Synthesis of Aspirin from Salicylic Acid

Isolation of the Major Component of Clove Oil
Experiment 7– Isolation of the Major Component of Clove Oil
Pre–Lab Questions: 1.) Briefly explain the concept of steam distillation. What is the difference
between a simple distillation and a steam distillation? When a mixture of two immiscible liquids are
distilled it is referred to as codistillation. This process is referred to as steam distillation when one of
the liquids is water. This distillation is used to separate organic liquids from natural products and
reaction mixtures in which the final product results in high boiling residues such as tars, inorganic
salts, and other relatively involatile components. It is useful in isolating volatile oils from various
parts of plants and not useful in the final purification of a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
Weigh them in a tared weighing dish. My partner ground the cloves the amount of cloves we had
was 5.03 grams. 2.) Assemble an apparatus for steam distillation using a large (250–500ml) boiling
flask and a steam trap, and have your instructor check your apparatus. Apparatus was successfully
assembled. 3.) Combine the ground cloves with 50ml of water in the boiling flask then; steam distill
the mixture to obtain the clove oil. Continue the distillation until a drop or two of the emerging
distillate, collected on a watch glass, is odorless and water–clear; with no oily droplets. 150ml might
need to be distilled before it becomes clear. Vent the steam line or raise the steam inlet tube above
the liquid level in the boiling flask before you turn off the steam. Took about 20–30 minutes for
emerging distillate to drop on watchglass and first few drops seemed clear. But we went ahead and
placed a flask and started collected liquid because the process of distilling 150ml of fluid was taking
quite some time. A sufficient amount of fluid was collected and checked by Professor.
Extraction of Clove Oil After Distillation 1.) Transfer the distillate to separatory funnel. Fluid didn't
seem very clear but sufficient to finish our lab on time. 2.) Add 20ml of dichloromethane, gently
shake to extract, be sure to vent by opening the stop–cock. First extraction successful. 3.) Let
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Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy ( Ftir )
In vitro dissolution studies Relative in vitro dissolution behaviour of pure docetaxel and optimized
SNEP was assessed in simulated gastric fluid without enzyme (500 mL; pH 1.2; 37±0.5°C) as
dissolution medium using USP type II paddle apparatus (Electrolab, India) at a paddle rotation speed
of 50 rpm. At predetermined time points, an aliquot of 5 mL was withdrawn and equal volume of the
fresh dissolution medium was replaced to maintain the medium volume constant. All the samples
were filtered using Millipore membrane filter (0.45 µm, Millipore, USA), diluted and the
concentration of docetaxel was assayed by HPLC. Various dissolution parameters such as
dissolution efficiency (DE), mean dissolution time (MDT), initial dissolution rate (IDR), and mean
dissolution rate (MDR) were calculated to assess the dissolution profiles [29,30]. Solid state
characterization Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR) FTIR spectrum of the samples was
recorded by KBr disc method using Perkin Elmer FT–IR Spectrometer (Paragon 1000, PerkinElmer,
Waltham, Massachusetts, USA) to illustrate the promising interactions among components used in
the formulation. Powder sample (4 mg) and IR grade dry potassium bromide (KBr; 200 mg) were
mixed gently in a glass mortar, compacted to form the disk by applying a force of 5.5 metric tons
using a hydraulic press. The corresponding disks were scanned over the wave number range of
4000–400 cm–1 at a scanning speed of 4 scans /s with a resolution of 1 cm–1

Plant Water Stress Is A Major Factor Affecting Crop Yield
Plant water stress is a major factor affecting crop yield. With the ever–increasing human population,
there is a constant stress exerted on water resources (McGwire et al., 2000). So irrigation to avoid or
relieve this stress must be done judiciously, not only to avoid environmental problems such as
groundwater pollution and runoff, but also to keep the cost down on a limited and expensive
resource. Soil moisture sensors are often used for precision irrigation control purposes. However,
soil moisture sensors can only assess the degree of water deficit stress that is imposed to the plants,
but not necessarily the level of water deficit stress that is actually experienced by the plants (Sinclair
and Ludlow, 1985). An assessment of leaf water content, on the other hand, may yield more detailed
insight into the plant's actual physiological response to a certain degree of low soil moisture content,
and how water deficit stress is in fact experienced by the plant. Leaf water content is a key indicator
of plant health, vigor and photosynthetic efficiency (Harry, 2006). Accurate retrieval of plant water
content plays a crucial role in assessing drought risk (Bauer et al., 1986), select genotypes in
breeding for water stress (Munjal and Dhanda, 2005), predicting wildfire and monitoring the
physiological condition of vegetation (Peñuelas and Filella, 1998) and biomass (Cho et al., 2007;
Mutanga et al., 2005; Ullah et al., 2012c), while in the agriculture domain it helps in scheduling

Experiment 1 and 2
Korleyfah Mouth
Chem 331 Thursday 2:00pm
Dr. Lijuan Li
20A Preparation of CuCl2~2DMSO
20B Preparation of RuCl2~4DMSO
Abstract In order to synthesize our metal complexes, we were able to make both Copper and
Ruthenium metals. From this, we combined each metal complex with DMSO by refluxing the
compound. The metal complexes were analyzed through their melting point and IR spectroscopy to
determine whether the metal bonded to a Sulfur atom or an Oxygen atom of the DMSO. After
analyzing the IR spectrum, it was determined that S=O shifted to a lower wavenumber in
CuCl2~2DMSO and that S=O shifted to a higher wavenumber in RuCl2~4DMSO.
Introduction Depending on the metal, it will bond to DMSO through its oxygen or sulfur atom. This
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IR spectroscopy was used to analyze the product and an emission spectrum was obtained.
Results and Discussion Product
Theoretical yield
Actual yield
Percent yield
Melting point °C
RuCl2~4DMSO
0.189 grams
0.082 grams
43.38 %
203.4–204.6
Frequency (cm−1)
Bond responsible
(DMSO) 1017.65
S=O stretching
(RuCl2~4DMSO) 1105.54
S=O stretching
When analyzing the IR spectrum of Ruthenium complex with DMSO, the prominent peak is

presented at 1105.54 cm−1. This peak indicates that S=O bonded in DMSO. For DMSO, the
frequency is around 1050 cm−1. From our spectra obtained for DMSO where the S=O peak is at
1017.65 cm−1. Since the bond appears at a higher frequency, this shows that the bond is
strengthened by the reaction. This indicates that when the copper metal was combined with DMSO,
it bonded with the Sulfur atom. Combining ruthenium with sulfur atom caused it to donate a pi
electron as a back donation.
Conclusions From both experiments, we were able to detect which Sulfur and Oxygen atom bonded
to the metal. Copper metal was added to DMSO to bond with the oxygen by weakening the S=O
therefore lowering the IR spectrum. As for Ruthenium metal, it was added to DMSO to bond with
the sulfur compound, strengthening the S=O therefore increasing the IR spectrum. Based on the IR
spectrums and melting points, my product for both metal were pure. References
Boschmann, E; Wollaston, G.J. Chem. Edu. 1982, 59,57
Ebsworth, E. A. V.; Ranking, D.W.H.; Cradock,

Conversions of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides
Conversions of Alcohols to Alkyl Halides: 1–Propanol and 2–Pentanol Introduction One way
scientist gets alkyl halides is by using the manipulation of an alcohol. When alcohols are treated
with HBr or HCl; they can undergo a nucleophile substation reaction to generate an alkyl halide and
water2. Using the structure of the alcohols they are able to use SN1 or SN2 mechanisms. For both
these mechanisms though, the –OH group must be pronated shown in Figure 1. R–OH + H–Br + R–
OH2 +Br– Figure 1. This figure is the protonation of the –OH group from the alcohol SN1 is a
limiting mechanism that is a unimolecular nucleophic substation reaction. In this mechanism it
involves two steps, one in which the leaving group leaves and then forms a carbocation
intermediate, shown in figure 2. Then it is able to break bonds between carbon and making it able
for carbon to leave the group before the bond forming with nucleophile begins1. R– ––OH2 R+ +
H2O Br– Figure 2.In this figure it shows the cation intermediate that is forming and the attack of
Br– resulting in the production of RBr While the mechanisms for SN2 is a biomolecular reaction.
These two species are involved in the rate–determine step3. Once the nucleophile attacks, though it
is allowed to form a nucleophile, that then forms a transition state and then results in the final
product, as shown in Figure 3. + R– ––OH2 RBr +H2O Br– Figure 3. Figure 3 shows the attacking
of Br– and water

The Synthesis Of Aspirin ( Acetylsalicylic Acid )
Abstract
This report presents the synthesis of Aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), as the product of the reaction of
salicylic acid with ethanoic anhydride under acidic conditions. Aspirin was purified through
recrystallisation by vacuum filtration, followed by desiccation of the Aspirin crystal over silica gel.
The percentage yield was calculated as 44.89% and a sample of Aspirin was analysed using infra–
red spectroscopy and compared to the spectrum of pure Aspirin, this served as an introduction to the
identification of functional groups in organic compounds. The melting point was calculated using an
IA9000M apparatus and recorded to be 35.2°C, which was slightly below the melting point of pure
Aspirin; known to be between 138–140°C. Both IR spectroscopy and melting point measurement
were used verify the purity of synthetic Aspirin made, which proved to be fairly pure under these
laboratory conditions.
Key Words
Salicylic acid
Aspirin
Felix Hoffman
Ethanoic anhydride
Infra–red spectroscopy
Acetic acid
Health and Safety
Laboratory coat and safety spectacles were worn at all times.
Ethanoyl anhydride and concentrated sulfuric acid are highly corrosive. Ethanol is flammable,
salicylic acid is irritant to eyes and skin. Chemicals were handled in the fume cupboard. Plastic
gloves were worn throughout the experiment.
Introduction
Medicinal records of the properties and use of bark willow extend back to ancient civilisations such
as the Chinese and Egyptians. By 400BC when

The Dehydration Of 2-Methyl-2-Butanol Was Performed Using
The dehydration of 2–methyl–2–butanol was performed using sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid in
order to synthesize alkene products 2–methyl–1–butene and 2–methyl–2–butene. After carrying out
steam distillation to isolate the organic alkenes from aqueous components within the reaction
mixture, the purity and characterization of the products were then assessed through various
analytical methods including Gas Chromatography (GC), Infrared Radiation (IR) Spectroscopy, and
Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Imaging. Through the characterization of the final products, it
was found that little impurities remained in the final reaction solution and according to the GC, no
alcohol remained in the vial after the reaction was complete. The actual yield ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
The products of interest within this experiment are 2–methyl–1–butene and 2–methyl–2–butene
from sulfuric acid and phosphoric acid catalyzed dehydration of 2–methyl–2–butanol. The reaction
mixture was then separated into its separate alkene components by steam distillation and then
analyzed by gas chromatography (GC), Infrared Radiation (IR) spectroscopy, and Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance (NMR) imaging. Gas chromatography is an analytical technique that is able to
characterize if specific compounds exist in a reaction mixture, even if they are in low quantities,
assess how much of a compound exists within a reaction mixture relative to other components
within the sample, and determine the purity of an isolated product. In the case of this experiment,
gas chromatography is used to analyze how pure the alkene reaction sample was and if any remnants
of impurities or 2–methyl–2–butanol remained in the sample after isolation of alkene components.
Results and Discussion Mass (g) Alcohol (Before dehydration) 2.3478 Alkene (After dehydration)
0.6675 0.6675/2.3478 x 100=28.4% Based on prior calculations, expected yield for the alkene
products was 79.5%. The actual yield was not as high, resulting in a 28.4% yield. Even with this
relatively small yield, the reaction still went to completion as indicated by the GC results in Figure
2. This is known because there is no presence of 2–methyl–1–butanol within the GC spectra. Only
the two desired alkene products with

Filo Lab Report
As a prevailing spectroscopic characterization, fourier transform infrared spectra help us to verify
the existence of addition of sodium based second phase in CuO:Na+ nanoparticles . The bands of
pristine CuO and pristine Na2O are located at 459, 502, 591 cm–1 and 890 cm–1, 1430 cm–1
respectively was reported by kim et. al and khufu et at. [177, 271]. As seen from figure 7, three
characteristic strong peaks located at 429, 502, 591 cm–1, associated with the Cu–O vibrations of
monoclinic CuO. The peaks centered at 502 cm–1, demonstrate red shift and the peak at 591 cm–1
shows blue shift compared with the pristine CuO values (429, 502, 591 cm–1). with the doping of
Na. The observed red and blue shifts due to Na–doping may be related to ... Show more content on
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It demonstrated that Na doping had a widen effect for the band gap of CuO, which was the first
report here. Interestingly, the band gap shifts from 1.49eV to 1.46eV with the increase in Na doping
from 0.0 to 3.0%, with was due to the band gap tailoring effect. The Na content was further
increased when the secondary phase formed and the band gap shift to the higher energy 1.51eV,
1.53eV for 5.0% and 7.0% Na–doped CuO nanostructures. In contrast, the formation of the Na2O
secondary phase caused an enhancement of the Eg value. Hence, to summarize the Eg value of the
Na doped CuO nanoparticles depends upon a variety of parameters such as the size and presence of
the Na dopant in different forms. These unique characteristics were influenced by the quality and
physical properties of the Na–doped CuO nanoparticles and these were strongly related to the
preparation method.
3.4.2. Diffuse photoluminescence spectroscopy
The photoluminescence (PL) spectroscopy was used to investigate the electronic and optical
properties of nanoparticles as well as to elucidate the energy levels within the band gap region
corresponding to the defect sites. Fig. 9 shows room temperature PL spectra of the as–prepared
pristine and Na–doped CuO samples. The samples were excited using the excitation wavelength of
390 nm. The emission spectra of pristine and CuO:Na+ nanoparticles revealed intense sharp peak at
470 nm, 503 nm and 605 nm. The

Near Infrared Spectroscopy
Over the last decade, medical imaging has acquired the use of optical methods and devices.
Instruments based upon the use of light have been of great interest to account for the significant
need of having a noninvasive, safe and continuous way of examining many parameters, and in
particular the oxygenation of living tissue. These devices may be used clinically for intensive care
patients or routinely by doctors or nurses for general check up purposes. This project involves the
research, design, development and testing of such a system and aims to serve as an investigation into
the estimation of muscle tissue oxygenation.
The importance of this is that around 40% of the total body weight represents skeletal muscle.
During work Skeletal muscles deoxygenate to different extents depending on the type of muscle, the
blood flow response and the type of exercise. However, under some pathological conditions the
changes in oxygen saturation may occur diversely. Today there are several methods for the
determination of partial oxygen saturation consumption. However, these methods are often invasive
(using blood samples in cuvettes) and not continuous. This project aims to overcome this problem
by the use of the near infrared ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
NIRS was first initiated in 1977 by F.F Jobsis, but since then many groups around the world have
not only refined but also improved the technique. Aside from its many uses in agriculture and
astronomy, it is only in the last few decades that it began to be used as a medical tool for monitoring
patients. NIRS can be used to non–invasively and continuously measure oxygenation of tissue
within the body. Today it is mainly used to measure oxygen saturation and other hemodynamic
variables within the brain tissue. The most interesting application of this technique is to apply its use
to the muscle. So why use Near Infrared

Infrared Spectroscopy
Infrared Spectroscopy
Organic Chemistry Lab 301A
B. The purpose of this lab is to study Infrared Spectroscopy, which focuses on the study of the
electromagnetic spectrum. The area to be studied is the infrared region, which is made up of gamma,
X, and UV rays. We want to be able to identify spectra's to their complementary structures. The
background of this experiment particularly deals with the study of compound structure
determination, and traits. We must be aware of the functional groups that occur in the compounds in
order to correctly assess accurate results. Molecular vibrations affect the frequency of the stretch or
bend, and the frequency of the bond is determined by 3 types of bonds between atoms. Infrared
absorptions are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
This means our obvious choice for the unknown is diethyl ether because there are no double bonds
involved and no nitro compounds.
It was very easy to make an error because of the high possibility that we had overlapping
frequencies, or because two unknowns could be very similar. In order to avoid errors, it was
necessary to make sure the frequencies were read very carefully and the spectra bonds were
correctly identified. If we were to make an error in distinguishing an unknown, this would
automatically cause us to have 2 or more incorrect Unknowns being identified. The Unknowns must
be assessed by the frequency chart and bond identification.
G. Experimental organic chemistry (Seymour, Raymond B.; Higgins, Jerry G.)
William H. Brown
Journal of Chemical Education 1972 49 (9),

Nitro vs nitrito linkage isomers Essay
Abstract
In this experiment, the nature of linkage isomers will be observed on the example of
nitritopentaamminecobalt(III) Chloride and nitropentaamminecobalt(III) Chloride. Their relative
stability will be compared on standard conditions and the infrared spectroscopy of both the isomers
will be obtained to analyze the characteristic absorption bands for the nitro and nitrito group. Yield
for nitritopentamminecobalt(III) Chloride was obtained to be = 1.9221 g(73.24 %) and yield for
nitropentamminecobalt(III) Chloride = 0.76 g(76 %)
Introduction
Linkage isomers may arise when one or more of the ligands can coordinate to the metal ion in more
than one way. The first reported example of linkage ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A portion of the nitrito complex was placed in the oven at 110 degrees Celsius and was left for a
week. The product was observed to have dark green color and the infrared spectrum was obtained
for this compound as well using KBr pellets.
Results
Theoretical yield calculations
For [Co(ONO)(NH3)5]Cl2
[CoCl(NH3)5]Cl2 + NaNO2 = [Co(ONO)(NH3)5]Cl2 + NaCl (eqn 1.4) n([CoCl(NH3)5]Cl2) =
2.518 g / 250.4456 = 0.010054 mol n(NaNO2) = 2.5 g / 68.99 = 0.03624 mol
Thus, [CoCl(NH3)5]Cl2 is the limiting agent. n([CoCl(NH3)5]Cl2) = n([Co(ONO)(NH3)5]Cl2) =
0.010054 mol m([Co(ONO)(NH3)5]Cl2) = 0.010054 mol * 260.998 = 2.62407 g
%Yield = 1.9221 g / 2.62407 g = 73.24 %
For [Co(NO2)(NH3)5Cl2
[Co(ONO)(NH3)5]Cl2 = [Co(ONO)(NH3)5]Cl2 (eqn 1.5)
Their molecular weight is same so
% Yield = 0.76 g / 1 g = 76 %
Infrared spectrum table
Table : Absorption bands of the products synthesized
Compound name
Peak(cm–1)
Peak assignment
Literature reference (cm–1)
Chloropentaamminecobalt(III) Chloride

3300.42 (s)
Vas(NH3)
3267 1
3171.33(s)
Vs(NH3)
3174 1
1588.97(m)
Vas(NH3) degenerate
1589 1
1308.34(s)
Vs(NH3) angle deformation
1309 1
859.46(s) ρr(NH3) 850 1
499.027
Vs(Co–N)
485 1
Nitropentaamminecobalt(III) Chloride
3214.3(s)
Vas(NH3)
3200 1
1617(s)
V(as(NH3) degenerate
1615 1
1435.7(s)
Vas(NO2) scissoring

A Study Of Non Invasive Measurement Techniques
Abstract–Diabetes is considered to be one of the major health care epidemics of modern era. The
determination of blood glucose concentration using the self–monitoring blood glucose devices
involves the chemical analysis of blood samples taken by pricking the finger or extracting blood
from forearm. The pain, discomfort and inconvenience in the current invasive method have led to
the feasibility study of non–invasive measurement techniques.
In this paper, an optical method using NIR technique based on occlusion spectroscopy is used which
shows that it can be possible to measure glucose concentration in blood non–invasively.
Keywords: Non–invasive, spectroscopy, euglycemia, hypoglycaemia.
By using the Monte Carlo method, Katsuhiko et al. (2003) has developed a non–invasive system
using near infrared [4]. To detect the glucose level, fibre optic probes was developed that consist of
a source and detector optical fibres. Both source and detector are separated by 0.65 mm, placed on
the skin surface. They reported that the correlation coefficient of blood glucose predicted by near
infrared and finger prick was 0.928 with a standard error of prediction of 32.2 mg/dL [4]. Another
research based on near infrared has been done by Ilan Gabriely, MD et al. (1999) [5].
They were using transcutaneous near infrared spectroscopy system to monitor blood glucose levels
during euglycemia and hypoglycaemia. The results proved that near infrared can be used to predict
the glucose levels in

Synthesis Of T-Pentyl Chloride Lab Report
Introduction:
The purpose of this experiment was to synthesize t–pentyl chloride from the reaction of t–pentyl
alcohol and concentrated HCl. This reaction occurred through an SN1 reaction, a unimolecular
nucleophilic substitution reaction. This was a First Order Rate Reaction where the rate of t–pentyl
chloride was dependent only on the concentration of t–pentyl alcohol. After the reaction was
completed, the products were achieved via 3 liquid–liquid extractions and then after by simple
distillation. In the liquid– liquid extractions a solute was transferred from one solvent to another.
Then in the simple distillation the miscible liquids or the solution, was separated by differences in
boiling points. After this the product was determined through infrared spectroscopy.
Procedure:
Isolation of Crude Product
A mixture of 22 ml ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In the process, extraction and distillation techniques were used. The theoretical amount of t– pentyl
chloride was 17.358g, while 15.78 g was the actual amount produced which gave a percent yield of
90.9%. An error occurred while performing the experiment, the filtered dried product in the
distillation process was placed in the wrong flask. Due to this that part of the experiment had to be
redone and the new filtered product had some aqueous solution in it, which caused the boiling point
to be under the specified temperature. The boiling point then was at 50 ℃ compared with the
expected range of 79– 84 ℃. The IR spectrum used above was from another group's results. The
experimental IR spectrum has more prominent peaks in the 3000 cm–1 range compared to the
expected IR spectrum. Nonetheless, the experimental IR spectrum resembles the expected IR
spectrum in the sense that the peaks are closely around the same wavenumber range. This is
probably due to the product being distilled at the right boiling

Dehydration Of 2-Methylcyclohexanol Lab Report
The dehydration of 2–Methylcyclohexanol was completed using an acid–catalyzed dehydration
reaction between 2–Methylcyclohexanol and sulfuric acid. In this acid–catalyzed dehydration
reaction, the oxygen atom is first protonated, the oxonium ion is then endothermically decomposed
into a carbocation and water, and finally the loss of a proton from an adjacent carbon atom forms an
alkene. Due to the presence of carbocation rearrangement, three products are formed as shown
below in Figure 1.
Figure 1: Acid–Catalyzed Dehydration of 2–Methylcyclohexanol into 1–Methylcyclohexene, 3–
Methylcyclohecene, and Methylenecyclohexane
Through an initial hydro–distillation, a liquid–liquid extraction, and a final hydro–distillation, the
full acid–catalyzed dehydration of 2–Methylcyclohexanol was completed. Using 25 mL of 2–
Methylcyclohexanol, 52.021% of 1–Methylcyclohexene was recovered and 12.652% of 3–
Methylcyclohexene and Methylenecyclohexane were recovered. The percent yield of these
compounds was found using Equation 1.
Infrared spectroscopy (IR) identified the final product to be 80.437% 1–Methylcyclohexene. The
dehydration of 2–Methylcyclohexanol was completed in order to further expand knowledge of lab
techniques along with exploring the mechanism behind acid–catalyzed dehydration reactions.
In order to further knowledge of lab techniques along with the basic principles behind the acid–
catalyzed dehydration reaction, a few questions must first be answered. There are three

Embedded System for Milk Analyzer and Billing
Embedded System for Milk Analyzer and Billing Chapter 1: INTRODUCTION TO MILK
COLLECTION SYSTEM 1.1 INTRODUCTION While we were in search of problems In the
society, with keeping in mind that engineering is a technical solution of a any problem, we decide to
look at common man's problem. At the same time in month of june11, Milk adulteration problem
was on the top of media, so we thought why not explore this problem. The Dairy industry in India is
generally co–operative .The primary milk provided to the dairy are farmers who do not process their
milk and give it in the raw form to the co–operative dairy. Since more no. of farmers are depositing
their milk in the dairy, it is a daily task of the dairy to assess the quality of ... Show more content on
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The Micro–Processor–Based Milk Collection System Milko–testers reduce the time taken to
ascertain the quality and the fat content of milk which in turn helps in overcoming all associated
problems of the traditional method of testing such as storage of samples, and handling of corrosive
chemicals. However, the calculation and payment of bills remained as cumbersome as ever since the
bills were still 2 Embedded System for Milk Analyzer and Billing being calculated manually. The
NDDB, in 1988, took up a project to develop an integrated milk collection system to effect
immediate calculation and payment of bills to the farmer. For this REIL and M/s ATE Enterprises
Ltd. developed prototypes that were tested in two villages in Kheda district, namely Mogri and
Bedwa REIL–developed milk collection system: This system has been operational in Mogri for the
past several years. It consists of three pieces of equipment, as shown in Figure 4.1, placed alongside
each other: (a) the Electronic Milk Tester (EMT); (b) the Milk Weighing System (MWS); and (c) the
Data Processor (DP). When the NDDB financed the project in the early 1990s for the micro–
processor based automatic milk collection stations (AMCs) the cost was about $2,250
(approximately Rs 96,800), which included the micro–processor, weighing machine,

Phosphonium Saltss Reaction Lab Report
Synthesis of tetrakis (pyrrolidino) phosphonium tetrafluoroborate (Py4P1+BF4–), tetrakis
(piperidino) phosphonium tetrafluoroborate (Pi4P1+BF4–), and tetrakis (morpholino) phosphonium
tetrafluoroborate (Mo4P1+BF4–).
Stoichiometric pyrrolidino, piperidino, and morpholino were reacted with PCl5 in absolute CH2Cl2
or chlorobenzene at various temperatures. After the completion of the reactions, NH4BF4/H2O was
added at room temperature. The resulting products were washed with solvents, and the white solids
thus obtained were isolated by filtration and dried in vacuum. The reactions with three phosphonium
salts are shown by Equations (2), (3), and (4). 1H–NMR (Py4P1+BF4–, 400MHz, CDCl3, 30 °C,
TMS): δ = 1.94 ppm (m. 16H. NCH2CH2), 3.21 ppm (m, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
The catalysts were mixed with a KBr salt pellet. FTIR spectra were generated from 32 scans in the
wavenumber range 4000–400 cm–1 at a resolution of 4 cm–1.
2.4.2 NMR
1H NMR and 13C NMR spectra were recorded using a Bruker Biospin AG, Magnet System 400
MHz/54 mm spectrometers at 25 °C, using chloroform–d (CDCl3) as the solvent and trimethylsilane
as the internal standard.
2.4.3 Gel Permeation Chromatography (GPC)
GPC Measurements were performed using a Waters 1515 Isocratic HPLC using tetrahydrofuran
(THF) as an eluent at 35 °C, at a flow rate of 1.0 mL/min. The polymers were dissolved in THF at a
concentration of 6 mg/mL. The system was calibrated using a series of monodisperse linear PPO
standards with molecular weights in the range 200–12000 g/mol.
2.4.4 Electrospray ionization mass spectrometry (ESI–MS)
ESI–MS Measurements were performed using a Micromass LCTTM Liquid
Chromatography/Time–of–Flight Mass Spectrometer equipped with a Waters 600 Liquid
Chromatography System.
2.4.5 The degree of unsaturation (C=C)
The degree of unsaturation was calculated by 1H–NMR. 1H–NMR (PPO, 400 MHz, CDCl3, TMS):
δ = 1.12 ppm (m. CH3), 3.20–3.80 ppm (CH2, CH), 3.13 ppm (CH2CHOH), 3.90 ppm
(CH2CHOH), 5.14 ppm (CH2=CH–CH2), 5.27 ppm (CH2=CH–CH2), 5.87 ppm (CH2=CH–CH2)
(Figure

Essay On Identification Of Spectroscopy
Several thousands of compounds are yet to be discovered, but there are many tools and methods
available to uncover the identity of newly synthesized compounds. These techniques include
performing NMR spectroscopy, IR spectroscopy, and mass spectrometry, as well as analyzing
melting points and refractive indexes. In particular, spectroscopy and spectrometry are especially
useful in determining chemical and physical properties, and they are highly applicable to
pharmaceutical product development. According to a study published in 2011, pharmaceutical
researchers have focused on the implementation and presence of metals, trace metals, and active
ingredients in developing drugs (Lewen, 2011). Nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy and
atomic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
To prepare an NMR sample, a small amount of sample is dissolved in a deuterated solvent and
placed in a tube. Then, the sample tube is placed in an NMR spectrometer and a spectrum depicting
the chemical shifts of protons or carbons can be produced. Another instrumental method that helps
identify chemical compounds is infrared (IR) spectroscopy. In this type of spectroscopy, molecules
are subjected to molecular vibrations from an infrared light source. Frequencies and percent
transmittance are plotted in the spectra, which allows for the identification of functional groups
(Putzig et al., 1994). This experiment involved the infrared spectroscopy using attenuated total
reflectance, or ATR. Specifically, no sample preparation was needed as the unknown samples were
directly applied to the IR spectrometer. The IR light beam deeply penetrates and interacts with parts
of the compound and reflects off and into the detector (Putzig et al., 1994). The IR spectrum simply
depicts the types of functional groups present, but not the actual number of each functional group.
The frequencies are measured in wavenumbers, in units of inverse centimeters. Generally, the
significant functional groups appear above the 1400 cm–1 region. Heavier molecules and weaker
molecules produce lower wavenumbers and vibrate less. One other critical technique to determine
the

Explosive Traces and Forensic Analysis
Explosives are used for a variety of applications from military operations to mining. However, these
materials can also be used in criminal investigations such as terrorists who threaten harm or cause
death and destruction. Explosives can be categorised into two main forms: high explosives and low
explosives. High explosives are explosive materials that detonate. This means that the explosive
shock passes through the material at a speed, faster than the speed of sound. High explosives
generally detonate with an explosive velocity ranging from 3 to 9 km/s. Low explosive are
compounds where the rate of decomposition proceeds through the material at a speed less than the
speed of sound. The decomposition is spread by a flame. This is known as deflagration. Under
normal conditions, low explosives undergo deflagration at rates varying from a few centimetres per
second to roughly 400 metre per second. It is possible for low explosives to deflagrate extremely
quickly producing an effect which is similar to detonation of high explosives. This usually occurs
when ignited in a confined space and can happen due to high pressure or high temperatures. The
detection and/or identification of trace amounts of explosives is an important aspect of forensic
investigations. Some methods of detection can also identify the explosives, some cannot for
example the use of canine detection, and the dog can smell the explosive but cannot say what it is.
Techniques for detection and identification

Essay on Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy
Spectroscopy is the study of energy levels in atoms or molecules, using absorbed or emitted
electromagnetic radiation. There are many categories of spectroscopy eg. Atomic and infrared
spectroscopy, which have numerous uses and are essential in the world of science. When
investigating spectroscopy four parameters have to be considered; spectral range, spectral
bandwidth, spectral sampling and signal–to–noise ratio, as they describe the capability of a
spectrometer. In the world of spectroscopy there are many employment and educational
opportunities as the interest in spectroscopy and related products is increasing. However
Spectroscopy is not a recent development, as it has been ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
History of Spectroscopy =======================
Spectroscopy has been used as a method of quantitative chemical analysis before the beginning of
the twentieth century. Spectroscopy started in 1666 when Sir Isaac Newton passed rays of light from
the sun through a glass prism and observed the colours of the visible spectrum, another great
breakthrough concerning spectroscopy was the suggestion of transition between energy levels within
atoms as the source of spectral lines was great contribution made by Niels Bohr in 1913. At the end
of the nineteenth century, spectroscopy was limited to the absorption, emission, and the scattering of
visible, ultraviolet, and infrared electromagnetic radiation. However, during the twentieth century,
spectroscopy was extended to include other forms of electromagnetic radiation including photo
spectroscopy e.g X–rays, microwaves, and radio waves, as well as particle spectroscopy.
Functions and Description of a spectrometer
[IMAGE] Fig 1. Schematic diagram of a spectrometer employing photomultiplier as detector.
A spectrometer usually shows pointed distinct features, instead of curving wavelengths; the sharp
structure used is particularly obvious when the substance investigated includes atoms in the gas
stage. The

The Effect Of Chewing Gum On Cognitive Processing
Some reports have suggested that chewing gum might improve the performance in memory task,
although other studies have not confirmed this effect of chewing. Little is known about the brain
activity and the task performance while chewing gum. Near–infrared spectroscopy is a
spectroscopic method that uses the near infrared region of the electromagnetic spectrum(what does
this mean). Put in my own words, describe what it means.Near–infrared spectroscopy is a useful tool
for investigating brain function and can measure brain activity during bodily movements. Wadi et
al.'s purpose of the study was to "clarify the effects of chewing gum on cognitive processing during
and after chewing gum, using NIRS–based measurement of cerebral hemodynamic response." They
investigated the effect of chewing on the hemodynamic changes in this brain region, using NIRS
(Hoshi et al., 2000), and the performance of subjects in a short–term memory task involving serial
recall of random eight–digit numbers. The study asked for 30 healthy volunteers(is this enough to
make conclusive) with no history of neurological, psychiatric, temporomandibular joint disorders.
The volunteers were asked to recall random eight digit numbers. They sat in a dimly lit room in
front of a PC monitor and the a series of 8 digit numbers flashed on the screen for two seconds.
They were then told to type out the numbers and the PC proceeded to flash a new 8 digit number
when they had finished typing the previous number. The

Lab Report On Boiling Points
Laura Breuning Lab Report 4
Abstract This experiment evaluated and reviewed the concepts used to identify unknown molecules.
The experiment includes a boiling point trial, a melting point trial and an infrared spectrometry trial.
All of the following were proved as sufficient methods to identify the unknown molecules.
Introduction
In this lab, we will be using boiling points, melting points and infrared spectrometry to identify
unknown compounds. Boiling points are affect by three key factors the first being intermolecular
forces. Inter molecular affect boiling point based on bond strength. This is directly related to what
functional group is attached. Ionic bonding is said to cause a higher boiling point then the other
intermolecular forces, due to a strong attraction in the bond. "The two other factors that affect
boiling point would be the number of carbons and amount of branching of carbon chain" (3 Trends
that affect boiling points). "Infrared spectrometry is irradiating a sample with infrared frequencies,
which then shows what frequencies were absorbed. The absorbance numbers can then be directly
tied to certain functional groups" (Klein, 2007). All of these concepts will be used and evaluated
during this lab.
Methods
Part 1: Melting point
First collect a melting point apparatus, a capillary test tube. Collect a small amount of the #666
unknown in the capillary test tube approximately enough to cover 2 cm of the capillary test tube.
Then place the capillary test

Conversion of Alcohol to Alkyl Halides
Introduction In this experiment, Conversion of Alcohol to Alkyl Halides and alcohol is converted to
an alkyl halide through SN1 or an SN2 mechanism. This is done by using 1–propanol and 2–
pentantol with HBr, Hydrobromic acid. Only half of the groups will use 1–propanol, and 2–
pentantol. All results are analyzed using NMR and IR. An SN1 reaction, requires two steps. The first
step, using an alcohol as an reactant, is the pronation of the –OH group from the R group. This
produces a cation intermediate. The cation intermediate is attacked by the –Br group, from HBr.
This is the second step. An SN2 mechanism, is only one step, unimolecular , and spontaneous. In an
alcohol, the –Br group will attack at the water, H2O, is leaving the reaction. The R group attacks to
the Bromine leaving an excess water. Figure 1 Mechanism for 2–Pentantol SN1
Figure 2 2–Pentantol SN2 Mechanism Nuclear Magnetic Resonance, NMR, and Infrared, IR,
Spectroscopy are used to determine the structure of unknown compounds. Nuclear Magnetic
Resonance allows the student to see the nuclei in a molecule by the usage of light (1). The spectrum
shows how carbon can form a number of different bonds hydrogens present in the molecule, double
and single. IR spectroscopy gives an idea of the frequency of the molecules through the vibrations
of the molecules. Infrared shows how molecules can perform like springs which connects with
Hooke's Law. Hooke's Law is used to describe the vibrations of springs.
Table

Hexane Essay
Objective: To compare the absorption bands of the compounds Hexane, Heptane, Cyclohexane and
2– Hexanone by using FTIR spectrum.
Background: FTIR spectroscopy is an analytical technique of vibration that involves molecular
stretching, vibration, rotation of bonds in the molecules when the compound is exposed to
wavelength of light. It transforms signal from time to frequency domain can be read from the
spectrum when a radiation passed through mirrors to the sample the light is absorbed and
determined as IR spectrum. The spectrum is read out from the vibrations in change of bond lengths
and bond angles. The common region of IR was 4000 to 500 cm–1 for many ions which is a mid–
region. 1The instrument consists of a source that emits Infrared radiation ... Show more content on
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FTIR Spectrum of Hexane.
The hexane peaks were observed at 2900 with C–H stretching and a weak strength, whereas the two
methylene groups has a stretching and bending with weak strengths and wavenumber as 2852 and
1450 cm–1 a huge noise near 3000 to 3300 cm–1 and unable to distinguish the bands.
Analysis of Cyclohexane by FTIR: Cyclohexane
Figure 3. Structure of Cyclohexane
Table 3. Peaks of Cyclohexane with vibration modes.
Functional Group Vibration mode, Strength Wavenumber (cm–1)
Methylene (–CH2) C–H stretching, m 2875
Methylene (–CH2) C– H Bending, m 1455
Graph 3. FTIR Spectrum of Cyclohexane.
Analysis of 2– Hexanone by FTIR: Figure 4. Structure of 2– Hexanone
Table 4. Peaks of 2– Hexanone with vibration modes.
Functional Group Vibration mode, strength Wavenumber (cm–1)
Methyl group (–CH3) C–H stretching, m 2980
Methylene (–CH2) C–H stretching, m 2850
Methylene–CH2) Bending, m

Characteristics Of Automated Fingerprint
Furthermore, when a latent print has been found it is but into the Automated Fingerprint
Identification System to see if there are any matches. If there is a match to the that person now
becomes a suspect. They are then questioned, however, there does need to be more evidence to
prove that the suspect is the unsub. Now, footwear evidence takes into account class characteristics
(manufacturing process, physical size, design, and the mold) and identifying characteristic
(accidental, such as objects becoming attached to the sole such as rocks, twigs, thumb tacks, cuts,
scratches, and holes). The examiner then tries to identify similar class characteristics between the
footwear imprint and the shoe that is believed to be a match. If there ... Show more content on
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The photographs should also show where the toolmark was located, how the object on which it was
found was arranged, and how big it was. Once everything has been photographed a cast can be made
of or the area on which on toolmark was found can be removed. When making a cast there needs to
be a mixture to get the fine details of the markings so it can be analyzed for a microscopic
comparison. When the tool and tool mark are being compared the examiner will look for unique
characteristics that they both contain or a serial number is located to see if it was imprinted onto a
surface (WILEnet). Firearm evidence consists of the discharged bullets, shot pellets, shotshell,
shotshell components (case, shot, slug, wad, powder charge, brass head, and primer.), and cartridge
cases. According to the Wisconsin Department of Justice when the firearm is sent into the lab the
analyst looks at the "mechanical operability, including possible damage or alteration, trigger pull
and physical features." The firearm is then fired to see if it matches the bullets and cartridge cases.
Another thing that is examined are the bullets to see if the markings match the ones that were test
fired as each firearm produces it's own unique marking when fired. At the scene when the firearm
has been shot it can pass through walls, furniture, windows, vehicles, doors, etc. this allows the
analysts to to determine the diameter of the bullet,

Multi Step Synthesis Of Aspirin
This experiment explored the multi–step synthesis of synthesis acetylsalicylic acid commonly
known as aspirin. A common procedure used in organic chemistry labs is multi step synthesis. this
procedure involves a cascade of reactions that ultimately lead to a desire product. The series of
reactions begins with commonly found or readily available reagents which are synthesized into
products which can be used for a secondary reaction, and so on and so forth until the final desired
product is synthesized (Ryerson Department of Chemistry, 2017).
In this experiment the synthesis of aspirin was used to find the importance of the efficiency of
multistep synthesis as well as a means to explore a number or purity tests. The purity tests used in
this experiment were a melting point range test, a thin layer chromatography test, a ferric chloride
test, and infrared spectroscopy.
After the completion of the experiment it was found that the percent yield was 24% which is very
low. This shows the importance of efficiency as the process of making aspirin, is a two step
synthesis (Atienza et al., 2010) and 74% of theoretical product was converted into waste or lost.
Also it was found that the end product was not pure aspirin as the sample of aspirin made failed two
purity test. This revealed that not merely one purity test is not sufficient to denote a substance as
pure.
Introduction
The first step of the synthesis is to take pure methyl salicylate and hydrolyzed into salicylic acid,

C2h2 And Deuterated Acetylene
The purpose of this experiment was to determine the rotation constant, vibration–rotation interaction
constant, moment of inertia, and bond lengths for Acetylene(C2H2) and Deuterated
Acetylene(C2D2) synthesized in the lab. Using Fourier Transform Infrared (FTIR), an absorption
spectrum for C2H2 and C2D2 was generated and using the peaks and values given by the FTIR, the
bond length between C≡C and C–H ultimately determined. Molecular spectroscopy is the study of
absorption of light by molecules, it analyzes the molecular structure. Spectroscopy used absorption
of light or radiation to indicate the structural properties of a compound. Molecular Spectroscopy
interacts with radiation that is Ultraviolet, infrared and visible spectral regions. As shown in the
electromagnetic spectrum in Figure 1, visible light is between 400–700 nm, the ultraviolet light is
between 200–400 nm and the Infrared has a much higher wavelength than both.
Figure 1– Electromagnetic spectrum ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The Solution subsequently absorbs light or it does not. This creates a wavelength that can be
detectable by the FTIR. As the photons are being absorbed, the spectrum is recording the
wavelengths and it is indicated and shown by the peaks in the graphs that the machine prints out
afterwards. An example is shown in Figure 2, where there are peaks and enough data given that one
can determine the compound of the solution. The areas where there are peaks are an indication that
there was sufficient energy or enough radiation was absorbed to excite the molecule to the next
energy

Ftir History
History of the FTIR
The FTIR came from the IR (infrared) spectrum that was found in the 1800s. IR spectrum was
discovered by Sir William Herschel. A scientist named Peter Fellget had obtained the first IR
spectrum by using the FTIR in 1949.
The FTIR stands for Fourier Transfrom Infrared Spectroscopy. More FTIRs were being used by the
1960s. When matter and energy interact it produces wavelengths that can be seen by the FTIR.
Basically, all FT are waveforms that are just the sum of simply sinusoids of different frequencies. It
uses a mathematical tool that show how to deconstruct the waveform of the sinusoid components.
The FTIR analyzes the absorption of certain wavelengths by a solid or liquid sample. "FT–IR
Spectrometers are often ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It concluded that most of the components in the lamotrigine was Breyer's yeast. It also contained 4–
Bromopyridine HCL and 3,4–diamino–5–pyrazolol sulfate. However, based on research, it should
have yielded 3,5–diamino–6–(2,3–dichlorophenyl)–as–triazine as being a component in the
Lamotrigine. Lamotrigine's chemical name is 3,5–diamino–6–(2,3–dichlorophenyl)–as–triazine
(http://www.rxlist.com/lamictal–drug.htm). Each tablet contains the labeled amount of lamotrigine
and the following inactive ingredients: lactose; magnesium stearate; microcrystalline cellulose;
povidone; sodium starch glycolate; FD&C Yellow No. 6 Lake (100–mg tablet only)
(http://www.rxlist.com/lamictal–drug.htm).
The second type of medicine that I used in my experimentation was Hydrocodone. This medicine is
used to help deal with pain after surgery was performed. I had crushed the Hydrocodone tablet into
powdered form, so it can be placed on the handheld HazMatID FTIR sensor. Once it was in
powdered form, I had took the handheld HazMatID FTIR, selected the identify button, and then
sterilized the sensor on the FTIR with a alcohol pad. After sterilizing the sensor, I placed the powder
form of Hydrocodone onto the handheld HazMatID FTIR

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Z Waves
Terahertz (THz) waves, or T–rays, refer to electromagnetic radiation in the frequency range of 0.1–
10 THz. THz waves occupy the region between microwaves and the infrared, as shown in Figure
1.1. Until about two decades ago, when THz time–domain spectroscopy technique was invented, the
THz spectrum had remained more or less unexplored and unutilized. However, the development of
ultrafast lasers and derivative techniques such as photocon¬ductive switching and sampling and
electro–optic generation and detection in the 1980s made it feasible to study the THz waves.
Fig. 1.1: Position of terahertz spectrum (1–10 THz). This range is also known as the far–infrared, or
sub–millimeter range, and the lower limit is often extended down to 300 GHz (λ ... Show more
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Investigating biological characteristics and dynamics using THz techniques has both advantages and
disadvantages. One of the most important advantages is the low energy of THz waves,
corresponding to a few meV, which is well below the ionization energies of atoms and molecules.
This means that we can study materials with THz waves without disturbing the system under study,
unless enough power is applied to cause a significant increase in temperature. The other major
advantage is that the characteristic energy of the hydrogen bond, which is the most dominant bond
in biological molecules, lies in the THz frequency range and, therefore, THz waves can directly
detect spectral features such as resonances and motions of molecules. However, a serious
disadvantage is the high absorption of THz waves by the water in which biological molecules reside.
This water absorption can mask the characteristic features of samples, even though biological
dynamics naturally occur in water. All of the above is some applications in THz region, for more
details and applications see

High Performance Liquid Chromatography
High Performance Liquid Chromatography, abbreviated HPLC, is a type of Chromatography that
uses liquids to separate mixtures. Unlike other chromatography methods, HPLC uses liquid mixtures
for both the mobile and the stationary phases. A syringe is used to inject a small amount of the
mixture we're looking to separate into the HPLC column, and the mobile phase acts as the
transporter. The mobile phase contains a carrier liquid that is comprised of all of the dissolved
substances that are of interest (the ones that we are looking to separate from one another). Since
HPLC uses a reversed–phase stationary phase, this allows polar molecules to elute first and
nonpolar last. Therefore, it is imperative to use a polar molecule for the mobile phase ... Show more
For example, samples (ex: hair strands, saliva, etc.) that have been gathered from a crime scene
could be further examined using an IR spectrometer. The device is high specific and would be able
to identify the exact compound(s) contained within the sample using functional group analysis. This
would allow forensic scientists to work with law enforcement officials in many ways, such as
identifying a person of interest to arrest, or identifying the cause of death of an individual. This can
also be applied in the pharmaceutical world, as well. Scientists are the major players in figuring out
which molecules contained in medicine are harmful/lethal, and many testing trials are performed
using various instruments (IR, HPLC, etc.) to identify and reformulate the chemical ingredients
before they are released for public

Raman Spectroscopy Essay
Enrollment no: A4450014069
Name: RAVINA KUNDU
TOPIC: APPLICATIONS OF RAMAN SPECTROSCOPY
An introduction to Raman Spectroscopy (basic theory)
EXCITING (RAYLEIGH) LINE
ANTI–STOKES LINE STOKES LINE ROTATIONAL SPECTRUM ... Show more content on
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Now we will see the application to Raman spectroscopy. Raman spectroscopy has a wide range of
uses. There are various applications of Raman spectroscopy. The most important and widely used
are its medical applications. Other than medical applications Raman spectroscopy also provides
applications to nanotechnology, nano medicine, pharmaceutical etc. Raman spectroscopy can also be
used to analyze gas mixtures or detect explosives. In solid–state physics, Raman spectroscopy is
used to characterize materials, measure temperature, or get the information about crystal orientation.
As this technique can distinguish between molecules, it has become popular in the field of
biomedicine, especially in tissue diagnosis. Here we shall discuss Raman spectroscopy used in
medical diagnostics for detection of diseases like skin cancer and breast cancer. If certain tissues
start to transform, we see that there is a change in its chemical composition. And if we are able to
detect this change in its chemical composition using Raman spectroscopy, we can diagnose the
disease in its early

Energy Radiation And Its Effect On The Cells
In the past, the applications of light, more specifically laser, in health and clinical applications have
been focused on its destructive phototoxic effects. This effect is associated with high energy
radiation, whereas low energy radiation has been found to induce a stimulating effect on the cells.
The heat inducing laser tissue ablation effect used in surgery and the disinfectant–antimicrobial
effect of light therapy are distinctly different from the beneficial healing response stimulated by
photobiomodulation (PBM). The nonionizing and low power lasers used in PBM are in wavelengths
of visible (660 nm), near–infrared (810 and 940 nm), and in some rare cases, mid–infrared (1040,
2940, 9400 or 10400 nm)1. In recent studies, due to ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the challenges to use PBM in clinical treatments is the effective dose parameter; the
wavelength, irradiance, fluence, duration and delivery protocols are specific to each biological
scenario (alleviating pain and inflammation or stimulate regeneration)6,7 and the target area and
penetration depth. Another prominent challenge is that, even though clinical studies using low–level
light therapy (LLLT) or PBM has been shown to be successful through a variety experimental
studies6,8, the study of the molecular mechanisms involved in the trigger–release effects haven't
been well documented. Most of the molecular level studies have been based on inclusion–exclusion
of certain genetic dispositions, growth factors and receptors9,10. This article will, however, focus
more on the low power laser technology–its selection, modulation, application, potential
improvements, and also brief description on some of the important optical imaging techniques that
can be used in this research field to study the molecular mechanics and regenerative effects.
Improvement in laser technology can potentially improve the scope of application of lasers in the
area of study (regenerative medicine) I wish to focus on.
Background
The feature of lasers, summarized below, are what enable its use in surgical, clinical and
experimental medicine and in spectroscopy and microscopy tools for analysis.
Monochromaticity: Allows a researcher to select the

Separation of Chlorophyll a, Chlorophyll B, and Beta...
Abstract
Pigments extracted from different greens have different polarities and may be different colors.
Mixed pigments can be separated using chromatography paper. Chromatography paper is able to
separate mixed pigments due to their polarity and solubility. Pigments of chlorophyll a, chlorophyll
b and beta carotene will be separated on chromatography paper because each has its own polarity
and solubility, which results in different distance traveled up the paper. Beta carotene is non–polar
so it travels the highest distance, followed by chlorophyll a. Chlorophyll b is the most polar;
therefore, it travels the shortest distance. The separated pigments on the chromatography paper can
be eluted in acetone and absorbance spectrum is ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Beta carotene is orange, and its graph created by spectrophotometer shows that it mostly absorbs
blue and green light and reflects orange.
Figure 1. The absorption spectrum for leaf pigment, wavelength in nm.
Discussion
During the separation of the pigments by chromatography paper, chlorophyll b traveled the shortest
distance, chlorophyll a went above it, and the highest went beta carotene. This

The Effect Of Polymer Membrane On The Engineering And...
Imaging proposal Introduction: Polymer membranes are gaining an ever growing attention in the
engineering and science disciplines [P.D.Chapman, T.Oliveira, A.G.Livingston, K.Li, Membranes
for the dehydration of solvents by pervaporation, J.Membr.Sci.318 (2008)5–37.]. They have been
conventionally used for size exclusion applications for instance micro–filtration (MF),ultrafiltration
(UF),nanofiltration (NF),and reverse osmosis (RO). Membranes are used as support matrices for
immobilization in the fields of biosensors and enzyme based bioreactors [K. Gabrovska, J.Ivanov,
I.Vasileva, N.Dimova, T.Godjevargova, Immobilization of urease on nanostructured polymer
membrane and preparation of urea amperometric biosensor, Int.J.Biol.Macromol. 48(2011)620–
626.]. Furthermore, affinity and ion–exchange chromatography with functionalized membranes is
increasingly applied in the pharmaceutical and biotechnology industry [P.Ghosh, K.Vahedipour,
M.Lin, J.H.Vogel, C.A.Haynes, E.vonLieres, Zonal rate model for axial and radial flow membrane
chromatography. PartI: Knowledge transfer across operating conditions and scales, Biotechnol.
Bioeng. 110(2013)1129–1141.]. As a result for much demands of membrane applications, the
characterization of membrane properties is becoming essentially needed to expect the membrane
performance in a given application. In fact, these characterizations techniques should involve both
bulk and surface properties as well as the chemical as well as pore structure at

Determination Of Polyethylene Lab Report
IR SPECTROSCOPY: DETERMINATION OF XYLENES USING AN INTERNAL STANDARD
Manal Alrashidi
04/18/2018
CHEM 790.1, sec.01– spring 2018
Chemistry and Biochemistry Department Queens College– CUNY
65–30 Kissena Blvd, Flushing, NY 11365
Professor Edward G. look
Abstract In this laboratory session, I determined the concentration of p–xylene and m–xylene in two
unknown samples, using o–xylene as an internal standard. The analysis was done using Fourier
Transform Infrared spectrometry. The peak wavelengths of the three isomers were determined, and
standard curves were constructed from the ratio of the absorbance of the characteristic peaks. The
ratio of the concentrations was determined from the Least–Square fitting of the data.
Introduction
Para–xylene belongs to a family of aromatic hydrocarbons of industrial importance and can be
polymerized to obtain parylene or as a starting point to the synthesis of polyethylene terephthalate,
among other uses. The ability to measure and control its concentration in equilibrium with its o– and
m– isomers is therefore of great importance (Fig. 1).
For quantitative purposes internal standard method is of ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Calibration curve has many disadvantages like we need a supply of high purity and know
concentration of the analyte material to be a reference, also the analyte and the standard will not be
subjected to same matrix and same interfering compounds and same conditions. Many variables
may interfere or change during the measurement of response of standard and response of analyte.
While if use an internal standard, the measurement will be done at the same run for both the analyte
and standard, thus we eliminate any potential variations between the different runs that would be
needed in calibration curve method. This results in accuracy and

Advantages And Disadvantages Of Fifir Spectrometers
5.2 FTIR INSTRUMENT:
Fourier Transform Infrared Spectrometer are widely used in food analysis ,petrochemical
engineering organic synthesis, polymer science, pharmaceutical industry . FTIR spectrometers can
be hyphenated to chromatography, and the detection of unstable substances the mechanism of
chemical reactions and can be investigated with such instruments.[27]
5.2.1 HISTORY:
The first one who found that a spectrum and its interferogram are related by a Fourier transform was
Lord Rayleigh, in 1892. But the Fellget was the first one who has converted an interferogram to its
spectrum. Fast Fourier transform method on which the modern FTIR spectrometer based was
introduced to the world by Turkey and Cooley in 1965. It has wide application ... Show more
One of the mirror is a stationary mirror and other one is a movable mirror. The beam splitter is used
to transmit half of the light and reflect half of the light. Subsequently, the transmitted light and the
reflected light strike the stationary mirror and the movable mirror. When reflected back by the
mirrors, two beams of light recombine with each other at the beam splitter.[27]
If the distances travelled by two beams are the same, it means that the distances between two
mirrors and the beam splitter are the same and the situation is defined as zero path difference (ZPD).
But imagine if the movable mirror moves away from the beam splitter, the light beam which strikes
the movable mirror will travel a longer distance than the light beam which strikes the stationary
mirror. The distance which the movable mirror is away from the ZPD is defined as the mirror
displacement and is represented by ∆. It is obvious that the extra distance travelled by the light
which strikes the movable mirror is 2∆. The extra distance is defined as the optical path difference
(OPD) and is represented by delta. Therefore, δ =

The Impact Of Food Quality On Food Industry
Food quality plays an important role in food industry. Currently, consumers' demands on higher
quality of food products are increasing rapidly. Therefore, food industry is interested in analytical
methods which can provide low cost, fast, precise, and non–destructive analysis on product quality
(Gowen et al., 2007). The researches on non–destructive food quality analyzing technologies have
gain significant amount of interests (Chen et al., 2013; Lind and Murhed, 2012).
Machine vision, as a novel non–destructive analyzing technology, has been widely studied and
employed in various industries (Davies, 2012). It can be applied to inspect raw materials or products
during manufacturing (Davies, 2013). Recently the applications of machine vision in food industry
are increasing rapidly since the developments in camera technology and the processing power of
computer hardware (Chen et al., 2013). Machine vision technology has many advantages such as
improving quality, increasing throughput, reducing waste, and reducing labor (Lind and Murhed,
2012). Generally, machine vision system includes image acquisition section and image processing &
statistical pattern recognition section (Davies, 2013). The images processed by machine vision
system could be grey–scale images, binary images, and conventional images took by 'normal'
camera; it also could be images acquired from hyperspectral imaging, magnetic imaging, X–ray
imaging, ultrasound imaging, thermal imaging, and fluorescence imaging

Dehydration Of Sulfuric Acid And Phosphoric Acid
Dehydration of 2–methylcyclohexanol Authors: Johnny Presley Abstract: Dehydration of 2–
methylcyclohexanol to 3–methylcyclohexene is simple distillation where dehydration was used to
prepare the final product. The results of the experiment showed that the 3–methylcyclohexene was
formed via an E1 reaction from 2–methylcyclohexanol with a 1:1 ratio of sulfuric acid and
phosphoric acid. However, some H2O was left over, which was seen when we look at the IR and see
a small water peak. This could be due to the fact that not enough sodium sulfate was added and not
for long enough. These results were confirmed by the quality tests that showed that a precipitate
formed when KMnO4 was added to the solution and in the IR spectroscopy peaks showed peaks at
3022.62cm–1 which matches an alkene, further showing that the formation of 3–methylcyclohexene
was successful with a percent yield of 56.46%. Introduction: The major reaction that happened was
an E1 reaction (otherwise known as a unimolecular elimination reaction). In this reaction the
removal of an HX substituent group results in the formation of a double bond via beta hydrogen
elimination4. In an E1 reaction the deprotonation of hydrogen in the beta position occurs and from
here a carbocation is formed, which results in the formation of an alkene product. This happens
when the OH group on the 2–methylcyclohexanol is hydrated by H2SO4, which allows the OH to
become an H2O. Since H20 is a better leaving group now it will

Melting Point Analysis Of Acetaminophen
ABSTRACT:
The objective of this lab is to synthesize acetaminophen from p–aminophenol. The techniques used
to do so, consist of: reflux with heat to allow reaction to occur at a reasonable time period,
extraction and filtration to isolate the desired product, and characterization of the product by
analyzing IR spectras and melting points. Acetaminophen considered synthesized, primarily due to
the IR spectrum exhibiting all the bond vibrations is the amide group. The percent yield of 124.6%
imply that there was a mechanical error that occurred, thus, also tampering with the progression of
the chemical reaction. The wide melting point range of 165 C–169 C denote the impurity of the
acetaminophen product.
INTRODUCTION
Chemical synthesis is an imperative technique most relevant to organic chemists. Synthesis employs
a succession of chemical reactions by using pre–existing structures to make new and functional
ones. A combination of lab techniques could be developed in order to synthesize and attain the
desired product. This particular experiment calls for the use for reflux, extraction, recrystallization,
infrared spectroscopy, and melting point analysis. The overall objective of this lab is to utilize these
steps to synthesize acetaminophen from p–aminophenol and characterize it .
To synthesize acetaminophen, calls for the following chemical reaction:
Equation 1
P–aminophenol is the reactant and acetic anhydride is added

Synthesis of Aspirin from Salicylic Acid

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