall, Jane (1934– ): English primate researcher whose work on the human-like characteristics of chimpanzees has enjoyed a wide readership outside of academia. Kelly, Petra (1947–1992): Charistmatic West German Green Party leader. Leopold, Aldo (1887–1948): US ecologist, author of A Sand County Almanac, promulgated the ‘land ethic,’ which anticipated Deep Ecology. Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778): Swedish scientist whose elaborate system
of nested classification dominated natural history well into the nineteenth century. Lomborg, Bjørn (1965– ): Danish scholar whose The Skeptical Environ- mentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, first published in 1998, seeks to debunk more alarmist assessments of environmental health and world poverty. Marsh, George Perkins (1801–1882): Pioneering US conservationist, particularly of forests, author of Man and Nature. McTaggart, David (1932–2001): Canadian radical environmentalist who headed Greenpeace for many years. Morris, William (1834–1896): Leading English socialist, designer, and author who urged a return to rural places and values rather than embracing industrialization. Mowat, Farley (1921– ): Widely read Canadian author of many nature books. Muir, John (1838–1914): US wilderness advocate, writer, founding presi- dent of the Sierra Club. Naess, Arne (1912–2009): Norwegian philosopher, founder of Deep Ecology.
Pinchot, Gifford (1865–1946): Influential forester and the founding head of the US Forest Service. Potter, Beatrix (1866–1943): British author of children’s books featuring animals that dressed and acted like humans, starting with The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Redford, Robert (1936– ): US actor, entrepreneur, outdoor enthusiast, conservationist. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–1778): Swiss-born French writer and philoso- pher, perhaps the leading Romantic celebrant of nature of the eighteenth century. Schumacher, E.F. (1911–1977): British economist, author of Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered, a highly influential book published in 1973 whose thesis is in its title. Who’s who xv Seton, Ernest Thompson (1860–1946): Born in England to Scottish parents who soon moved to Canada, he moved to the US as an adult and was a widely read naturalist and observer of animals.
Sewell, Anna (1820–1878): English writer whose sole novel, Black Beauty, appeared in 1877 and stimulated a great deal of sympathy for the plight of horses. Singer, Peter (1946– ): Australian philosopher and leading intellectual of the animal-rights movement. Snyder, Gary (1930– ): US poet, radical environmentalist, leading propo- nent of bioregionalism. Tansley, Arthur George (1871–1955): English botanist and ecologist who pointed out that communities of plants did not necessarily evolve in predictable or stable ways. Thoreau, Henry David (1817–1862): US transcendentalist, nature advo- cate, author of Walden. Tolkien, J.R.R. (1892–1973): English scholar of literature but much better known as author of the wildly popular Lord of the Rings, a series of novels set in the fictional past and celebrating nature. Turner, J.M.W. (1775–1851): Perhaps the leading landscape painter of England during the nineteenth century whose work strongly reflected Romanticism.
Wordsworth, William (1770–1850): English Romantic poet and champion of hiking, nature loving. xvi ENVIRONMENTALISM Glossary Animal Liberation Animal-rights movements date back to the early nineteenth century. More radical groups formed in the later decades of the twentieth century, such as the Animal Liberation Front. These groups have both advocated more extreme forms of animal rights, such as vegetarianism, and have protested medical research and other forms of animal cruelty. Anthropomorphism The practice of imputing human characteristics and motives to non-humans. The thickly-drawn line between humans and animals began to blur with the spread of pet ownership in eighteenth-century Europe, and by the turn of the twentieth century wild animals who spoke, wore clothes, and formed human-like families were common in children’s and adult literature alike. Though modern ecologists are critical of anthro- pomorphism, the belief that animals are essentially people continues to
shape western culture and inspire environmental movements. Audubon Society This US organization formed in 1905 and led the fight against killing birds for their ornamental plumage. In recent decades it has become one of America’s largest organizations devoted to preserving wildlife habitat, and it has also fostered the hobby of birdwatching. Bambi This Disney animated movie, based on Sigmund Salzmann’s novel of the same name, appeared in 1942. Its protagonist is a young deer, and it pits the creatures of the forest against evil hunters. Boy Scouts Founded by Robert Baden Powell in 1907, the scouting movement quickly spread across the western world. It combined military organization with outdoor life. It targeted growing numbers of middle-class boys who would otherwise have little experience with camping and other aspects of rural life. Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament This organization appeared in 1958 in Great Britain and spread quickly. Members engaged in many demonstrations and lobbying efforts before the organization declined in the 1960s. It became popular again early in the 1980s. Chernobyl The 1986 accident at this Ukrainian (then part of the
Soviet Union) nuclear power plant was the most serious in the history of the world and provoked widespread concern and protests inside and outside the Soviet Union. Club of Rome This international think tank formed in 1968 to consider global political issues. Its most influential publication was Limits to Growth, which appeared in 1972 and argued for a widespread commitment to sus- tainability rather than continued growth so that the earth could restore its environmental equilibrium. Conservation This broad term became common in the nineteenth century as western nations sought to use natural resources such as timber and water more wisely and rationally. Counter-culture The counter-culture blossomed in the mid- 1960s, as growing numbers of young people rejected the verities of growth and con- formity that had long resided at the centre of western civilization. Although nurturing radical political movements attacking capitalism, imperialism, and racism, the counter-cultural movement was often amorphous and more focused on altering people’s consciousnesses than political structures. Affinity for nature resided at the heart of the counter-cultural
movement and was expressed symbolically – through having long hair, for example. Deep Ecology Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess coined this term early in the 1970s. Deep Ecologists argue that humans must be understood as part of, rather than separate from, the rest of nature. Deep Ecology implies and argues that conventional environmental movements and philosophies are shallow by comparison inasmuch as they accept western civilization’s dualistic assumption of a human/nature divide and therefore cannot get at the roots of why modern humans exploit the nonhuman world. Earth Day Conceived as a national ‘teach-in’ on the environment, Earth Day drew approximately 20 million people – mostly students – across the US on April 22, 1970. Probably the biggest demonstration of its very eventful era, it was much more celebratory and less shrill than protests having to do with war or racism. Subsequent American Earth Day celebrations were smaller but spread to other countries. Earth First! This radical environmental organization emerged in the 1980s and quickly spread across much of the western world. Its members often participated in creative demonstrations to preserve wilderness and reduce
humanity’s footprint. Ecofeminism This movement emerged in the 1970s as part of the growing radical environmentalist impulse. As its name implies, it combines feminism xviii ENVIRONMENTALISM and environmentalism. Like so-called ‘cultural feminists,’ ecofeminists argue that women’s biological and psychological processes make them uniquely close to nature and that misogyny and hatred of nature share a common, masculine root, namely western civilization’s mania for domination of the natural and the feminine. Ecology This scientific field of study arose early in the twentieth century and emphasized the relationship between elements of an environment that had been studied or approached discretely. Ecologists understood forests, for example, as a complex organism whose various parts – plants, mammals, insects, soils, bacteria – acted in concert with and relation to each other. Many environmentalists since the 1960s have embraced varieties of ecolog- ical thought. Ecotourism This movement emerged in the 1970s and expressed
the desires of many western peoples to enjoy exotic travel in an environmentally respon- sible manner. In its pure form, ecotourism is environmentally and socially sustainable, respectful of both the integrity of local ecosystems and busi- nesses. In practice, any form of tourism ordinarily creates a great deal of pollution, and businesses have commonly claimed the ecotourism label without substantially altering their practices. Enlightenment This multi-faceted intellectual and cultural movement swept across much of Europe in the eighteenth century. Proponents of the Enlightenment shared optimism over human capacity to master and mani- pulate the non-human environment. Federation of Rambling Clubs This organization of groups concerned with preserving people’s access to the British countryside formed in 1905, an effort that had begun nearly a century before. Many Britons believed that they should have a right to hike across private property. Forestry This term refers to the scientific and systematic management of forests that emerged in Germany in the eighteenth century and spread across the western world. It was at first concerned primarily with the rational use of timber and later with maintaining forests to prevent flooding
and erosion and, more recently, as part of sustaining healthy ecosystems. Friends of the Earth This organization began in the US in the 1970s before spreading across the globe to become one of the world’s most influential environmental groups. By 2002 Friends of the Earth had a total of 5,000 local groups in 68 countries. Friends of the Earth addressed a multiplicity of issues, many of them highly controversial: nuclear power, acid rain, trapping fur-bearing animals, toxic waste, over-packaging, and much more. Glossary xix Global warming Scientists had long hypothesized that industrialization, through the production of CO2, could lead to global warming by trapping warm air in the earth’s atmosphere. The theory gained traction from scientists and then from a growing proportion of the public and politicians late in the twentieth century. By the 1980s scientists and policymakers alike commonly identified global warming as the most serious environmental problem confronting the planet. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Australians created this park in 1975 to
protect the world’s largest reef. The reef had by then become a very popular tourist destination. Greenpeace This radical group emerged in 1969 in Canada and soon flour- ished across the western world. It combined both large numbers of members and contributors and a dedicated corps of activists who engaged in creative and highly publicized protests against such activities as nuclear testing, whaling, and pollution. Kyoto Protocol The plan resulting from the United Nations’ conference in Japan in 1997 which focused on halting climate change. Nearly all western nations agreed to work toward limiting their emissions of greenhouse gases. Minimal-impact camping This variety of camping emerged in the 1970s as part of the solution to overcrowding in North America’s back country. Hiking and camping more carefully served to increase popular areas’ carrying cap- acities, allowing more people to enjoy them without degrading the environ- ment. Low-impact camping entailed using established camping areas, not using wood for fuel, and carefully disposing of all waste products. National Trust Founded in 1895 by prominent philanthropists, this soon
became the leading organization devoted to preserving natural and historical landscapes in Great Britain. It has focused on landscapes heavily shaped by humans and on buildings and remained strong and influential at the turn of the twenty-first century. Nationalism This movement emphasized pride of country, including its natural features, and emerged across the western world in the nineteenth century. It often led to the preservation of places and species deemed intrinsic to a nation’s identity. Parks Parks in areas considered wild became common in the United States, Canada, and Australia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and soon spread to Europe. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) Founded by Ingrid Newkirk in the US, PETA had become perhaps the most successful environmental xx ENVIRONMENTALISM organization in the world by the turn of the twenty-first century. PETA’s well-developed websites attack pet stores that take insufficient care of their animals, animal experimentation, circuses, factory farms, the
fur industry, and fishing, among other activities. PETA blends idealism and pragmatism. Its leaders advocate and practise veganism, a form of vegetarianism that abjures the eating or use of any animal product, but they also work to improve the conditions under which animals such as chickens and cattle are raised and slaughtered. Preservation This broad term emerged late in the nineteenth century as growing numbers of people in the western world advocated setting aside and protecting lands considered particularly scenic. Recycling Re-manufacturing material such as paper, metal, and plastic. It became common during the 1970s and soon became one of the most widely practised forms of conservation, particularly in Europe. Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit This 1992 United Nations’ conference on the environment was the largest to date, with 17,000 attendees and representa- tives from 172 governments. It explored interrelated problems of world poverty, development, pollution, and climate change. The government rep- resentatives agreed to join in a global partnership of sustainable development and pledged to reduce greenhouse gases, an agreement that was refined five years later, at Kyoto, Japan.
Romanticism Romanticism emerged from the eighteenth century Enlightenment and acted as a counterweight to its more scientific, rational aspects. Proponents of Romanticism emphasized the importance of emotion, of feeling, and Romantic poets, painters, composers and philosophers commonly turned to nature for inspiration and material. Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) Founded in 1824 in London, this organization quickly gained the backing of influential people, and in 1840 Queen Victoria allowed it to include ‘Royal’ in its title. For several decades the society focused on encouraging the enforcement of legislation penalizing the abuse of working animals. Later in the nineteenth century the RSPCA paid increasing attention to the abuse of pets and sport- ing or fighting animals. It spread to much of the British Empire. Sea Birds Preservation Act This piece of 1869 British legislation was a land- mark in the movement toward protecting selected species of birds. Sierra Club Founded in 1892 and headed for many years by John Muir, the Sierra Club was for many decades the principal advocate of large parks and wilderness preservation in the US. It emerged as a potent political
force in the 1960s before being joined by and in some respects eclipsed by Glossary xxi more radical movements. But it remains a strong political force with a large membership. Smoke abatement Concern over air pollution in England grew along with industrialization. Strong, effective measures to improve urban air quality did not appear until the 1950s, however. Student movement The student movement emerged across the western world in the 1960s on burgeoning university and college campuses. It soon focused on broad issues such as war, imperialism and environmentalism. The protection of nature implied a critique of both the older generation and the status quo. The student movement faded in the 1970s, though campuses would remain a fertile ground for groups concerned with social and environ- mental reform. Suburbanization Suburbs began to ring England’s cities in the first half of the nineteenth century as improved forms of transit allowed more and more prosperous families to live farther away from where they
worked and shopped. This process accelerated with the invention of electric trolley cars and of course privately-owned automobiles, and by the 1950s more people lived around than inside many large cities of the western world. Suburban developments appealed to families who desired to live closer to nature and often featured extensive plantings of trees and shrubs and other landscape features deemed natural. Sustainable development This term became popular late in the 1980s and implied a compromise or rapprochement between economic development and environmental protection. Woodcraft Movement This broad movement emerged in Britain, North America, and Europe in the early decades of the twentieth century. It cham- pioned camping and other outdoor activities, particularly for youth. xxii ENVIRONMENTALISM T hi s m
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IA C H IN A This page intentionally left blank Part 1 ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT This page intentionally left blank 1 Introduction The project seemed reasonable enough. Americans’ consumption ofenergy continued to climb at the dawn of the twenty-first century, andwind offered a relatively ‘green’ or clean source of electricity. Locating some 170 energy-producing turbines on windy Nantucket
Sound, off the New England coast, would serve area homes and businesses without the pollution attached to oil, natural gas, or coal. But residents and their sympathizers raised $3 million to oppose the plan, and they did so in the name of nature preservation. ‘Our national treasures should be off limits to industrialisation,’ explained Walter Cronkite, the retired news anchor (Burkett, 2003: 48). The wind generators would not belch smoke, create acid rain, or require extensive mining. But they would mar the horizon, would constitute a pimple on the smooth cheek of sand, sky, and ocean. Of course Cronkite’s ocean-front home consumed a great deal of nature in its construction and maintenance, and the power which ran it had to come from somewhere. But opponents of the project evidently thought that people living inland, where views and property values were more modest, ought to bear the burden of producing energy for those whose capacious living rooms enjoyed better vistas. Indeed, another opponent of the project pointed out that the turbines would be part of a working industry, would not resemble the ‘quaint, scenic windmills . . . scattered across the Cape’ (Phadke, 2010: 13). Nostalgia-inducing remnants of earlier manufacturers were
welcome; modern industry was not (see Plate 8). The battle over wind-generated power off Cape Cod illustrates this book’s salient themes. Environmentalism dwells on the paradoxical relationship between prosperity and nature loving. Professions of concern and affection for the environment have been most powerful among the eras, nations, and people that have most successfully subjected and consumed it. This rela- tionship has been, in some respects, logical. Worries over nature’s wellbeing should indeed rise as its health is compromised, and environmentalists have 4 ENVIRONMENTALISM succeeded in regulating the exploitation of natural resources, preserving many parks and other areas, rescuing from extinction many animals and plants, and reducing some pollutants. But nature loving has more often embodied than challenged the western march of material progress and comfort. People who buy the expensive homes on the shores of Cape Cod may consider themselves refugees from industrial capitalism. Yet only the very wealthy can afford the view, a prized window
onto a ‘natural’ world that is every bit as much of a consumer good as the luxury cars in the driveway. We revere nature not so much because it provides us with food, shelter, and tools, but because it offers meaning. Western peoples have become pro- gressively ignorant of and disinterested in how soil, water, animals, trees, and other plants sustain our bodies, more and more adamant that these things feed our souls, that they transport us to a pure place beyond our superficial, everyday lives. Most environmental histories do not focus on these sort of broad cultural themes. The field has historically divided itself between scholars who study how humans have shaped the environment – a sort of blending of natural and human history, if you will – and historians who focus on particular environmental movements, such as the development of forestry or nature reserves. One problem with this set of approaches is that it skirts one of the central ironies in the field: Why have we seen a steady increase in conservation and preservation, the setting aside of areas deemed especially scenic even as human exploitation of the environment has continued apace? This book
focuses on the recent history of western people’s understandings of and sentiments about nature. It is a cultural history of nature loving. This book will spend considerable ink on the development of ideas and practices having to do with the conservation and preservation of particular parts of the environment, including some, like forestry, that have been highly technical in nature. But we shall study these political and economic movements in the context of much broader cultural forces, a growing embrace of places, species, and experiences deemed precious and beneficent: nature loving. Unlike programmes of rational conservation, nature loving has been much more concerned with transcending this world, our environment, than with coming to terms with it. Hence upon being confronted with the choice of lowering the rate of pollution and climate change or preserving a good view, many Cape Cod residents opted for the latter. Environmentalism explores the recurring tension between science and emotion, conservation and preservation. The former has taken up the business of establishing a sensible, sustainable way of interacting with nature, which is understood as providing humans with life’s necessities, from Parks Parks in areas
considered wild became common in the United States, Canada, and Australia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and soon spread to Europe. Conservation This broad term became common in the nineteenth century as western nations sought to use natural resources such as timber and water more wisely and rationally. Preservation This broad term emerged late in the nineteenth century as growing numbers of people in the western world advocated setting aside and protecting lands considered particu- larly scenic. Forestry This term refers to the scientific and systematic management of forests that emerged in Germany in the eighteenth century and spread across the west- ern world. It was at first concerned primarily with the rational use of
timber and later with maintaining forests to prevent flooding and ero- sion and, more recently, as part of sustaining healthy ecosystems. Introduction 5 building materials to clean air. Preservation has been more likely to focus on nature’s intangible gifts – the spiritual or national regeneration said to spring from certain places or species. Class or economic divisions have informed these clashes. Poor people’s reliance on plants and animals has often been direct – as has their experience of environmental problems like toxic waste. Well-to-do westerners have been more apt to perceive nature in abstract or symbolic terms and to disguise their reliance on it, like the prosperous Victorians who replaced vegetable with flower gardens, chickens and pigs with pets and cast-iron deer. Ideas about and movements concerned with nature loving have provided venues for people to malign the character of and attack the material interests of people different from themselves. This book’s emphasis on the complexities, divisions, and
paradoxes of environmentalism should not be understood as an indictment of environ- mental movements, a brief for unfettered capitalism. But in exploring the history of nature loving I have become convinced that many of our environ- mental problems are rooted not simply in the western world’s commitment to prosperity and growth but also in environmentalism’s tradition of inco- herence and irrelevance, its tendency to complement rather than to confront the attitudes and practices behind our growing environmental problems. I am optimistic and vain enough to hope that Environmentalism can play a role in helping a worthy set of impulses and movements become more self-reflective and therefore more relevant and effective. 2 Domesticating the wild Men on trains were not supposed to behave this way. The gentlemanwas sticking his head out of the window, exposing himself to thestorm. Finally he withdrew, then sat back, with eyes closed, as if trying to memorize the unpleasant sensations he had just subjected himself to. Landscape painter J.M.W. Turner’s odd behaviour seemed to
make a mockery of the hard-won comforts of mid-nineteenth-century England. For millennia travellers had slowly toiled along at the mercy of the elements. To travel several hundred miles overland was the work of weeks or months, through all manner of weather. The railroad had finally changed all of that, had annihilated time and space, cheated sun, wind, cold, and rain. So why was this Englishman sticking his head into the storm? Europeans had a long legacy of distrusting and trying to dominate the environment. Indigenous peoples across the world emphasized their depend- ence on a powerful, animate world that had the power to bestow or withhold sustenance. East Asians, notwithstanding their technological achievements, perceived nature as a potent force that humans ought to contemplate and learn from. But Christians viewed untamed nature as a threat to their survival, livelihoods, and salvation. The economic and scientific transformations of the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries made western people less fearful of nature, more confident in their ability to unlock its bounties. Indeed, thoughtful scientists and bureaucrats began to realize that woods and soils were being exploited too successfully, that without programmes of conservation, nations’
future pros- perity and security would be compromised. But the emergence of sensible programmes of conservation do not explain the spread of sensibilities such as Turner’s, the growing affinity for a nature that appealed precisely because it still lay beyond human control. By the mid-nineteenth century the most prosperous western peoples had turned to nature for instruction and meaning even as they transformed it into a machine that predictably produced wheat, timber, and other crops. Domesticating the wild 7 BACKGROUND Christianity dominated medieval Europeans’ views of nature. The Judeo- Christian God transcended the earth rather than residing in or emanating from it. Worldly existence was a fleeting prelude to eternal, hopefully heavenly, life. Like the Greeks and Romans before them, medieval Christians asserted that nature made itself available and useful to humans. Even Francis of Assisi, a thirteenth-century figure often invoked by modern nature lovers,
placed humanity squarely at the head of creation. St Bonaventure noted approvingly that St Francis had ‘subdued ferocious beasts, tamed the wild, trained the tame and bent to his obedience the brute beasts that had rebelled against fallen mankind’ (Coates, 1998: 54). When medieval people expressed appreciation for nature, they had in mind orderly and productive fields, land that they had cleared or drained, and animals that they had domesticated, not the uninhabited places where wild beasts, monsters, and perhaps Satan himself lurked [Doc. 1, p. 100]. Nature’s toils and fruits alike could distract good Christians from pursuing a heavenly reward outside this world. Its terrors – drought, wolves, trolls, and worse – could kill, and its pleasures could divert people’s attention from God. Then capitalism emasculated nature. Scientists such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, and Isaac Newton described nature as passive, a collection of inert materials and mechanistic processes that humans could and should manipulate to further their own ends. Leon Battista Alberti, a fifteenth-century writer, celebrated ‘the Rocks cut, Mountains bored through, Vallies filled up, Lakes confined, Marshes discharged into the Sea, Ships built, Rivers turned, their Mouths cleared, Bridges Laid over them,
Harbours formed’ (Glacken, 1967: 464–5). Humanity had found the golden key to unlock prosperity’s stubborn door. Transportation, commerce, agriculture, and industry accelerated. Yields of wheat and other staples swelled with such inventions and innovations as the seed drill, more efficient ploughs and other implements, and intensified crop rotations – all the fruits of a more experimental, scientific, market-oriented approach to farming. Pastures, heaths, fens, and marshes were drained and put to work, forests cut to create space for more fields. Western peoples approached nature with less trepidation, more confidence. Scientists such as Galileo and Descartes reduced what had been a mysterious and daunting world to mathematics. The experimental method, not passive piety, made the world apprehensible. This optimism accelerated with the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, a movement, as its name implies, suffused with a spirit of confidence in the ability of human beings to fathom and manipulate their world. Progress in abstract and practical science validated this growing faith in human reason and intellect. Christians had Enlightenment This multi- faceted intellectual and cultural movement swept across much of Europe in
the eighteenth century. Proponents of the Enligh- tenment shared optimism over human capacity to master and manipu- late the non-human environment. 8 ENVIRONMENTALISM previously understood dominion over the earth as an unmerited gift from God. Now that dominion, made much more complete, was their own hard- won achievement. God had become a remote entity that set the universe in motion and then stood aside as people seized their futures. Practical men of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries created machines for spinning and weaving cotton, harnessing steam, harvesting crops, and casting metals, all of which multiplied the rate at which food, minerals, and wood were extracted from the earth and bent to human will. THE BIRTH OF CONSERVATION But growing numbers of Europeans realized that their new machines and techniques could endanger the very prosperity they had fostered. Agriculture had less to do with subsistence, with feeding local populations, more to
do with generating money by producing crops for distant markets. But these shifts put more pressure on the land. Thoughtful farmers compensated by rotating crops more carefully, using legumes such as peas and clover to restore nitrogen to depleted soils, for example. Others worried about the consequences of shrinking forests. Sixteenth- century landslides and floods provoked a ban on logging in parts of Florence. Germans began noticing wood shortages around 1600, and in the late eighteenth century they began regulating logging in an attempt to provide a reliable annual supply of firewood and building material. The first forestry school appeared in 1763 and was accompanied by many articles and books on the subject. ‘From the State Forest not more and not less may be taken annually than is possible on the basis of good management by permanent sustained yield,’ remarked a 1795 text (Rubner, 1984: 171). The Danes created Forest Acts in 1763 and 1805, with the latter set of regulations requiring both preservation and replanting. Russia’s reform- minded Peter the Great touted forest preservation as a means to both slow erosion and ensure a reliable supply of oak trees for masts in the early eighteenth century. The French expressed similar concerns as early as the twelfth century.
Their Forest Ordinance of 1669, though routinely ignored, covered human activities from grazing and charcoal production to logging, even how many seed-bearing trees were to be left standing. Forestry became not an exercise in cutting down trees as quickly as pos- sible, but a process of establishing rational, even mathematical, equations to ensure that trees were utilized with maximum, long-term efficiency. This emphasis on conservation, on using natural resources in a sustain- able manner, flew in the face of western tradition and local demands, but it Domesticating the wild 9 fitted well the requirements of the new science and the modern economy. Trees could best be understood as timber, as material to be converted into fuel, fences, houses, and railroad ties. Like the earth itself, they were expan- sive yet finite and ought therefore to be used judiciously. Empirical study and mathematical equations should determine the rate at which they should be cut and the uses to which they should be put. Forestry was a scientific study in which specially trained humans used reason to address concrete, practical
problems. Natural history in some ways resembled forestry. The rational exploitation of the earth’s flora and fauna, after all, required an exhaustive cataloguing of those commodities. Botanists and other collectors commonly accompanied explorers such as Captain James Cook because the sponsors of such expedi- tions wanted to know the commercial and agricultural potential of lands that they hoped to colonize. But by the eighteenth century a growing array of enthusiastic amateurs who gathered plants and insects in the fields and hills around their homes had joined the self-conscious professionals. These collectors eventually formed natural history societies, such as the British Association for the Advancement of Science. British publishers produced books on natural history that sold very, very well in the nineteenth century, and British news- papers included natural history sections. ‘By the middle of the century, there was hardly a middle-class drawing-room in the country that did not contain an aquarium, a fern-case, a butterfly cabinet, a seaweed album, a shell collection, or some other evidence of a taste for natural history’ (Barber, 1980: 13). Natural history collecting and societies spread to Canada and
other English colonies. These collectors were fired by several impulses, not all of them instru- mental. The amateurs, to be sure, believed that they were advancing scientific knowledge. They fitted their discoveries into an interminable Linnaean catalogue of nested classification in which plants, animals, and minerals were assigned places in an extensive but fixed hierarchy. The collectors ‘were strong on staying power, weak by comparison on speculation and insight’ (Allen, 1976: 820). Status accrued to those who assembled and organized the most specimens and facts. Unlike twentieth-century ecologists, they were not much interested in how their insects or plants related to everything else. This interest in the jots and tittles, the genus and species, of beetles and ferns embodied the Enlightenment confidence that nature could be, literally, pinned down, that it could be sorted and contained in a finite, if vast, system of kingdoms, classes, and genera. Nature was a static collection of species and data that could and would be fully defined, not a dynamic set of interactions. Discovering, describing, and cataloguing the world’s flora and fauna repre- sented Europeans’ growing sense of mastery over the natural world.
10 ENVIRONMENTALISM NOSTALGIA AND NATURE LOVING Yet amateur naturalists also looked backward, to a time when nature con- stituted not a scientific laboratory, but God’s handiwork. They were apt to be pious Protestants, particularly Quakers, for whom plants, insects, and shells suggested the beautiful, intricate, and wondrous work of God’s creation, ‘through Nature up to Nature’s God,’ as British collectors liked to put it (Lowe, 1983: 333). European gardens illustrated the same ambivalence over man’s growing power. By the time of the Reformation, in the 1520s, Italians had the most elaborate and celebrated. Fine gardens spread north, with economic growth. Holland’s urban elite purchased country estates in the seventeenth century that they surrounded with elaborate arrangements of plants, especially foreign and flowering varieties. These gardens provided a foil to wild land- scapes. They served not simply to please the eye, but to demonstrate how human artifice made nature orderly and pleasant. Gardens also performed political functions. The overwhelming Versailles gardens of Louis XIV, which consumed more water than the
600,000 denizens of Paris, suggested that a monarch who could so successfully con- trol nature should also control his nation. The ability to make a thousand flowers bloom betokened a sort of supernatural command of the rest of creation. Likewise, the tree-lined avenues leading up to important people’s homes connoted power as well as taste. Yet the unprecedented wealth of the eighteenth century brought gardens that were not only larger, but less orderly. Geometric and rigid landscapes – patent in their human artifice – gave way to less linear arrangements of plants, hills, water, and temples. These gardens required a great deal of inter- vention, not only in planting and cultivating various types of vegetation, but also in fashioning the very features that lent the gardens such a ‘natural’ appearance. An English landscape garden created in 1764 included a forty-acre lake. Indeed, the fences that separated the gardens around British estates from the fields and woods (and cows) beyond them were sunken so as not to jar people’s line of vision, to blur purposefully the division between two very different landscapes. From the windows of aristocratic homes, no discernible line separated the contrived and calculated nature of the garden from the relatively unkempt lands beyond them.
Eighteenth-century landscape gardens fed people’s souls. The Duke of Buckingham wrote that ‘the works of nature appear to me the better sort of sermons; and every flower contains in it the most edifying rhetorick, to fill us with the admiration of its omnipotent Creator.’ A half century later, in 1755, writer Edward Young turned Milton on his head by asserting: ‘A garden to the virtuous is a paradise still extant; a paradise unlost’ (Coffin, Domesticating the wild 11 1994: 67, 69). As God became more remote, flowers and other domesticated plants became not simply tokens of the creator’s blessings but emblems of perfection in and of themselves. Well-to-do Britons alarmed religious author- ities by choosing their gardens over their churchyards as burial grounds, as if to say that these places were their Eden, and their heaven, too. Western Europe’s leading artists and intellects embraced nature. Words- worth, Keats, Shelley, Coleridge, Blake, Goethe, Balzac, Beethoven, Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner turned to the non-human world for inspiration. Jean-Jacques Rousseau inaugurated the movement in the mid-
eighteenth century when he turned the rational wing of the Enlightenment on its ear by celebrating ‘primitive’ people as authentic and independent precisely because they lived outside the artificiality and selfishness of civilized, urban life. ‘I closed all my books,’ explains one of his characters. ‘There is one book open to all eyes, that of nature’ (Gay, 1977: 547). Nature served to stimulate modern people’s souls and imaginations, fostering a healthy, reflective indi- vidualism. Like other Enlightenment writers, Rousseau had an optimistic view of the human condition. He denied the religious and political ortho- doxies of the day, that human beings were abject sinners incapable of thinking for or governing themselves. Individualism resided at the heart of this cult of nature loving. ‘I rustle with the wind,’ wrote German philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder, ‘and become alive – give life – inspire – I inhale fragrance, and exhale it with the flowers; I dissolve in water; I float in blue sky; I have all these feelings’ (Cartmill, 1993: 116). The poet William Wordsworth believed that nature and human consciousness mirrored each other: ‘. . . what I saw/ Appeared like something in myself, a dream,/ A prospect in my mind’ (Brennan, 1987: 55). Wordsworth found in nature not a collection of substances
to be studied and prodded and put to good use, but divinity itself. The contem- plation of nature could and should be intensely and personally mystical and enlightening – a religious experience [Doc. 2, p. 102]. Ludwig Van Beethoven, one of the era’s consummate and crotchety individualists, pro- fessed himself ‘only happy in the midst of untouched nature’ (Schauffler, 1933: 261). Romantics embraced the self and nature, the natural self. Nature was not always agreeable. True, many aesthetes celebrated a picturesque, quaint nature. The movement peaked in the 1790s in England, where John Constable’s paintings offered a harmonious palette of trees, fields, sky, and rural folk, a countryside shaped but hardly spoiled by humanity. But more and more artists turned from the picturesque to the sublime, from the pleasant to the forceful. Beethoven pioneered the use of dissonant, even sinister musical compositions, and his evocations of nature, as in his Sixth Symphony, featured a fearsome storm as well as pastoral themes. Wordsworth described solitary, dark pools surrounded by ‘huge stones and masses of 12 ENVIRONMENTALISM
rock,’ a vista that ‘excites a sense of some repulsive power strongly put forth and thus deepens the melancholy natural to such scenes’ (Byatt, 1970: 273–4). Nature could be ‘awful & immeasurable.’ Likewise, the landscape painter J.M.W. Turner forsook pleasant British country scenes for indistinct, menacing representations. To capture the terror of a storm at sea he asked to be lashed to a ship’s mast for several hours, an ordeal so awful that ‘I did not expect to escape’ (Brennan, 1987: 79, 90). The fear this experience induced is palpable in The Slave Ship, a painting in which indistinct sea monsters devour slaves that have been pitched from a vessel swallowed by malignant, squatting clouds (see Plate 1). Picturesque depictions of nature invited people to feel good about nature. The sublime, like other elements of Romanticism, simply required them to feel – and strongly. In either event, nature provided a sanctuary that excised banal society so that the solitary, sensitive soul could connect with primal forces and emotions. These ideas soon spread beyond artists and intellectuals. Intrigued by Rousseau’s celebration of primitivism, Marie Antoinette and her retinue played at being peasants in the gardens of Versailles. The
growing urban, middle class was particularly interested in celebrating nature. Mountains and seas had long been regarded as dreadful and threatening places unsusceptible to improvement. Now the burgeoning cities had become degraded and diseased, less populated places vivifying and restorative. THE BIRTH OF NATURE TOURISM The search for pastoral peace created a rural tourist industry. By the 1780s guide books directed sensitive tourists to Rousseau’s Hermitage, where he had written some of his most influential works. Germans flocked to the Rhineland for inspiration, a pilgrimage facilitated by steamship and then rail travel. ‘Between Mainz and Cologne,’ observed an engraver in 1840, ‘hardly a house, hardly a tree can be found which has not set in motion a pen or a gouge’ (Lekan, 2004: 26). Wordsworth was hosting some 500 visitors annually to his home in the Lake District by the 1840s, where his poems instructed less articulate souls what to feel as they trekked across the landscape he had made famous. Genteel tourists were soon worrying that their less-cultivated counterparts did not approach nature properly. Wordsworth wrote several editions of a guidebook to his beloved Lake District between 1810 and 1842,
which he hoped would be of use to ‘the Minds of Persons of taste, and feeling for Landscape’ (Buzard, 1993: 30). But as growing numbers of travellers flocked northward, he fretted over ‘cheap trains pouring out their hundreds at a time Romanticism Roman- ticism emerged from the eighteenth century Enlightenment and acted as a counterweight to its more scientific, rational aspects. Pro- ponents of Romanticism emphasized the impor- tance of emotion, of feel- ing, and Romantic poets, painters, composers and philosophers commonly turned to nature for inspiration and material. Domesticating the wild 13 along the margin of Windermere,’ that the countryside would soon be plagued by ‘wrestling matches, horses and boat races without number’ (Ousby, 1990: 192). A wealthy woman complained that the Derbyshire valley was defaced by
throngs of mill hands . . . tearing through the fields like swarms of devas- tating locusts, and dragging the fern and hawthorn boughs they had torn down in the dust, ending the lovely spring day in pot houses, drinking gin and bitters, or heavy ales by the quart, and tumbling pell- mell into the night train . . . sodden, tipsy, yelling, loathsome creatures, such as make the monkey look a king. (Winter, 1999: 211) The same thing was happening in North America. Niagara Falls, on the border of Canada and the US, moved from being ‘the ultimate test of the “civilized” man or woman’s ability to feel deeply . . . to hear Nature speak,’ to a mere tourist destination. A writer in 1846 complained that the site was plagued with ‘Chinese pagoda, menagerie, camera obscura, museum, watch-tower, wooden monument, sea gardens, “curiosity shops” ’ ( Jasen, 1995: 33, 43). European and especially English beaches were similarly transformed. The waters of mineral and hot springs had long been celebrated for their healing properties. By the early eighteenth century physicians were prescribing salt- water bathing. This recommendation, coupled with a growth in disposable incomes, brought a trickle and then a stream of vacationers to
English resorts. The bathers were soon appreciating more than the ocean’s water. Many, ubiquitous guidebooks in hand, collected seashells or seaweed. Shells and pebbles could be arranged into intricate mementos of a stay at the beach. Other, more ambitious collectors, started (short-lived) aquariums. The ocean itself drew many pilgrims. Its boundless expanses provided the anvil upon which artists and other aesthetes could forge their identities and refine their sensibilities. Fishing villages had turned their backs to the threat- ening sea, seeking refuge and vistas inland. But in the early nineteenth century resorts began staking out ground near the water’s edge and installing large windows where visitors could absorb ‘all the grandeur of the storm’ while staying warm and dry. As in Wordsworth’s Lake District, more Spartan nature lovers lamented the commercialization of what they argued should be a more elemental expe- rience. ‘What are they doing here?’ asked a man observing a group of stock- brokers at the seaside. ‘If they had true relish of the ocean,’ he wondered, ‘why have they brought all this land luggage with them?’ (Howell, 1974: 46). But – then as now – nature loving and comfort in fact correlated
more often than not. By the mid-nineteenth century, middle-class English families were going to the seaside for a month or more, soaking in the resplendent 14 ENVIRONMENTALISM ocean even as they enjoyed most, if not all, of the amenities of home. By that date seaside resorts were also common in southern Europe and the eastern US. This would not be the first time that the people most insulated from nature’s bite, people who had time and money on their hands, were the most apt to celebrate its beneficence and beauty. PETS Prosperity also reworked people’s relationships with animals. Oxen, cattle, and other creatures had played a key role in Europe’s economic transforma- tion. By the fourteenth century the average European used much more animal power than his or her counterpart in China or Africa, let alone the Americas. But urbanization and economic growth removed a larger and larger proportion of people from direct contact with working animals. Pets stepped into the breach. Royal menageries expanded during the seventeenth
century. Louis XIV kept ostriches, camels, elephants, crocodiles, and gazelles, animals from across the Mediterranean lands that he dominated. Like the elaborate gardens of Versailles, such collections served political and imperial ends by suggesting the long reach of his power. Royals and aristocrats of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries kept animals as pets, especially dogs, a practice that soon spread to the growing urban middle class. Dogs, cats, squirrels, monkeys, tortoises, otters, rabbits, mice, hedgehogs, toads, and a variety of birds made themselves at home among the bourgeois. Song birds were popular in London by the late seventeenth century. Pets became quasi-family members. They typically lived indoors and might go to church. They seldom performed work and certainly were not to be eaten. Pets showed up in family portraits and graveyards, and not a few owners expected to meet their departed friends in heaven, since dogs had souls, too (see Plate 2). Russian writers suggested that dogs committed suicide when their masters died. The multiplication of pets engendered attempts at animal protection by the late eighteenth century in Great Britain. Some became so enamoured of birds that they abjured putting any type on their plates – and criticized their
Italian and French counterparts for being so barbarous as to keep consum- ing them. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals appeared in the 1820s in London and quickly gained influential members. Bull-baiting, the practice of setting dogs or other animals on bulls, was banned in 1835, cock-fighting in 1849 [Doc. 3, p. 106]. France’s Society for Protection of Animals denounced bullfighting and using dogs to pull carts. The affinity of members of the middle class for animals, like their love of the outdoors, reflected their economic and social position. Lamenting animal cruelty served to criticize both the idle aristocracy for hunting wild and the Domesticating the wild 15 struggling lower classes for abusing domesticated animals. Popular forms of amusement such as cock- or dog-fighting also offended the reformers. Bloody, working-class spectacles were out of step with the emerging Victorian ethos of self-restraint and public order. Prosperous animal lovers liked to point out that the lower classes should learn from, rather than exploit, animals, creatures that accepted their station in life and went about their work cheerfully, without complaint.
Victorian animal lovers reserved their highest praise for creatures that exhibited the most subservience (dogs much more so than cats) or that performed the most beneficial work (horses). Elephants were one of the few wild animals to receive much respect, as they purportedly surrendered their freedom to work cheerfully for humans. If only servants could be so tractable. Concern for animal welfare also constituted a platform from which the growing middle class could criticize the indolent rich. By the late eighteenth century country gentlemen were creating gargantuan cattle and oxen that could carry more and more meat. The British were proud of consuming more flesh than their continental counterparts, particularly the French. Beef – on the plate or in the field – represented British superiority. But the fat-laden, monumental creatures that aristocrats produced stood for more narrow con- cerns: the wealth and magnificence of their owners. Indeed, less prosperous Britons found these creatures more grotesque than useful. They were incap- able of sustained labour and produced gelatinous, unsavoury meat. These excrescences of aristocratic vanity were ‘a collection of agricultural luxuries’ fattened by ‘Dukes and Earls’ who ‘can afford a fancy, whether it is the pur- chase of a Titian [painting], or the production of a prize
bullock.’ A clergy- man criticized the practice from even higher moral ground and wondered if the creation and showing of animals suffering from ‘overwhelming and torturing obesity’ did not constitute a ‘cruel and unchristian exhibition’ (Ritvo, 1987: 72, 75). The growing concern for animals was circumscribed and conditional. Sympathy for the wellbeing of congenial dogs and horses was accompanied in England by a ruthless slaughter of those deemed deleterious to human endeavours: rats and moles, of course, but also badgers and hedgehogs. Animals, like people, were expected to be useful. ENVIRONMENTALISM IN THE COLONIES AND EARLY US Nature remained utilitarian in Europe’s colonies. Settlers in the Americas and the Pacific were too concerned with overcoming nature to give much thought to protecting or celebrating it. 16 ENVIRONMENTALISM But the young US constituted something of an exception, not so much because of its growing prosperity, rather because of its distinctive and potent
strain of nationalism. Here, as in so many other fields, Thomas Jefferson played a crucial role. The Virginia planter was among the nation’s most enthusiastic and skilled naturalists, and he itched to put the lie to George Louis Leclerc de Buffon’s theory of American degeneracy. Buffon, the most celebrated naturalist of the day, found ample natural grounds for American inferiority. The unimpressive size of North America’s mammals and the purported lack of agricultural and technological accomplishments by its indigenous peoples indicated that the continent could produce only ‘cold men and feeble animals’ (Semonin, 2000: 125). Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia, written during the American Revolution, countered this theory. Did not American bears, for example, weigh twice as much as their European counterparts? Jefferson went so far as to send Buffon a large panther skin and the skeleton of an American moose. If bigger were better, the new nation had nothing to be ashamed of. These sorts of sentiments multiplied after the US achieved its inde- pendence. Clearly the young nation could not compete with its European counterparts in the conventional measures of civilization: art and architec- ture. But America’s weakness, its newness, could be made a virtue. Enthused
a patriot in 1833: What are the temples which Roman robbers have reared, – what are the towers in which feudal oppression has fortified itself, – what are the blood-stained association of the one, or the despotic superstitions of the other, to the deep forests which the eye of God has alone pervaded, and where Nature, in her unviolated sanctuary, has for ages laid her fruits and flowers on His altar! (Nash, 2001: 73) ‘Nature’s nation’s’ want of cathedrals and castles underscored its inno- cence and virtue, its democracy. Its unsurpassed forests and mountains offered proof enough of God’s favour – and a fresh canvas on which God’s chosen people would create the mightiest and best nation of all, the New Jerusalem. That God’s chosen nation was ploughing up, cutting down, and otherwise subduing the very wilderness that distinguished it was an irony lost on the young country’s patriots. In the century following the American Revolution they quickly spread across the continent, laying waste to forests, grasslands, predators, and other animals with good cheer and industry. It would not be
the last time that nature’s loudest partisans would be its most ambitious destroyers. Nationalism This move- ment emphasized pride of country, including its natural features, and emerged across the western world in the nineteenth century. It often led to the preser- vation of places and species deemed intrinsic to a nation’s identity. Domesticating the wild 17 Nature conservation had become well developed in western Europe by the mid-nineteenth century. Germany and other nations had by then realized that a reliable supply of timber required active management by specialized scientists – foresters – who would determine the time and place and rate of harvesting and a substantial bureaucracy to enforce forestry laws. But most expressions of concern over and affinity for nature were less calculated and logical. Natural history societies devoted to the collection and exhibition of nature’s bounty dotted western Europe and some
of its colonies. Pets and gardens were commonplace, especially in England, where people inside and outside the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) were lamenting the suffering of some animals. Educated Christians no longer feared the rugged mountains and seashores but sought from them, in paintings and on vacation, meaning and transcendence. The sprawling landscape gardens of English and Welsh country estates perhaps best expressed the paradoxical relationship between conservation and efficiency on the one hand and nature appreciation on the other. The owners of such estates made their bread and butter by enclosing what had once been marginal land used by villages. Sometimes they absorbed and destroyed even the villages themselves. The profit-minded capitalists culti- vated these expanded fields more intensively and efficiently – by turning forests into tree plantations of rapidly growing softwoods, such as larch and pine, for example. But the casual eye would not have detected such enterprises from the windows of the manor house. These domestic views were carefully con- structed to include broad expanses of lawn, noble oaks, placid lakes, perhaps
some faux ruins evoking ancient Rome. A few cattle grazed in the distance, near a church steeple or, better yet, the crumbling walls of an old castle. Like the residents of expensive beach homes at the turn of the twenty-first century, the owners of these estates drew a thick line between the increas- ingly commercialized and rationalized nature that supported their prosperity and the nature of the drawing room, garden, library, concert hall, and vacation destination. Nature provided both wealth and a counterbalance to wealth. That is why nature loving advanced most quickly in England, the nation that had most fully subdued it, among people of ample education and leisure who were most insulated from its vagaries. This ironic relationship between material progress and nature loving would become more widespread and intense in the century preceding the Second World War. Western people would have more reasons than before to conserve nature for purposes that were both rational and irrational, economic and spiritual. Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) Founded in 1824 in
London, this organiza- tion quickly gained the backing of influential people, and in 1840 Queen Victoria allowed it to include ‘Royal’ in its title. For several decades the society focused on encouraging the enforce- ment of legislation penalizing the abuse of working animals. Later in the nineteenth century the RSPCA paid increas- ing attention to the abuse of pets and sport- ing or fighting animals. It spread to much of the British Empire. 3 Industrial nature loving One can read a lot of books extolling the virtues of western environ-mentalism without running across the name of Hermann Göring.Yet the notorious Nazi leader expressed a great deal of affinity and concern for nature. Like many of his colleagues, including Hitler, he believed that German identity and strength resided in its natural landscape and that the nation’s wellbeing depended on the preservation of those features. A
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
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A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
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A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
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A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx
A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Org.docx

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  • 1. A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 1 This Guide contains aids to the pronunciation of communities and organizations listed in the Excel Database “Guide to Indigenous Organizations and Services in British Columbia” (Previously known as The Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia). The original Pronunciation Guide was created with input from First Nations and other Aboriginal organizations, as well as from the First Peoples’ Cultural Council. British Columbia has a vast wealth of First Nations languages and cultures. There are 7 distinct language families, completely unrelated to each other. Within these families there are 34 different First Nations languages and at least 93 different dialects (varieties) of those languages. Besides these 34 living languages, at least three languages which were spoken in
  • 2. British Columbia are now sleeping.1 All of these languages contain a rich inventory of sounds, many of which are not found in English. When preparing this Guide, we asked representatives to help us understand how to pronounce the traditional name of their community or organization. The pronunciation equivalents we have developed here are meant as an introductory guide. The final authority on a pronunciation rests with the community. We encourage you to gain a first-hand understanding of how a name is pronounced by speaking directly with, and being guided by, representatives from each community. Please note that many sounds in First Nations’ languages do not occur in English and so cannot be expressed using the English writing system. Additionally, there are often multiple variations of a pronunciation based on dialectal and other differences. The pronunciations represented below come as close as possible to the correct pronunciation, while being restrained to the English alphabet. A few of the letter combinations below are used to represent specific sounds not found in English. These are: “wh” represents a breathy ‘wh’ sound that is pronounced with friction in the throat. “thl” represents a breathy ‘l’ sound with friction in the mouth, similar to the l in ‘athlete’ “ts” at the beginning of a word sounds like the ‘ts’ in ‘cats’ First Nation communities and organizations continue to adopt Indigenous names distinct from anglicized
  • 3. versions or non-indigenous names. You will also find we have included several names that are cross- referenced with traditional or alternative names in brackets that may not appear in the Excel database, but may continue to be used in communities. For more information about First Nations’ languages in British Columbia, please visit the First Peoples’ Cultural Council’s website (www.fpcc.ca), or the First Peoples’ Language Map of B.C. (http://www.maps.fphlcc.ca/). 1 This information is taken from FPCC’s paper “Recognizing the Diversity of BC's First Nations Languages” https://www2.gov.bc.ca/gov/content/governments/indigenous- people/aboriginal-organizations-services http://www.fpcc.ca/ http://www.maps.fphlcc.ca/ A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 2
  • 4. Your comments and suggestions for improvement are welcome. Please email: [email protected] Socio-Economic Partnerships Branch Ministry of Indigenous Relations and Reconciliation Name of Organization Alternate or Previous Name Pronunciation ?aqam St. Mary's Band ?Esdilagh First Nation Alexandria Indian Band ess-dey-la Ahousaht First Nation a-howz-at Ahousaht Holistic Centre a-howz-at Aitchelitz Band a-che-leetz Akisqnuk First Nation Columbia Lake First Nation a-kissk-nook Akisqnuk Health Resource Centre a-kissk-nook Alberni Clayoquot Métis Association may-tee Ashcroft and District Métis Association may-tee A-Tlegay Fisheries Society at-le-gay Ayas Men Men Child & Family Services ay-es mun mun BC Métis Association May-tee Bonaparte Indian Band bone-eh-part Boothroyd Band booth-roid Boundary Community Métis Association Boundary Community Métis Association Boundary Community Métis Association may-tee Cariboo Chilcotin Métis Association may-tee Carrier Chilcotin Tribal Council carry-er chill-ko-tin Carrier Sekani Family Services carry-er sek-an-ee Carrier Sekani Tribal Council carry-er sek-an-ee Cayoose Creek Band kai-yuse creek Champagne and Aishihik First Nations sham-pane and eh-
  • 5. zhee-ack Chawathil First Nation formerly Hope Indian Band cha-wah- thul Cheam First Nation chee-am Chemainus First Nation see Stz’uminus First Nation Cha-main- us Cheslatta Carrier Nation chess-la-ta Chilliwack Métis Association may-tee Ch'nook Indigenous Business Education Chi-nook Chrysalis Society Kris-Sull-Iss Columbia Valley Métis Association may-tee mailto:[email protected] A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 3 Conayt Friendship Society kon-ate or kun-ate Conayt Housing kon-ate or kun-ate Coqualeetza Cultural Education Centre co-ka-leetz-a Council of the Haida Nation hy-dah Cowichan Tribes cow-i-chin Cowichan Valley Métis Nation cow-i-chin / may-tee Cwenengitel Aboriginal Society kwa-nin-cha-tul
  • 6. Dana Naye Ventures da-na-nay Da'naxda'xw First Nation Tanakteuk Indian Band da-naw-dawh Daylu Dena Council formerly Lower Post First Nation day-lou den-a Dene Tsaa Tse K'Nai First Nation see Prophet River First Nation de-ne tsah tsay k-nai Denisiqi Services Society den-ne-se-kai Ditidaht First Nation formerly Nitinaht First Nation dee-tee-dot Dzawada'enuxw First Nation formerly Tsawataineuk First Nation dza-wah-day-noowh Dze L K'ant Friendship Centre Society zel-kant Ehattesaht First Nation ee-hat-a-sut Elk Valley Métis Association may-tee En'owkin Centre Okanagan Indian Educational Resources Society en-ow-kin Esk'etemc ess-ke-tem Esquimalt Nation es-kwai-malt Fort Nelson Métis Society may-tee Fort St. John Métis Society may-tee Fraser Valley Métis Association may-tee Gitanmaax Band Council git-n-max Gitanyow Band Council git-n-yow Gitanyow Hereditary Chiefs' Office git-n-yow Gitga'at First Nation Hartley Bay Band Council git-gat Gitksan Watershed Authorities gicks-san Gitksan Wet’suwet’en Education Society gicks-san wet-so-a- den Gitmaxmak’ay Nisga’a Prince Rupert/Port Edward Society
  • 7. git-ma-mgai nis-gah Gitsegukla Band Council gits-a guk-la Gitwangak Band Council git-wan-gawk Gitxaala Nation formerly Kitkatla First Nation git-gath-la Gitxsan Child and Family Services Society gicks-san A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 4 Gitxsan Government Commission gicks-san Gitxsan Health Society gicks-san Gitxsan Hereditary Chiefs' Office gicks-san Gitxsan Treaty Society gicks-san Gitxsan Unlocking Aboriginal Justice gicks-san Gitxsan Watershed Authorities gicks-san Golden Ears Métis Society may-tee Gwa'sala-'Nakwaxda'xw Nation Tsulquate Band gwa-sal-a nawk-wa-dawh Gwawaenuk Tribe gwah-way-ee-nook Gya' Wa' Tlaab Healing Centre Society geeya-wah-tlawb
  • 8. Hagwilget Village Council hag-wil-git Haida Child and Family Services Society hy-day gwai Haida Gwaii Community Futures hy-day gwai Haida Gwaii Restorative Justice, c/o Haida Tribal Society hy-day gwai Haisla Nation Council Haisla Nation, Kitamaat Village Council High-sla Halalt First Nation hull-alt Ha-Shilth-Sa Newspaper ha-shilth-sa Heiltsuk Cultural Education Centre helts-uk Heiltsuk Kaxla Society helts-uk kaks-la Heiltsuk Nation formerly Bella Bella Indian Band helts-uk Heiltsuk Tribal Council helts-uk Hesquiaht First Nation hesh-qwee-at Hiiye'yu Lelum (House of Friendship) Society he-yay-ya lay-lum Homalco First Nation hoe-mall-co Hulitan Family and Community Services Society hull-eet-n Hul'qumi'num Treaty Group hull-kuh-mee-num Hupacasath First Nation ho-putch-eh-set
  • 9. Huu-ay-aht Development Corporation ho-ay-at Huu-ay-aht First Nations ho-ay-at In-SHUCK-ch Nation in-shuck-sh Interior Métis Child and Family Services may-tee A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 5 Iskut Band Council isk-cut or Alternate of is- koot Island Métis Family and Community Services Society may-tee K’ómoks First Nation co-mox Ka:'yu:'k't'h'/Che:k:tles7et'h' First Nation Kyuquot Native Tribe kai-you-cut / sheh-kluh-szet alternatively kai-you-cut /chek-tluh-set
  • 10. Kackaamin Family Development Centre Association ka-kaah-min Kanaka Bar Indian Band can-a-ka bar Kaska Dena Council kas-ka Katzie First Nation kat-zee Kekinow Native Housing Society kee-kin-oh Kekuli Centre keh-koo-lee Kelowna Métis Association may-tee Kikino Métis Children & Family Services kee-kin-oh Ki-Low-Na Friendship Society key-low-nah Kispiox Band Council kiss-pea-ox Kitasoo Band Council Klemtu Band ki-ta-soo Kitkatla First Nation see Gitxaala Nation kit-cat-la Kitselas First Nation kit-sel-us Kitselas Treaty and Resource Office kit-sel-us Kitsumkalum First Nation kits-um-kale-um Kitsumkalum Health Centre kits-um-kale-um Kitsumkalum Treaty Office kits-um-kale-um Klahoose First Nation kla-hoose Kluskus Indian Band see Lhoosk’uz Dené Nation looze-k’ U z Knucwentwecw Society kanuk-when-twah Kootenay South Métis Society may-tee Ksan Historical Village and Museum Ka-san (also gicks-san?) Ktunaxa Kinbasket Aboriginal Training Council (KKATC) te-nawh-ha Kinbasket Ktunaxa Kinbasket Treaty Council te-nawh-ha Kinbasket Ktunaxa Nation Council (KNC) te-nah-ha alternatively k-
  • 11. too-nah-ha Ktunaxa/Kinbasket Child & Family Services te-nah-ha / kinbasket A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 6 KUU-US Crisis Line Society koo-us Kwadacha Nation Fort Ware Indian Band kwa-da-chuh Kwakiutl Band Council kwa-gul Kwakiutl District Council kwa-gul Kwakiutl District Council Health (KDC Health) kwa-gul
  • 12. Kwantlen First Nation Fort Langley Band kwant-len Kwaw-kwaw-apilt First Nation kwa-kwa-plit Kwiakah First Nation kway-ka Kwikwasut'inuxw Haxwa'mis First Nation quick-wa-sut-uh- nook / ha- kwuh-meesh Kwikwetlem First Nation kwee-kwet-lum Kw'umut Lelum Child & Family Services kwa-mut lay-lum Laich-Kwil-Tach Treaty Society lee-kwa-ta Laichwiltach Family Life Society lee-kwa-ta Lake Cowichan First Nation cow-i-chin Lalum'utul' Smun'eem Child and Family Services lay-lum-atul smah-nawm LÁU,WELNEW Tribal School lhay-wull-nough Lax Kw'alaams Band lacks-qwah-lambs Laxgalts'ap Village Government lax-galt-sap Leq’á:mel First Nation la-cam-el Lheidli-T'enneh Band clayt-clay den-ay Lheidli-T'enneh Natural Resource Office clayt-clay den-ay Lhoosk’uz Dené Nation looze-k' U z den-ay Lhtako Dene Nation Red Bluff Band Office lah-ta-ko den-ay Liard First Nation lee-ard Lil'wat Nation lil-watt Little Shuswap Indian Band shoo-shwahp Lower Similkameen Indian Band si-mil-kuh-meen Lyackson First Nation lye-ack-son Maa-Nulth First Nations maw-nawlth Maiyoo Keyoh Society My-you Kay-yo M'akola Housing Society ma-ko-la Mamalilikulla First Nation Mamalilikulla-Qwe'Qwa'Sot'Em
  • 13. Band ma-ma-leelah-kwalah kwe- kwah-sum Matsqui First Nation mats-sqwee A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 7 Métis Commission for Children and Families of BC
  • 14. may-tee Métis Community Services Society of BC may-tee Métis Employment and Training Program may-tee Métis Family Services may-tee Métis Matters Radio Show may-tee Métis Nation BC may-tee Métis Nation Columbia River Society may-tee Métis Nation of Greater Victoria may-tee Métis Women of British Columbia may-tee Metlakatla Governing Council met-la-cat-la Metlakatla Treaty Office met-la-cat-la Mid-Island Métis Nation Association may-tee MIKI'SIW Métis Association may-tee Moccasin Flat's Métis Society may-tee Mowachaht/Muchalaht First Nation mo-which-it/much-a-lit Musgamagw Tsawataineuk Tribal Council moos-ga-muk zow- wa-dane- nook Musqueam Indian Band mus-kwee-um Nadleh Whut'en Band nad-lee woo-ten Nak'azdli Alternate Justice Centre na-caused-lee Nak'azdli Band Necosli Band na-caused-lee ‘Namgis Community Services nhum-geez ‘Namgis First Nation nhum-geez ‘Namgis Health Centre nhum-geez Nanoose Te'mexw Treaty Association na-noose tey-muck Nat'oot'ten Nation see Lake Babine Nation nad-oo-ten Naut’sa mawt Resources Group, Inc. nawt-saw-mawt Naut'sa mawt Tribal Council nawt-saw-mawt
  • 15. Nawican Friendship Centre now-i-kin Nazko First Nation nazz-co Nazko Treaty Office nazz-co Nee-Tahi-Buhn Indian Band knee-tie-boon Nelson and Area Métis Society may-tee Nenqayni Wellness Centre Society nen-ky-knee Neskonlith Indian Band ness-con-lith New Aiyansh Village Government new eye-annch A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 8 Nezul Be Hunuyeh Child & Family Services Society nezul bay hun-yeah Nicola Valley & District Métis Society may-tee Nicomen Indian Band ni-kuh-men NIL/TU,O Child & Family Services Society neeth-two-wa Nisga’a Lisims Government nis-gah liss-ums Nis'ga’a Ts’amiks Vancouver Society nis-gah tsa-miks Nisga’a Valley Health Authority nis-gah
  • 16. Nisga’a Village of Gingolx nis-gah / gin-gol-lix Nisga'a Child & Family Services nis-gah Nisga'a Village of Gitwinksihlkw nis-gah / git-win-silk Nitinaht First Nation see Ditidaht First Nation dee-tee-dot Nlaka'pamux Nation Tribal Council ent-la-cap-um Nlha'7kapmx Child & Family Services ent-la-cap-um Nooaitch Indian Band new-ich North Cariboo Métis Association may-tee North East Métis Association may-tee North Fraser Métis Association may-tee North Island Métis Nation may-tee North West BC Métis Association may-tee Northern Shuswap Tribal Council Northern Secwepemc te Quelmucw shoo-shwahp Northwest BC Métis Association may-tee N'Quatqua First Nations neh-qwa-qwa Nuchatlaht First Nation new-chat-lat Nupqu Development Corporation noop-ku Nuu-chah-nulth new-chaw-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth Child and Family Services new-chaw-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth Economic Development Corporation new-cha-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth NIHB new-chaw-nulth Nuu-chah-nulth Tribal Council new-chaw-nulth Nuxalk Nation Bella Coola First Nation new-hawk Office of the Wet'suwet'en wet-so-a-den Okanagan Métis & Aboriginal Housing Society may-tee
  • 17. OoknaKane Friendship Centre ooka-na-cane Osoyoos Indian Band oh-soy-use A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 9 Oweekeno Nation See Wuikinuxv Nation whee-kin-au Pacheedaht First Nation pah-chee-dat Pauquachin First Nation paw-kwi-chin Pauquachin Health Centre paw-kwi-chin Penelakut Tribe pen-el-a-cut Popkum First Nation c/o Sto:lo Nation pop-kwum Powell River Métis Society may-tee Prince George Métis Community Association may-tee Prince Rupert & District Metis Community may-tee Prophet River First Nation Dene Tsaa Tse K'Nai First Nation de-ne tsah tsay k-nai Qayqayt First Nation New Westminster Indian Band key-kite
  • 18. Qualicum First Nation kwal-i-come Quatsino First Nation quat-see-know Quesnel Tillicum Society Native Friendship Centre qwi-nel till-i-kum Quw'utsun Syuw’entst Lelum' Culture and Education Centre ko-whuts-sun swhents lay- lum Qwallayuw Head Start qkwell-eye-you Rocky Mountain Métis Association may-tee Saik'uz First Nation sigh-cuz Sal'i'shan Institute sal-i-shan Salmon Arm Métis Association may-tee Saulteau First Nation so-tow Scia'new First Nation Beecher Bay First Nation chee-a-new Scia'new Treaty Office chee-a-new Scw'exmx Child and Family Services Society shwa-come Scw'exmx Community Health Services Society shwa-come Sechelt Indian Band Child & Family Services see-shelt
  • 19. Secwepemc Child and Family Services Agency sec-wep-emc Secwepemc Cultural Education Society sec-wep-emc Semiahmoo First Nation semi-ah-moo Sexqeltqin Health Centre se-kell-keen Shackan Indian Band shack-n A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 10 shíshálh Nation Sechelt Indian Band see-shelt Shuswap Family Resource and Referral Centre shoo-shwahp Shuswap Indian Band shoo-shwahp Shuswap Nation Tribal Council shoo-shwahp Shxw’?whámél First Nation shwah-ham-ul Shxwha:y Village Skway First Nation shwhy
  • 20. Simpcw First Nation North Thompson Indian Band sim-ka Siska Indian Band sis-ka Skatin Nations skah-teen Skawahlook First Nation skow-look Skidegate Band Council skid-eh-get Skin Tyee Nation skin-tye-ee Skowkale First Nation skow-cale Skuppah Indian Band scup-pa Skwah First Nation skwah Skway First Nation see Shxwha:y Village sh-why Slelemw Child Development Centre sull-ay-mu Sliammon Development Corporation sly-am-mon Snaw-Naw-As First Nation see Nanoose First Nation snaw-naw- as Snaza'ist Discovery Centre snaw-zay-ist Snc'c'amala?tn Okanagan Indian Band Early Childhood Education Centre sun-chich-she-mall-it-ton Snuneymuxw First Nation snue-ney-mowck Snuneymuxw First Nation Health Centre snue-ney-mowck Songhees Nation song-geez Songhees Treaty Office song-geez Soowahlie Indian Band sue-wall-e South Okanagan Similkameen Métis Association si-mil-kuh-meen Southern Stl'atl'imx Health Society stat-lee-um Splatsin Spallumcheen Indian Band spla-cheen Spuzzum First Nation spuz-zum Sqewlets First Nation Scowlitz First Nation scow-litz Squamish Nation squa-mish Squamish Ocean Canoe Family squa-mish
  • 21. Squiala First Nation skwai-all-a Stellat'en First Nation stull-a-tin A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 11 Stitsma Employment Centre schtitz-ma Sto:lo Aboriginal Skills and Employment Training staw-low Sto:lo Nation Community Development Department and Qwi:Qwelstom staw-low Sto:lo Nation Health Services staw-low Sto:lo Nation Society staw-low Sto:lo Tribal Council staw-low Stó:lo Xwexwilmexw Treaty Association Staw-low Sts'ailes formerly Chehalis Indian Band sta-ay-liss Stswecem'c -Xgat'tem First Nation Canoe Creek Band St-wet-
  • 22. lem hight-lem Stu''ate LeLum Secondary School stu-eight lay-lum Stz’uminus First Nation Chemainus First Nation sha-main-us Sulsila Lelum Wellness Centre Society sawl-see-la-lee-lum Sumas First Nation sue-mas Tahltan Band tall-tan Tahltan Health and Social Services Authority tall-tan Takla Lake First Nation tack-lah Taku River Tlingit First Nation ta-koo-river tling-get Tale'awtxw Aboriginal Capital Corporation tah-la-hout Tansi Friendship Centre Society tawn-say Te'mexw Treaty Association tey-muck T'exelc Treaty Williams Lake Indian Band teh-huwl Tillicum Lelum Aboriginal Friendship Centre till-i-kum lay-lum T'it'q'et Administration tilth-kit Tla’amin Health Tla'amin Community Health Services sly-am-mon Tla'amin Nation sly-am-mon Tla-o-qui-aht First Nation klay-o-kwee-at Tlatlasikwala First Nation Nuwitti Band tla-tla-see-kwa-la Tl'azt'en Nation tlaz-den Tl'etinqox-T'in Government Office kleh-deen-ko-teen Tlowitsis Nation tlow-eet-sees Toosey Indian Band two-zee Toquaht Nation tow-kwat
  • 23. Tri-River Métis Association may-tee A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 12 Tsartlip First Nation sart-lip Tsartlip Health Centre sart-lip Tsawout First Nation say-out Tsawout Health say-out Tsawwassen First Nation tsa-wah-sen Tsay Keh Dene Band say-kay-denay TseK'hene First Nation see McLeod Lake Indian Band tse-kan- ay Ts’elxwéyeqw Tribe Management chil-kway-uhk Tseshaht First Nation say-shot Tseshaht Health Clinic say-shot Tseshaht Youth Centre say-shot Ts'ewulhtun Health Centre of the Cowichan Tribes say-wool-tun / cow-i-chin Tseycum First Nation say-come
  • 24. Tŝideldel First Nation Alexis Creek Indian Band tsigh-dell-dell Tsilhqot'in National Government sill-ko-teen Tsimshian First Nations Treaty Society sim-she-an Ts'kw'aylaxw First Nation Pavilion Indian Band tisk-why-lah Tsleil-Waututh Nation Burrard Band sail-wha-tooth T'Sou-ke Nation tsa-awk Tsow-Tun Le Lum Society Residential Substance Abuse Treatment Centre sow-tun-lay-lum Tsq'escen' Canim Lake Band chess-ken Two Rivers Métis Society may-tee Tzeachten First Nation chee-ack-ten Uchucklesaht Tribe u-chuk-les-at Ulkatcho First Nations ul-kat-cho U'mista Cultural Centre oo-miss-ta Usma Nuu-Chah-Nulth Family and Child Services us-mah new-cha-nulth United Canadian Métis Nation Vancouver Métis Citizens Society may-tee Vancouver Métis Community Association may-tee Vernon & District Métis Association may-tee Waceya Métis Society may-tee Wachiay Friendship Centre Society wha-chey Wazdidadilh Aboriginal Infant & Family Development Program woss-did-a-duh
  • 25. A Guide to the Pronunciation of Indigenous Communities and Organizations in BC The Pronunciation Guide offered below is from the September 2018 Guide to Aboriginal Organizations and Services in British Columbia. Please note there may be some variation from this version due to periodic updates that have occurred since then. For changes, please email: [email protected] 13 We Wai Kai First Nation wee-wa-kai Wei Wai Kum First Nation wee-wha-come Wet'suwet'en First Nation wet-so-a-den Whe-La-La-U Area Council we-lala-you Whispering Pines / Clinton Band - the Pellt'iq't People pel-tighk Wilp Si'Satxw Community Healing Centre wilp-s-sat Wilp Wilxo'oskwhl Nisga’a Institute wilp will-kosk-wuh WSÁNE? School Board wh-say-nuch Wuikinuxv Nation Oweekeno Nation whee-kin-au Wuikinuxv-Kitasoo-Nuxalk Tribal Council whee-kin-au; kit-a- soo; new- hawk Xat'súll First Nation Soda Creek hat-sull Xaxli'p Band Fountain Band hawk-leap
  • 26. Xaxli'p Health Centre hawk-leap Xeni Gwet'in First Nations Government Nemaiah Band hon-ay gwi-teen Xolhemet Society o-le-met Xyolhemeylh Child and Family Services yoth-me Yakweakwioose Band ya-kweek-we-oos Yekooche First Nation yeh-koo-chee Yinka Déné Language Institute ying-kaw denay Yunesit'in Government you-neh-seh-teen Yuu?u?i??at? Government formerly Ucluelet First Nation u- clew-let Environmentalism This page intentionally left blank Environmentalism David Peterson del Mar ISBN: 978-1-4082-5558-2 British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data A CIP catalogue record for this book can be obtained from the British Library
  • 27. Library of Congress Cataloging in Publication Data Peterson del Mar, David, 1957–. Environmentalism / David Peterson del Mar. p. cm Includes bibliographical references and index. ISBN 978-1-4082-5558-2 (pbk.) 1. Environmentalism–History. 2. Nature conservation–History. 3. Natural areas–History. I. Title. Ge195.P478 2011 333.7209–dc22 2011001745 Set in 10/13.5pt Berkeley Book by 35 The right of David Peterson del Mar to be identified as author of this work has been asserted by him in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988. 2006 2006, 2012 This edition published 2012 Introduction to the series History is narrative constructed by historians from traces left by the past.
  • 28. Historical enquiry is often driven by contemporary issues and, in conse- quence, historical narratives are constantly reconsidered, reconstructed and reshaped. The fact that different historians have different perspectives on issues means that there is also often controversy and no universally agreed version of past events. Seminar Studies was designed to bridge the gap between current research and debate, and the broad, popular general surveys that often date rapidly. The volumes in the series are written by historians who are not only familiar with the latest research and current debates concerning their topic, but who have themselves contributed to our understanding of the subject. The books are intended to provide the reader with a clear introduction to a major topic in history. They provide both a narrative of events and a critical analysis of contemporary interpretations. They include the kinds of tools generally omitted from specialist monographs: a chronology of events, a glossary of terms and brief biographies of ‘who’s who’. They also include bibliographical essays in order to guide students to the literature on various aspects of the subject. Students and teachers alike will find that the selection of documents will stimulate discussion and offer insight into the raw materials used by
  • 29. historians in their attempt to understand the past. Clive Emsley and Gordon Martel Series Editors This page intentionally left blank Contents Acknowledgements x Publisher’s acknowledgements xi Chronology xii Who’s who xiv Glossary xvii Map xxiii PART ONE ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT 1 1 INTRODUCTION 3 2 DOMESTICATING THE WILD 6 Background 7 The birth of conservation 8 Nostalgia and nature loving 10 The birth of nature tourism 12 Pets 14 Environmentalism in the colonies and early US 15 3 INDUSTRIAL NATURE LOVING 18 The spread of conservation and preservation 19 Nature and nation 21 Wild nature 26
  • 30. Domesticating the wild 28 4 THE FRIENDLY WILD OF POST-WAR AFFLUENCE 32 Background 33 American suburbs 34 The friendly wild 35 Meaning and ecology 38 5 THE COUNTER-CULTURE’S NATURE 41 Prosperity and alienation 41 Wild = good 43 Nature loving goes mainstream 45 Farley Mowat and the world we have lost 46 Mother nature’s sons: Cousteau and Denver 48 6 EPIPHANIES 50 Silent Spring 51 Green surge 52 Western Europe 53 The rest of the West 56 Green nationalism 58 7 RADICAL DEPARTURES 60 Background 60 Deep ecology 62 Bioregionalism and ecofeminism 64 Friends of the Earth 65 Greenpeace and Earth First! 67 8 THWARTED 70 Background 70 Western European Greens 72 Central and Eastern Europe 74
  • 31. Backlash and accommodation 75 Success stories 79 Divisions 81 9 EXTREME NATURE LOVING 83 Wilderness and technology 84 Wild playgrounds 85 Consuming nature 87 Aquariums and dogs 90 Freeing Keiko and finding Nemo 93 10 ASSESSMENT 95 viii ENVIRONMENTALISM PART TWO DOCUMENTS 99 1 Beowulf 100 2 William Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey 102 3 The Cruelty to Animals Act of 1835 106 4 George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature 108 5 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty 109 6 William Morris, News from Nowhere 111 7 Robert Baden-Powell, Scouting for Boys 112 8 John Muir, My First Summer in the Sierras 115 9 J.R.R. Tolkien, The Fellowship of the Ring 116 10 Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac 118 11 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring 120 12 Farley Mowat, Never Cry Wolf 121 13 Edward Abbey, Desert Solitaire: A Season in the Wilderness 123 14 Richard Adams, Watership Down 124 15 Donella H. Meadows et al., The Limits to Growth: A Report
  • 32. for the Club of Rome’s Project on the Predicament of Mankind 126 16 Arne Naess, ‘The Shallow and the Deep, Long-Range Ecology Movements’ 128 17 Endangered Species Act of 1973 133 18 Where You At? A Bioregional Quiz 133 19 Earth First! Action in Oregon, 1985 134 20 United Nations Conference on Environment and Development, Rio de Janeiro, 1992 137 21 Petra Kelly, ‘Creating an Ecological Economy’ 138 22 Kyoto Protocol, 1997 139 23 Bjørn Lomborg, The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World 142 24 ‘10 Steps to Animal Communication’ 145 25 Al Gore, An Inconvenient Truth: The Planetary Emergency of Global Warming and What We Can Do About It 147 26 Rural Manifesto of the Countryside Alliance, 2009 149 27 Report of the League Against Cruel Sports, 2010 150 GUIDE TO FURTHER READING 152 REFERENCES 159 INDEX 169 Contents ix
  • 33. Acknowledgements I am grateful to Gordon Martel, both for inviting me to write this book and for insisting that I do so boldly. He also straightened many kinks in my prose and reasoning. Josie O’Donoghue at Pearson was very helpful throughout the revision process. This book depends on the work of many researchers and writers. I am particularly indebted to Michael Bess, Jon Katz, Roderick Frazier Nash, Jennifer Price, Harriet Ritvo, Keith Thomas, and Meredith Veldman. As always, Wendy del Mar has been a wonderfully warm and supportive life partner. Peter, my son, allows me to see the whole world with new eyes. Publisher’s acknowledgements We are grateful to the following for permission to reproduce copyright material: Photographs Plate 1. The Bridgeman Art Library and Museum of Fine Arts, Boston, Massachusetts, USA (Henry Lillie Pierce Fund). Plate 2.
  • 34. Maurice Branger/ Roger-Viollet. Plate 3. Three Lions/Getty Images. Plate 4. NASA. Plate 5. Weyler/Greenpeace. Plate 6. Gary Crabbe/Alamy Ltd. Plate 7. Arco Images GmbH/Alamy Ltd. Plate 8. Painting by Nantucket Artist, Louis Guarnaccia. Map Map from An Inconvenient Truth, Bloomsbury Publishing Plc (Al Gore 2006) Text Poetry on pages 100–2 adapted by David Breeden from Beowulf; Extract on pages 115–6 from My First Summer in the Sierras, Houghton Mifflin ( John Muir 1911); Extract on pages 121–2 from Never Cry Wolf, McCelland & Stewart Ltd (Mowat, F 1963); Extract on pages 138–9, Reprinted from Thinking Green! Essays on Environmentalism, Feminism, and Nonviolence (1994) by Petra K. Kelly with permission of Parallax Press, Berkeley, California, www.parallax.org; Extract on pages 142–5 from The Skeptical Environmentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, Cambridge University Press (1998) pp. 330–332, Copyright Bjorn Lomborg 2001, published by Cambridge Univer- sity Press, reproduced with permission; Extract on page 69, Copyright 1999, from the book Animal Talk by Penelope Smith, Reprinted with
  • 35. permission of Beyond Words Publishing, Inc., Hillsboro, Oregon. All rights reserved. In some instances we have been unable to trace the owners of copyright material, and we would appreciate any information that would enable us to do so. http://www.parallax.org Chronology 1669 French Forest Ordinance 1761 Jean Jacques Rousseau, The New Heloise 1798 William Wordsworth, Tintern Abbey 1824 Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals founded in England 1831 British Association for the Advancement of Science founded 1854 Henry David Thoreau, Walden 1859 First dog show held in England 1864 George Perkins Marsh, Man and Nature 1872 Yellowstone National Park established in the US 1877 Anna Sewell, Black Beauty
  • 36. 1879 Royal National Park established in New South Wales, Australia 1885 Banff National Park established in Canada 1889 Society for the Protection of Birds founded in Great Britain 1892 Sierra Club founded in the US 1895 National Trust founded in Great Britain 1902 Beatrix Potter, The Tale of Peter Rabbit 1905 Federation of Rambling Clubs founded in England 1907 Boy Scouts founded in England 1914 France’s first national park 1917 Spain’s first national park 1920 First national park in the Soviet Union 1934 Germany becomes the first nation to protect wolves 1942 Disney’s Bambi 1949 Aldo Leopold, A Sand County Almanac 1952 London smog Chronology xiii
  • 37. 1956 Dam on Colorado River blocked in US 1962 Rachel Carson, Silent Spring 1963 Partial Test Ban Treaty 1964 Wilderness Act in US 1967 Torrey Canyon oil spill 1968 Edward Abbey’s Desert Solitaire Paul Ehrlich, The Population Bomb The Undersea World of Jacques Cousteau premieres Sweden’s Environmental Protection Law 1969 Radical student protests in western Europe Friends of the Earth founded in the US 1970 Earth Day 1971 Greenpeace founded in Canada 1972 Club of Rome, Limits to Growth Arne Naess coins the term ‘deep ecology’ West Germany’s Council of Environmental Experts established United Nations Stockholm Conference on the Human Environment 1973 British Royal Commission on Environmental Pollution
  • 38. established Peter Singer coins the term ‘animal liberation’ 1975 Great Barrier Reef Marine Park founded 1978 Toxic wastes found at Love Canal in US 1980 Earth First! founded in US People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals founded in US 1983 West Germany’s Green Party wins representation in the Bundestag 1986 Accident at Chernobyl nuclear power plant in the Soviet Union 1987 World Commission on the Environment stresses sustainable development 1989 The Green Parties of the United Kingdom and France win 15 and 10 per cent of the vote, respectively, in European elections 1991 Founding of the People of Color Environmental Leadership in the US 1992 United Nations Rio de Janeiro Summit 1998 Keiko returns to Iceland 2004 Hunting Act passes UK Parliament 2006 Release of An Inconvenient Truth
  • 39. Who’s who Abbey, Edward (1927–1989): US novelist and essayist, radical environmentalist. Adams, Richard (1920– ): British writer whose best known book (Watership Down, 1972) expressed sympathy for rabbits victimized by human development. Bookchin, Murray, aka Lewis Herber, (1921–2006): US socialist and a leading social ecologist who linked social and environmental exploitation. Brower, David (1912–2000): US environmentalist, founder of Friends of the Earth. Buffon, George Louis Leclerc de (1707–1788): French scientist and author, perhaps the most prominent naturalist of the eighteenth century. Carson, Rachel (1907–1964): US biologist and writer, author of Silent Spring, the book that jump-started the modern environmental movement after it appeared in 1962. Clements, Frederic Edward (1874–1945): US botanist and pioneering ecologist who emphasized climax communities and other expressions of ecological stability.
  • 40. Cousteau, Jacques (1910–1997): Popular French oceanographer who achieved great fame on television. Denver, John (1943–1997): Popular US country singer who celebrated wild places. Foreman, Dave (1947– ): US environmentalist who left the Sierra Club to help found the much more radical Earth First! Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1749–1832): German Romantic poet, philoso- pher, and scientist who greatly influenced European artists and scholars. Goodall, Jane (1934– ): English primate researcher whose work on the human-like characteristics of chimpanzees has enjoyed a wide readership outside of academia. Kelly, Petra (1947–1992): Charistmatic West German Green Party leader. Leopold, Aldo (1887–1948): US ecologist, author of A Sand County Almanac, promulgated the ‘land ethic,’ which anticipated Deep Ecology. Linnaeus, Carl (1707–1778): Swedish scientist whose elaborate system
  • 41. of nested classification dominated natural history well into the nineteenth century. Lomborg, Bjørn (1965– ): Danish scholar whose The Skeptical Environ- mentalist: Measuring the Real State of the World, first published in 1998, seeks to debunk more alarmist assessments of environmental health and world poverty. Marsh, George Perkins (1801–1882): Pioneering US conservationist, particularly of forests, author of Man and Nature. McTaggart, David (1932–2001): Canadian radical environmentalist who headed Greenpeace for many years. Morris, William (1834–1896): Leading English socialist, designer, and author who urged a return to rural places and values rather than embracing industrialization. Mowat, Farley (1921– ): Widely read Canadian author of many nature books. Muir, John (1838–1914): US wilderness advocate, writer, founding presi- dent of the Sierra Club. Naess, Arne (1912–2009): Norwegian philosopher, founder of Deep Ecology.
  • 42. Pinchot, Gifford (1865–1946): Influential forester and the founding head of the US Forest Service. Potter, Beatrix (1866–1943): British author of children’s books featuring animals that dressed and acted like humans, starting with The Tale of Peter Rabbit. Redford, Robert (1936– ): US actor, entrepreneur, outdoor enthusiast, conservationist. Rousseau, Jean-Jacques (1712–1778): Swiss-born French writer and philoso- pher, perhaps the leading Romantic celebrant of nature of the eighteenth century. Schumacher, E.F. (1911–1977): British economist, author of Small is Beautiful: Economics as if People Mattered, a highly influential book published in 1973 whose thesis is in its title. Who’s who xv Seton, Ernest Thompson (1860–1946): Born in England to Scottish parents who soon moved to Canada, he moved to the US as an adult and was a widely read naturalist and observer of animals.
  • 43. Sewell, Anna (1820–1878): English writer whose sole novel, Black Beauty, appeared in 1877 and stimulated a great deal of sympathy for the plight of horses. Singer, Peter (1946– ): Australian philosopher and leading intellectual of the animal-rights movement. Snyder, Gary (1930– ): US poet, radical environmentalist, leading propo- nent of bioregionalism. Tansley, Arthur George (1871–1955): English botanist and ecologist who pointed out that communities of plants did not necessarily evolve in predictable or stable ways. Thoreau, Henry David (1817–1862): US transcendentalist, nature advo- cate, author of Walden. Tolkien, J.R.R. (1892–1973): English scholar of literature but much better known as author of the wildly popular Lord of the Rings, a series of novels set in the fictional past and celebrating nature. Turner, J.M.W. (1775–1851): Perhaps the leading landscape painter of England during the nineteenth century whose work strongly reflected Romanticism.
  • 44. Wordsworth, William (1770–1850): English Romantic poet and champion of hiking, nature loving. xvi ENVIRONMENTALISM Glossary Animal Liberation Animal-rights movements date back to the early nineteenth century. More radical groups formed in the later decades of the twentieth century, such as the Animal Liberation Front. These groups have both advocated more extreme forms of animal rights, such as vegetarianism, and have protested medical research and other forms of animal cruelty. Anthropomorphism The practice of imputing human characteristics and motives to non-humans. The thickly-drawn line between humans and animals began to blur with the spread of pet ownership in eighteenth-century Europe, and by the turn of the twentieth century wild animals who spoke, wore clothes, and formed human-like families were common in children’s and adult literature alike. Though modern ecologists are critical of anthro- pomorphism, the belief that animals are essentially people continues to
  • 45. shape western culture and inspire environmental movements. Audubon Society This US organization formed in 1905 and led the fight against killing birds for their ornamental plumage. In recent decades it has become one of America’s largest organizations devoted to preserving wildlife habitat, and it has also fostered the hobby of birdwatching. Bambi This Disney animated movie, based on Sigmund Salzmann’s novel of the same name, appeared in 1942. Its protagonist is a young deer, and it pits the creatures of the forest against evil hunters. Boy Scouts Founded by Robert Baden Powell in 1907, the scouting movement quickly spread across the western world. It combined military organization with outdoor life. It targeted growing numbers of middle-class boys who would otherwise have little experience with camping and other aspects of rural life. Campaign for Nuclear Disarmament This organization appeared in 1958 in Great Britain and spread quickly. Members engaged in many demonstrations and lobbying efforts before the organization declined in the 1960s. It became popular again early in the 1980s. Chernobyl The 1986 accident at this Ukrainian (then part of the
  • 46. Soviet Union) nuclear power plant was the most serious in the history of the world and provoked widespread concern and protests inside and outside the Soviet Union. Club of Rome This international think tank formed in 1968 to consider global political issues. Its most influential publication was Limits to Growth, which appeared in 1972 and argued for a widespread commitment to sus- tainability rather than continued growth so that the earth could restore its environmental equilibrium. Conservation This broad term became common in the nineteenth century as western nations sought to use natural resources such as timber and water more wisely and rationally. Counter-culture The counter-culture blossomed in the mid- 1960s, as growing numbers of young people rejected the verities of growth and con- formity that had long resided at the centre of western civilization. Although nurturing radical political movements attacking capitalism, imperialism, and racism, the counter-cultural movement was often amorphous and more focused on altering people’s consciousnesses than political structures. Affinity for nature resided at the heart of the counter-cultural
  • 47. movement and was expressed symbolically – through having long hair, for example. Deep Ecology Norwegian philosopher Arne Naess coined this term early in the 1970s. Deep Ecologists argue that humans must be understood as part of, rather than separate from, the rest of nature. Deep Ecology implies and argues that conventional environmental movements and philosophies are shallow by comparison inasmuch as they accept western civilization’s dualistic assumption of a human/nature divide and therefore cannot get at the roots of why modern humans exploit the nonhuman world. Earth Day Conceived as a national ‘teach-in’ on the environment, Earth Day drew approximately 20 million people – mostly students – across the US on April 22, 1970. Probably the biggest demonstration of its very eventful era, it was much more celebratory and less shrill than protests having to do with war or racism. Subsequent American Earth Day celebrations were smaller but spread to other countries. Earth First! This radical environmental organization emerged in the 1980s and quickly spread across much of the western world. Its members often participated in creative demonstrations to preserve wilderness and reduce
  • 48. humanity’s footprint. Ecofeminism This movement emerged in the 1970s as part of the growing radical environmentalist impulse. As its name implies, it combines feminism xviii ENVIRONMENTALISM and environmentalism. Like so-called ‘cultural feminists,’ ecofeminists argue that women’s biological and psychological processes make them uniquely close to nature and that misogyny and hatred of nature share a common, masculine root, namely western civilization’s mania for domination of the natural and the feminine. Ecology This scientific field of study arose early in the twentieth century and emphasized the relationship between elements of an environment that had been studied or approached discretely. Ecologists understood forests, for example, as a complex organism whose various parts – plants, mammals, insects, soils, bacteria – acted in concert with and relation to each other. Many environmentalists since the 1960s have embraced varieties of ecolog- ical thought. Ecotourism This movement emerged in the 1970s and expressed
  • 49. the desires of many western peoples to enjoy exotic travel in an environmentally respon- sible manner. In its pure form, ecotourism is environmentally and socially sustainable, respectful of both the integrity of local ecosystems and busi- nesses. In practice, any form of tourism ordinarily creates a great deal of pollution, and businesses have commonly claimed the ecotourism label without substantially altering their practices. Enlightenment This multi-faceted intellectual and cultural movement swept across much of Europe in the eighteenth century. Proponents of the Enlightenment shared optimism over human capacity to master and mani- pulate the non-human environment. Federation of Rambling Clubs This organization of groups concerned with preserving people’s access to the British countryside formed in 1905, an effort that had begun nearly a century before. Many Britons believed that they should have a right to hike across private property. Forestry This term refers to the scientific and systematic management of forests that emerged in Germany in the eighteenth century and spread across the western world. It was at first concerned primarily with the rational use of timber and later with maintaining forests to prevent flooding
  • 50. and erosion and, more recently, as part of sustaining healthy ecosystems. Friends of the Earth This organization began in the US in the 1970s before spreading across the globe to become one of the world’s most influential environmental groups. By 2002 Friends of the Earth had a total of 5,000 local groups in 68 countries. Friends of the Earth addressed a multiplicity of issues, many of them highly controversial: nuclear power, acid rain, trapping fur-bearing animals, toxic waste, over-packaging, and much more. Glossary xix Global warming Scientists had long hypothesized that industrialization, through the production of CO2, could lead to global warming by trapping warm air in the earth’s atmosphere. The theory gained traction from scientists and then from a growing proportion of the public and politicians late in the twentieth century. By the 1980s scientists and policymakers alike commonly identified global warming as the most serious environmental problem confronting the planet. Great Barrier Reef Marine Park Australians created this park in 1975 to
  • 51. protect the world’s largest reef. The reef had by then become a very popular tourist destination. Greenpeace This radical group emerged in 1969 in Canada and soon flour- ished across the western world. It combined both large numbers of members and contributors and a dedicated corps of activists who engaged in creative and highly publicized protests against such activities as nuclear testing, whaling, and pollution. Kyoto Protocol The plan resulting from the United Nations’ conference in Japan in 1997 which focused on halting climate change. Nearly all western nations agreed to work toward limiting their emissions of greenhouse gases. Minimal-impact camping This variety of camping emerged in the 1970s as part of the solution to overcrowding in North America’s back country. Hiking and camping more carefully served to increase popular areas’ carrying cap- acities, allowing more people to enjoy them without degrading the environ- ment. Low-impact camping entailed using established camping areas, not using wood for fuel, and carefully disposing of all waste products. National Trust Founded in 1895 by prominent philanthropists, this soon
  • 52. became the leading organization devoted to preserving natural and historical landscapes in Great Britain. It has focused on landscapes heavily shaped by humans and on buildings and remained strong and influential at the turn of the twenty-first century. Nationalism This movement emphasized pride of country, including its natural features, and emerged across the western world in the nineteenth century. It often led to the preservation of places and species deemed intrinsic to a nation’s identity. Parks Parks in areas considered wild became common in the United States, Canada, and Australia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and soon spread to Europe. People for the Ethical Treatment of Animals (PETA) Founded by Ingrid Newkirk in the US, PETA had become perhaps the most successful environmental xx ENVIRONMENTALISM organization in the world by the turn of the twenty-first century. PETA’s well-developed websites attack pet stores that take insufficient care of their animals, animal experimentation, circuses, factory farms, the
  • 53. fur industry, and fishing, among other activities. PETA blends idealism and pragmatism. Its leaders advocate and practise veganism, a form of vegetarianism that abjures the eating or use of any animal product, but they also work to improve the conditions under which animals such as chickens and cattle are raised and slaughtered. Preservation This broad term emerged late in the nineteenth century as growing numbers of people in the western world advocated setting aside and protecting lands considered particularly scenic. Recycling Re-manufacturing material such as paper, metal, and plastic. It became common during the 1970s and soon became one of the most widely practised forms of conservation, particularly in Europe. Rio de Janeiro Earth Summit This 1992 United Nations’ conference on the environment was the largest to date, with 17,000 attendees and representa- tives from 172 governments. It explored interrelated problems of world poverty, development, pollution, and climate change. The government rep- resentatives agreed to join in a global partnership of sustainable development and pledged to reduce greenhouse gases, an agreement that was refined five years later, at Kyoto, Japan.
  • 54. Romanticism Romanticism emerged from the eighteenth century Enlightenment and acted as a counterweight to its more scientific, rational aspects. Proponents of Romanticism emphasized the importance of emotion, of feeling, and Romantic poets, painters, composers and philosophers commonly turned to nature for inspiration and material. Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) Founded in 1824 in London, this organization quickly gained the backing of influential people, and in 1840 Queen Victoria allowed it to include ‘Royal’ in its title. For several decades the society focused on encouraging the enforcement of legislation penalizing the abuse of working animals. Later in the nineteenth century the RSPCA paid increasing attention to the abuse of pets and sport- ing or fighting animals. It spread to much of the British Empire. Sea Birds Preservation Act This piece of 1869 British legislation was a land- mark in the movement toward protecting selected species of birds. Sierra Club Founded in 1892 and headed for many years by John Muir, the Sierra Club was for many decades the principal advocate of large parks and wilderness preservation in the US. It emerged as a potent political
  • 55. force in the 1960s before being joined by and in some respects eclipsed by Glossary xxi more radical movements. But it remains a strong political force with a large membership. Smoke abatement Concern over air pollution in England grew along with industrialization. Strong, effective measures to improve urban air quality did not appear until the 1950s, however. Student movement The student movement emerged across the western world in the 1960s on burgeoning university and college campuses. It soon focused on broad issues such as war, imperialism and environmentalism. The protection of nature implied a critique of both the older generation and the status quo. The student movement faded in the 1970s, though campuses would remain a fertile ground for groups concerned with social and environ- mental reform. Suburbanization Suburbs began to ring England’s cities in the first half of the nineteenth century as improved forms of transit allowed more and more prosperous families to live farther away from where they
  • 56. worked and shopped. This process accelerated with the invention of electric trolley cars and of course privately-owned automobiles, and by the 1950s more people lived around than inside many large cities of the western world. Suburban developments appealed to families who desired to live closer to nature and often featured extensive plantings of trees and shrubs and other landscape features deemed natural. Sustainable development This term became popular late in the 1980s and implied a compromise or rapprochement between economic development and environmental protection. Woodcraft Movement This broad movement emerged in Britain, North America, and Europe in the early decades of the twentieth century. It cham- pioned camping and other outdoor activities, particularly for youth. xxii ENVIRONMENTALISM T hi s m
  • 65. IA C H IN A This page intentionally left blank Part 1 ANALYSIS AND ASSESSMENT This page intentionally left blank 1 Introduction The project seemed reasonable enough. Americans’ consumption ofenergy continued to climb at the dawn of the twenty-first century, andwind offered a relatively ‘green’ or clean source of electricity. Locating some 170 energy-producing turbines on windy Nantucket
  • 66. Sound, off the New England coast, would serve area homes and businesses without the pollution attached to oil, natural gas, or coal. But residents and their sympathizers raised $3 million to oppose the plan, and they did so in the name of nature preservation. ‘Our national treasures should be off limits to industrialisation,’ explained Walter Cronkite, the retired news anchor (Burkett, 2003: 48). The wind generators would not belch smoke, create acid rain, or require extensive mining. But they would mar the horizon, would constitute a pimple on the smooth cheek of sand, sky, and ocean. Of course Cronkite’s ocean-front home consumed a great deal of nature in its construction and maintenance, and the power which ran it had to come from somewhere. But opponents of the project evidently thought that people living inland, where views and property values were more modest, ought to bear the burden of producing energy for those whose capacious living rooms enjoyed better vistas. Indeed, another opponent of the project pointed out that the turbines would be part of a working industry, would not resemble the ‘quaint, scenic windmills . . . scattered across the Cape’ (Phadke, 2010: 13). Nostalgia-inducing remnants of earlier manufacturers were
  • 67. welcome; modern industry was not (see Plate 8). The battle over wind-generated power off Cape Cod illustrates this book’s salient themes. Environmentalism dwells on the paradoxical relationship between prosperity and nature loving. Professions of concern and affection for the environment have been most powerful among the eras, nations, and people that have most successfully subjected and consumed it. This rela- tionship has been, in some respects, logical. Worries over nature’s wellbeing should indeed rise as its health is compromised, and environmentalists have 4 ENVIRONMENTALISM succeeded in regulating the exploitation of natural resources, preserving many parks and other areas, rescuing from extinction many animals and plants, and reducing some pollutants. But nature loving has more often embodied than challenged the western march of material progress and comfort. People who buy the expensive homes on the shores of Cape Cod may consider themselves refugees from industrial capitalism. Yet only the very wealthy can afford the view, a prized window
  • 68. onto a ‘natural’ world that is every bit as much of a consumer good as the luxury cars in the driveway. We revere nature not so much because it provides us with food, shelter, and tools, but because it offers meaning. Western peoples have become pro- gressively ignorant of and disinterested in how soil, water, animals, trees, and other plants sustain our bodies, more and more adamant that these things feed our souls, that they transport us to a pure place beyond our superficial, everyday lives. Most environmental histories do not focus on these sort of broad cultural themes. The field has historically divided itself between scholars who study how humans have shaped the environment – a sort of blending of natural and human history, if you will – and historians who focus on particular environmental movements, such as the development of forestry or nature reserves. One problem with this set of approaches is that it skirts one of the central ironies in the field: Why have we seen a steady increase in conservation and preservation, the setting aside of areas deemed especially scenic even as human exploitation of the environment has continued apace? This book
  • 69. focuses on the recent history of western people’s understandings of and sentiments about nature. It is a cultural history of nature loving. This book will spend considerable ink on the development of ideas and practices having to do with the conservation and preservation of particular parts of the environment, including some, like forestry, that have been highly technical in nature. But we shall study these political and economic movements in the context of much broader cultural forces, a growing embrace of places, species, and experiences deemed precious and beneficent: nature loving. Unlike programmes of rational conservation, nature loving has been much more concerned with transcending this world, our environment, than with coming to terms with it. Hence upon being confronted with the choice of lowering the rate of pollution and climate change or preserving a good view, many Cape Cod residents opted for the latter. Environmentalism explores the recurring tension between science and emotion, conservation and preservation. The former has taken up the business of establishing a sensible, sustainable way of interacting with nature, which is understood as providing humans with life’s necessities, from Parks Parks in areas
  • 70. considered wild became common in the United States, Canada, and Australia during the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries and soon spread to Europe. Conservation This broad term became common in the nineteenth century as western nations sought to use natural resources such as timber and water more wisely and rationally. Preservation This broad term emerged late in the nineteenth century as growing numbers of people in the western world advocated setting aside and protecting lands considered particu- larly scenic. Forestry This term refers to the scientific and systematic management of forests that emerged in Germany in the eighteenth century and spread across the west- ern world. It was at first concerned primarily with the rational use of
  • 71. timber and later with maintaining forests to prevent flooding and ero- sion and, more recently, as part of sustaining healthy ecosystems. Introduction 5 building materials to clean air. Preservation has been more likely to focus on nature’s intangible gifts – the spiritual or national regeneration said to spring from certain places or species. Class or economic divisions have informed these clashes. Poor people’s reliance on plants and animals has often been direct – as has their experience of environmental problems like toxic waste. Well-to-do westerners have been more apt to perceive nature in abstract or symbolic terms and to disguise their reliance on it, like the prosperous Victorians who replaced vegetable with flower gardens, chickens and pigs with pets and cast-iron deer. Ideas about and movements concerned with nature loving have provided venues for people to malign the character of and attack the material interests of people different from themselves. This book’s emphasis on the complexities, divisions, and
  • 72. paradoxes of environmentalism should not be understood as an indictment of environ- mental movements, a brief for unfettered capitalism. But in exploring the history of nature loving I have become convinced that many of our environ- mental problems are rooted not simply in the western world’s commitment to prosperity and growth but also in environmentalism’s tradition of inco- herence and irrelevance, its tendency to complement rather than to confront the attitudes and practices behind our growing environmental problems. I am optimistic and vain enough to hope that Environmentalism can play a role in helping a worthy set of impulses and movements become more self-reflective and therefore more relevant and effective. 2 Domesticating the wild Men on trains were not supposed to behave this way. The gentlemanwas sticking his head out of the window, exposing himself to thestorm. Finally he withdrew, then sat back, with eyes closed, as if trying to memorize the unpleasant sensations he had just subjected himself to. Landscape painter J.M.W. Turner’s odd behaviour seemed to
  • 73. make a mockery of the hard-won comforts of mid-nineteenth-century England. For millennia travellers had slowly toiled along at the mercy of the elements. To travel several hundred miles overland was the work of weeks or months, through all manner of weather. The railroad had finally changed all of that, had annihilated time and space, cheated sun, wind, cold, and rain. So why was this Englishman sticking his head into the storm? Europeans had a long legacy of distrusting and trying to dominate the environment. Indigenous peoples across the world emphasized their depend- ence on a powerful, animate world that had the power to bestow or withhold sustenance. East Asians, notwithstanding their technological achievements, perceived nature as a potent force that humans ought to contemplate and learn from. But Christians viewed untamed nature as a threat to their survival, livelihoods, and salvation. The economic and scientific transformations of the seventeenth and eigh- teenth centuries made western people less fearful of nature, more confident in their ability to unlock its bounties. Indeed, thoughtful scientists and bureaucrats began to realize that woods and soils were being exploited too successfully, that without programmes of conservation, nations’
  • 74. future pros- perity and security would be compromised. But the emergence of sensible programmes of conservation do not explain the spread of sensibilities such as Turner’s, the growing affinity for a nature that appealed precisely because it still lay beyond human control. By the mid-nineteenth century the most prosperous western peoples had turned to nature for instruction and meaning even as they transformed it into a machine that predictably produced wheat, timber, and other crops. Domesticating the wild 7 BACKGROUND Christianity dominated medieval Europeans’ views of nature. The Judeo- Christian God transcended the earth rather than residing in or emanating from it. Worldly existence was a fleeting prelude to eternal, hopefully heavenly, life. Like the Greeks and Romans before them, medieval Christians asserted that nature made itself available and useful to humans. Even Francis of Assisi, a thirteenth-century figure often invoked by modern nature lovers,
  • 75. placed humanity squarely at the head of creation. St Bonaventure noted approvingly that St Francis had ‘subdued ferocious beasts, tamed the wild, trained the tame and bent to his obedience the brute beasts that had rebelled against fallen mankind’ (Coates, 1998: 54). When medieval people expressed appreciation for nature, they had in mind orderly and productive fields, land that they had cleared or drained, and animals that they had domesticated, not the uninhabited places where wild beasts, monsters, and perhaps Satan himself lurked [Doc. 1, p. 100]. Nature’s toils and fruits alike could distract good Christians from pursuing a heavenly reward outside this world. Its terrors – drought, wolves, trolls, and worse – could kill, and its pleasures could divert people’s attention from God. Then capitalism emasculated nature. Scientists such as Galileo Galilei, Francis Bacon, René Descartes, and Isaac Newton described nature as passive, a collection of inert materials and mechanistic processes that humans could and should manipulate to further their own ends. Leon Battista Alberti, a fifteenth-century writer, celebrated ‘the Rocks cut, Mountains bored through, Vallies filled up, Lakes confined, Marshes discharged into the Sea, Ships built, Rivers turned, their Mouths cleared, Bridges Laid over them,
  • 76. Harbours formed’ (Glacken, 1967: 464–5). Humanity had found the golden key to unlock prosperity’s stubborn door. Transportation, commerce, agriculture, and industry accelerated. Yields of wheat and other staples swelled with such inventions and innovations as the seed drill, more efficient ploughs and other implements, and intensified crop rotations – all the fruits of a more experimental, scientific, market-oriented approach to farming. Pastures, heaths, fens, and marshes were drained and put to work, forests cut to create space for more fields. Western peoples approached nature with less trepidation, more confidence. Scientists such as Galileo and Descartes reduced what had been a mysterious and daunting world to mathematics. The experimental method, not passive piety, made the world apprehensible. This optimism accelerated with the eighteenth-century Enlightenment, a movement, as its name implies, suffused with a spirit of confidence in the ability of human beings to fathom and manipulate their world. Progress in abstract and practical science validated this growing faith in human reason and intellect. Christians had Enlightenment This multi- faceted intellectual and cultural movement swept across much of Europe in
  • 77. the eighteenth century. Proponents of the Enligh- tenment shared optimism over human capacity to master and manipu- late the non-human environment. 8 ENVIRONMENTALISM previously understood dominion over the earth as an unmerited gift from God. Now that dominion, made much more complete, was their own hard- won achievement. God had become a remote entity that set the universe in motion and then stood aside as people seized their futures. Practical men of the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries created machines for spinning and weaving cotton, harnessing steam, harvesting crops, and casting metals, all of which multiplied the rate at which food, minerals, and wood were extracted from the earth and bent to human will. THE BIRTH OF CONSERVATION But growing numbers of Europeans realized that their new machines and techniques could endanger the very prosperity they had fostered. Agriculture had less to do with subsistence, with feeding local populations, more to
  • 78. do with generating money by producing crops for distant markets. But these shifts put more pressure on the land. Thoughtful farmers compensated by rotating crops more carefully, using legumes such as peas and clover to restore nitrogen to depleted soils, for example. Others worried about the consequences of shrinking forests. Sixteenth- century landslides and floods provoked a ban on logging in parts of Florence. Germans began noticing wood shortages around 1600, and in the late eighteenth century they began regulating logging in an attempt to provide a reliable annual supply of firewood and building material. The first forestry school appeared in 1763 and was accompanied by many articles and books on the subject. ‘From the State Forest not more and not less may be taken annually than is possible on the basis of good management by permanent sustained yield,’ remarked a 1795 text (Rubner, 1984: 171). The Danes created Forest Acts in 1763 and 1805, with the latter set of regulations requiring both preservation and replanting. Russia’s reform- minded Peter the Great touted forest preservation as a means to both slow erosion and ensure a reliable supply of oak trees for masts in the early eighteenth century. The French expressed similar concerns as early as the twelfth century.
  • 79. Their Forest Ordinance of 1669, though routinely ignored, covered human activities from grazing and charcoal production to logging, even how many seed-bearing trees were to be left standing. Forestry became not an exercise in cutting down trees as quickly as pos- sible, but a process of establishing rational, even mathematical, equations to ensure that trees were utilized with maximum, long-term efficiency. This emphasis on conservation, on using natural resources in a sustain- able manner, flew in the face of western tradition and local demands, but it Domesticating the wild 9 fitted well the requirements of the new science and the modern economy. Trees could best be understood as timber, as material to be converted into fuel, fences, houses, and railroad ties. Like the earth itself, they were expan- sive yet finite and ought therefore to be used judiciously. Empirical study and mathematical equations should determine the rate at which they should be cut and the uses to which they should be put. Forestry was a scientific study in which specially trained humans used reason to address concrete, practical
  • 80. problems. Natural history in some ways resembled forestry. The rational exploitation of the earth’s flora and fauna, after all, required an exhaustive cataloguing of those commodities. Botanists and other collectors commonly accompanied explorers such as Captain James Cook because the sponsors of such expedi- tions wanted to know the commercial and agricultural potential of lands that they hoped to colonize. But by the eighteenth century a growing array of enthusiastic amateurs who gathered plants and insects in the fields and hills around their homes had joined the self-conscious professionals. These collectors eventually formed natural history societies, such as the British Association for the Advancement of Science. British publishers produced books on natural history that sold very, very well in the nineteenth century, and British news- papers included natural history sections. ‘By the middle of the century, there was hardly a middle-class drawing-room in the country that did not contain an aquarium, a fern-case, a butterfly cabinet, a seaweed album, a shell collection, or some other evidence of a taste for natural history’ (Barber, 1980: 13). Natural history collecting and societies spread to Canada and
  • 81. other English colonies. These collectors were fired by several impulses, not all of them instru- mental. The amateurs, to be sure, believed that they were advancing scientific knowledge. They fitted their discoveries into an interminable Linnaean catalogue of nested classification in which plants, animals, and minerals were assigned places in an extensive but fixed hierarchy. The collectors ‘were strong on staying power, weak by comparison on speculation and insight’ (Allen, 1976: 820). Status accrued to those who assembled and organized the most specimens and facts. Unlike twentieth-century ecologists, they were not much interested in how their insects or plants related to everything else. This interest in the jots and tittles, the genus and species, of beetles and ferns embodied the Enlightenment confidence that nature could be, literally, pinned down, that it could be sorted and contained in a finite, if vast, system of kingdoms, classes, and genera. Nature was a static collection of species and data that could and would be fully defined, not a dynamic set of interactions. Discovering, describing, and cataloguing the world’s flora and fauna repre- sented Europeans’ growing sense of mastery over the natural world.
  • 82. 10 ENVIRONMENTALISM NOSTALGIA AND NATURE LOVING Yet amateur naturalists also looked backward, to a time when nature con- stituted not a scientific laboratory, but God’s handiwork. They were apt to be pious Protestants, particularly Quakers, for whom plants, insects, and shells suggested the beautiful, intricate, and wondrous work of God’s creation, ‘through Nature up to Nature’s God,’ as British collectors liked to put it (Lowe, 1983: 333). European gardens illustrated the same ambivalence over man’s growing power. By the time of the Reformation, in the 1520s, Italians had the most elaborate and celebrated. Fine gardens spread north, with economic growth. Holland’s urban elite purchased country estates in the seventeenth century that they surrounded with elaborate arrangements of plants, especially foreign and flowering varieties. These gardens provided a foil to wild land- scapes. They served not simply to please the eye, but to demonstrate how human artifice made nature orderly and pleasant. Gardens also performed political functions. The overwhelming Versailles gardens of Louis XIV, which consumed more water than the
  • 83. 600,000 denizens of Paris, suggested that a monarch who could so successfully con- trol nature should also control his nation. The ability to make a thousand flowers bloom betokened a sort of supernatural command of the rest of creation. Likewise, the tree-lined avenues leading up to important people’s homes connoted power as well as taste. Yet the unprecedented wealth of the eighteenth century brought gardens that were not only larger, but less orderly. Geometric and rigid landscapes – patent in their human artifice – gave way to less linear arrangements of plants, hills, water, and temples. These gardens required a great deal of inter- vention, not only in planting and cultivating various types of vegetation, but also in fashioning the very features that lent the gardens such a ‘natural’ appearance. An English landscape garden created in 1764 included a forty-acre lake. Indeed, the fences that separated the gardens around British estates from the fields and woods (and cows) beyond them were sunken so as not to jar people’s line of vision, to blur purposefully the division between two very different landscapes. From the windows of aristocratic homes, no discernible line separated the contrived and calculated nature of the garden from the relatively unkempt lands beyond them.
  • 84. Eighteenth-century landscape gardens fed people’s souls. The Duke of Buckingham wrote that ‘the works of nature appear to me the better sort of sermons; and every flower contains in it the most edifying rhetorick, to fill us with the admiration of its omnipotent Creator.’ A half century later, in 1755, writer Edward Young turned Milton on his head by asserting: ‘A garden to the virtuous is a paradise still extant; a paradise unlost’ (Coffin, Domesticating the wild 11 1994: 67, 69). As God became more remote, flowers and other domesticated plants became not simply tokens of the creator’s blessings but emblems of perfection in and of themselves. Well-to-do Britons alarmed religious author- ities by choosing their gardens over their churchyards as burial grounds, as if to say that these places were their Eden, and their heaven, too. Western Europe’s leading artists and intellects embraced nature. Words- worth, Keats, Shelley, Coleridge, Blake, Goethe, Balzac, Beethoven, Berlioz, Liszt, and Wagner turned to the non-human world for inspiration. Jean-Jacques Rousseau inaugurated the movement in the mid-
  • 85. eighteenth century when he turned the rational wing of the Enlightenment on its ear by celebrating ‘primitive’ people as authentic and independent precisely because they lived outside the artificiality and selfishness of civilized, urban life. ‘I closed all my books,’ explains one of his characters. ‘There is one book open to all eyes, that of nature’ (Gay, 1977: 547). Nature served to stimulate modern people’s souls and imaginations, fostering a healthy, reflective indi- vidualism. Like other Enlightenment writers, Rousseau had an optimistic view of the human condition. He denied the religious and political ortho- doxies of the day, that human beings were abject sinners incapable of thinking for or governing themselves. Individualism resided at the heart of this cult of nature loving. ‘I rustle with the wind,’ wrote German philosopher Johann Gottfried von Herder, ‘and become alive – give life – inspire – I inhale fragrance, and exhale it with the flowers; I dissolve in water; I float in blue sky; I have all these feelings’ (Cartmill, 1993: 116). The poet William Wordsworth believed that nature and human consciousness mirrored each other: ‘. . . what I saw/ Appeared like something in myself, a dream,/ A prospect in my mind’ (Brennan, 1987: 55). Wordsworth found in nature not a collection of substances
  • 86. to be studied and prodded and put to good use, but divinity itself. The contem- plation of nature could and should be intensely and personally mystical and enlightening – a religious experience [Doc. 2, p. 102]. Ludwig Van Beethoven, one of the era’s consummate and crotchety individualists, pro- fessed himself ‘only happy in the midst of untouched nature’ (Schauffler, 1933: 261). Romantics embraced the self and nature, the natural self. Nature was not always agreeable. True, many aesthetes celebrated a picturesque, quaint nature. The movement peaked in the 1790s in England, where John Constable’s paintings offered a harmonious palette of trees, fields, sky, and rural folk, a countryside shaped but hardly spoiled by humanity. But more and more artists turned from the picturesque to the sublime, from the pleasant to the forceful. Beethoven pioneered the use of dissonant, even sinister musical compositions, and his evocations of nature, as in his Sixth Symphony, featured a fearsome storm as well as pastoral themes. Wordsworth described solitary, dark pools surrounded by ‘huge stones and masses of 12 ENVIRONMENTALISM
  • 87. rock,’ a vista that ‘excites a sense of some repulsive power strongly put forth and thus deepens the melancholy natural to such scenes’ (Byatt, 1970: 273–4). Nature could be ‘awful & immeasurable.’ Likewise, the landscape painter J.M.W. Turner forsook pleasant British country scenes for indistinct, menacing representations. To capture the terror of a storm at sea he asked to be lashed to a ship’s mast for several hours, an ordeal so awful that ‘I did not expect to escape’ (Brennan, 1987: 79, 90). The fear this experience induced is palpable in The Slave Ship, a painting in which indistinct sea monsters devour slaves that have been pitched from a vessel swallowed by malignant, squatting clouds (see Plate 1). Picturesque depictions of nature invited people to feel good about nature. The sublime, like other elements of Romanticism, simply required them to feel – and strongly. In either event, nature provided a sanctuary that excised banal society so that the solitary, sensitive soul could connect with primal forces and emotions. These ideas soon spread beyond artists and intellectuals. Intrigued by Rousseau’s celebration of primitivism, Marie Antoinette and her retinue played at being peasants in the gardens of Versailles. The
  • 88. growing urban, middle class was particularly interested in celebrating nature. Mountains and seas had long been regarded as dreadful and threatening places unsusceptible to improvement. Now the burgeoning cities had become degraded and diseased, less populated places vivifying and restorative. THE BIRTH OF NATURE TOURISM The search for pastoral peace created a rural tourist industry. By the 1780s guide books directed sensitive tourists to Rousseau’s Hermitage, where he had written some of his most influential works. Germans flocked to the Rhineland for inspiration, a pilgrimage facilitated by steamship and then rail travel. ‘Between Mainz and Cologne,’ observed an engraver in 1840, ‘hardly a house, hardly a tree can be found which has not set in motion a pen or a gouge’ (Lekan, 2004: 26). Wordsworth was hosting some 500 visitors annually to his home in the Lake District by the 1840s, where his poems instructed less articulate souls what to feel as they trekked across the landscape he had made famous. Genteel tourists were soon worrying that their less-cultivated counterparts did not approach nature properly. Wordsworth wrote several editions of a guidebook to his beloved Lake District between 1810 and 1842,
  • 89. which he hoped would be of use to ‘the Minds of Persons of taste, and feeling for Landscape’ (Buzard, 1993: 30). But as growing numbers of travellers flocked northward, he fretted over ‘cheap trains pouring out their hundreds at a time Romanticism Roman- ticism emerged from the eighteenth century Enlightenment and acted as a counterweight to its more scientific, rational aspects. Pro- ponents of Romanticism emphasized the impor- tance of emotion, of feel- ing, and Romantic poets, painters, composers and philosophers commonly turned to nature for inspiration and material. Domesticating the wild 13 along the margin of Windermere,’ that the countryside would soon be plagued by ‘wrestling matches, horses and boat races without number’ (Ousby, 1990: 192). A wealthy woman complained that the Derbyshire valley was defaced by
  • 90. throngs of mill hands . . . tearing through the fields like swarms of devas- tating locusts, and dragging the fern and hawthorn boughs they had torn down in the dust, ending the lovely spring day in pot houses, drinking gin and bitters, or heavy ales by the quart, and tumbling pell- mell into the night train . . . sodden, tipsy, yelling, loathsome creatures, such as make the monkey look a king. (Winter, 1999: 211) The same thing was happening in North America. Niagara Falls, on the border of Canada and the US, moved from being ‘the ultimate test of the “civilized” man or woman’s ability to feel deeply . . . to hear Nature speak,’ to a mere tourist destination. A writer in 1846 complained that the site was plagued with ‘Chinese pagoda, menagerie, camera obscura, museum, watch-tower, wooden monument, sea gardens, “curiosity shops” ’ ( Jasen, 1995: 33, 43). European and especially English beaches were similarly transformed. The waters of mineral and hot springs had long been celebrated for their healing properties. By the early eighteenth century physicians were prescribing salt- water bathing. This recommendation, coupled with a growth in disposable incomes, brought a trickle and then a stream of vacationers to
  • 91. English resorts. The bathers were soon appreciating more than the ocean’s water. Many, ubiquitous guidebooks in hand, collected seashells or seaweed. Shells and pebbles could be arranged into intricate mementos of a stay at the beach. Other, more ambitious collectors, started (short-lived) aquariums. The ocean itself drew many pilgrims. Its boundless expanses provided the anvil upon which artists and other aesthetes could forge their identities and refine their sensibilities. Fishing villages had turned their backs to the threat- ening sea, seeking refuge and vistas inland. But in the early nineteenth century resorts began staking out ground near the water’s edge and installing large windows where visitors could absorb ‘all the grandeur of the storm’ while staying warm and dry. As in Wordsworth’s Lake District, more Spartan nature lovers lamented the commercialization of what they argued should be a more elemental expe- rience. ‘What are they doing here?’ asked a man observing a group of stock- brokers at the seaside. ‘If they had true relish of the ocean,’ he wondered, ‘why have they brought all this land luggage with them?’ (Howell, 1974: 46). But – then as now – nature loving and comfort in fact correlated
  • 92. more often than not. By the mid-nineteenth century, middle-class English families were going to the seaside for a month or more, soaking in the resplendent 14 ENVIRONMENTALISM ocean even as they enjoyed most, if not all, of the amenities of home. By that date seaside resorts were also common in southern Europe and the eastern US. This would not be the first time that the people most insulated from nature’s bite, people who had time and money on their hands, were the most apt to celebrate its beneficence and beauty. PETS Prosperity also reworked people’s relationships with animals. Oxen, cattle, and other creatures had played a key role in Europe’s economic transforma- tion. By the fourteenth century the average European used much more animal power than his or her counterpart in China or Africa, let alone the Americas. But urbanization and economic growth removed a larger and larger proportion of people from direct contact with working animals. Pets stepped into the breach. Royal menageries expanded during the seventeenth
  • 93. century. Louis XIV kept ostriches, camels, elephants, crocodiles, and gazelles, animals from across the Mediterranean lands that he dominated. Like the elaborate gardens of Versailles, such collections served political and imperial ends by suggesting the long reach of his power. Royals and aristocrats of the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries kept animals as pets, especially dogs, a practice that soon spread to the growing urban middle class. Dogs, cats, squirrels, monkeys, tortoises, otters, rabbits, mice, hedgehogs, toads, and a variety of birds made themselves at home among the bourgeois. Song birds were popular in London by the late seventeenth century. Pets became quasi-family members. They typically lived indoors and might go to church. They seldom performed work and certainly were not to be eaten. Pets showed up in family portraits and graveyards, and not a few owners expected to meet their departed friends in heaven, since dogs had souls, too (see Plate 2). Russian writers suggested that dogs committed suicide when their masters died. The multiplication of pets engendered attempts at animal protection by the late eighteenth century in Great Britain. Some became so enamoured of birds that they abjured putting any type on their plates – and criticized their
  • 94. Italian and French counterparts for being so barbarous as to keep consum- ing them. The Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals appeared in the 1820s in London and quickly gained influential members. Bull-baiting, the practice of setting dogs or other animals on bulls, was banned in 1835, cock-fighting in 1849 [Doc. 3, p. 106]. France’s Society for Protection of Animals denounced bullfighting and using dogs to pull carts. The affinity of members of the middle class for animals, like their love of the outdoors, reflected their economic and social position. Lamenting animal cruelty served to criticize both the idle aristocracy for hunting wild and the Domesticating the wild 15 struggling lower classes for abusing domesticated animals. Popular forms of amusement such as cock- or dog-fighting also offended the reformers. Bloody, working-class spectacles were out of step with the emerging Victorian ethos of self-restraint and public order. Prosperous animal lovers liked to point out that the lower classes should learn from, rather than exploit, animals, creatures that accepted their station in life and went about their work cheerfully, without complaint.
  • 95. Victorian animal lovers reserved their highest praise for creatures that exhibited the most subservience (dogs much more so than cats) or that performed the most beneficial work (horses). Elephants were one of the few wild animals to receive much respect, as they purportedly surrendered their freedom to work cheerfully for humans. If only servants could be so tractable. Concern for animal welfare also constituted a platform from which the growing middle class could criticize the indolent rich. By the late eighteenth century country gentlemen were creating gargantuan cattle and oxen that could carry more and more meat. The British were proud of consuming more flesh than their continental counterparts, particularly the French. Beef – on the plate or in the field – represented British superiority. But the fat-laden, monumental creatures that aristocrats produced stood for more narrow con- cerns: the wealth and magnificence of their owners. Indeed, less prosperous Britons found these creatures more grotesque than useful. They were incap- able of sustained labour and produced gelatinous, unsavoury meat. These excrescences of aristocratic vanity were ‘a collection of agricultural luxuries’ fattened by ‘Dukes and Earls’ who ‘can afford a fancy, whether it is the pur- chase of a Titian [painting], or the production of a prize
  • 96. bullock.’ A clergy- man criticized the practice from even higher moral ground and wondered if the creation and showing of animals suffering from ‘overwhelming and torturing obesity’ did not constitute a ‘cruel and unchristian exhibition’ (Ritvo, 1987: 72, 75). The growing concern for animals was circumscribed and conditional. Sympathy for the wellbeing of congenial dogs and horses was accompanied in England by a ruthless slaughter of those deemed deleterious to human endeavours: rats and moles, of course, but also badgers and hedgehogs. Animals, like people, were expected to be useful. ENVIRONMENTALISM IN THE COLONIES AND EARLY US Nature remained utilitarian in Europe’s colonies. Settlers in the Americas and the Pacific were too concerned with overcoming nature to give much thought to protecting or celebrating it. 16 ENVIRONMENTALISM But the young US constituted something of an exception, not so much because of its growing prosperity, rather because of its distinctive and potent
  • 97. strain of nationalism. Here, as in so many other fields, Thomas Jefferson played a crucial role. The Virginia planter was among the nation’s most enthusiastic and skilled naturalists, and he itched to put the lie to George Louis Leclerc de Buffon’s theory of American degeneracy. Buffon, the most celebrated naturalist of the day, found ample natural grounds for American inferiority. The unimpressive size of North America’s mammals and the purported lack of agricultural and technological accomplishments by its indigenous peoples indicated that the continent could produce only ‘cold men and feeble animals’ (Semonin, 2000: 125). Jefferson’s Notes on Virginia, written during the American Revolution, countered this theory. Did not American bears, for example, weigh twice as much as their European counterparts? Jefferson went so far as to send Buffon a large panther skin and the skeleton of an American moose. If bigger were better, the new nation had nothing to be ashamed of. These sorts of sentiments multiplied after the US achieved its inde- pendence. Clearly the young nation could not compete with its European counterparts in the conventional measures of civilization: art and architec- ture. But America’s weakness, its newness, could be made a virtue. Enthused
  • 98. a patriot in 1833: What are the temples which Roman robbers have reared, – what are the towers in which feudal oppression has fortified itself, – what are the blood-stained association of the one, or the despotic superstitions of the other, to the deep forests which the eye of God has alone pervaded, and where Nature, in her unviolated sanctuary, has for ages laid her fruits and flowers on His altar! (Nash, 2001: 73) ‘Nature’s nation’s’ want of cathedrals and castles underscored its inno- cence and virtue, its democracy. Its unsurpassed forests and mountains offered proof enough of God’s favour – and a fresh canvas on which God’s chosen people would create the mightiest and best nation of all, the New Jerusalem. That God’s chosen nation was ploughing up, cutting down, and otherwise subduing the very wilderness that distinguished it was an irony lost on the young country’s patriots. In the century following the American Revolution they quickly spread across the continent, laying waste to forests, grasslands, predators, and other animals with good cheer and industry. It would not be
  • 99. the last time that nature’s loudest partisans would be its most ambitious destroyers. Nationalism This move- ment emphasized pride of country, including its natural features, and emerged across the western world in the nineteenth century. It often led to the preser- vation of places and species deemed intrinsic to a nation’s identity. Domesticating the wild 17 Nature conservation had become well developed in western Europe by the mid-nineteenth century. Germany and other nations had by then realized that a reliable supply of timber required active management by specialized scientists – foresters – who would determine the time and place and rate of harvesting and a substantial bureaucracy to enforce forestry laws. But most expressions of concern over and affinity for nature were less calculated and logical. Natural history societies devoted to the collection and exhibition of nature’s bounty dotted western Europe and some
  • 100. of its colonies. Pets and gardens were commonplace, especially in England, where people inside and outside the Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) were lamenting the suffering of some animals. Educated Christians no longer feared the rugged mountains and seashores but sought from them, in paintings and on vacation, meaning and transcendence. The sprawling landscape gardens of English and Welsh country estates perhaps best expressed the paradoxical relationship between conservation and efficiency on the one hand and nature appreciation on the other. The owners of such estates made their bread and butter by enclosing what had once been marginal land used by villages. Sometimes they absorbed and destroyed even the villages themselves. The profit-minded capitalists culti- vated these expanded fields more intensively and efficiently – by turning forests into tree plantations of rapidly growing softwoods, such as larch and pine, for example. But the casual eye would not have detected such enterprises from the windows of the manor house. These domestic views were carefully con- structed to include broad expanses of lawn, noble oaks, placid lakes, perhaps
  • 101. some faux ruins evoking ancient Rome. A few cattle grazed in the distance, near a church steeple or, better yet, the crumbling walls of an old castle. Like the residents of expensive beach homes at the turn of the twenty-first century, the owners of these estates drew a thick line between the increas- ingly commercialized and rationalized nature that supported their prosperity and the nature of the drawing room, garden, library, concert hall, and vacation destination. Nature provided both wealth and a counterbalance to wealth. That is why nature loving advanced most quickly in England, the nation that had most fully subdued it, among people of ample education and leisure who were most insulated from its vagaries. This ironic relationship between material progress and nature loving would become more widespread and intense in the century preceding the Second World War. Western people would have more reasons than before to conserve nature for purposes that were both rational and irrational, economic and spiritual. Royal Society for the Prevention of Cruelty to Animals (RSPCA) Founded in 1824 in
  • 102. London, this organiza- tion quickly gained the backing of influential people, and in 1840 Queen Victoria allowed it to include ‘Royal’ in its title. For several decades the society focused on encouraging the enforce- ment of legislation penalizing the abuse of working animals. Later in the nineteenth century the RSPCA paid increas- ing attention to the abuse of pets and sport- ing or fighting animals. It spread to much of the British Empire. 3 Industrial nature loving One can read a lot of books extolling the virtues of western environ-mentalism without running across the name of Hermann Göring.Yet the notorious Nazi leader expressed a great deal of affinity and concern for nature. Like many of his colleagues, including Hitler, he believed that German identity and strength resided in its natural landscape and that the nation’s wellbeing depended on the preservation of those features. A