SCRUM MetricsUnderstanding Metrics In Agile MethodologyAbstr.docx

SCRUM Metrics
Understanding Metrics In Agile Methodology
Abstract
For a long time in the software industry, agile methodologies
have become the market leader in the software development
process due to its better return on investment (ROI) and risk-
driven behavior. Agile has several methods like DSDM, Scrum
and XP (Extreme Programming). Scrum is one of the most
common methods in agile for its flexibility and simplicity. We
can define Scrum as an iterative framework for complex scope
of work in the development process. Metrics in scrum focuses
on risks, predictability, productivity and progress by using
various burn-down and velocity metrics. Scrum has established
concrete metric system to analyze the progress of the software
development at any given time in the software process. This
helps in early risk mitigation, good project management,
constant monitoring and controlling and accurate predictions
about schedule, budget, and work results.
In the project, we will discuss different metrics available in the
scrum method and why they are beneficial for measuring the
process. In addition, we would like to study different case
studies to understand how these metrics help in better deliver
for the product within short time and effective cost.
Contents:
Extreme Programming based Metrics-
Metrics in XP
Projects
Quantitative Metrics
Qualititative
Metrics………………………………………………………………

………………………………………….
RESEARCH ARTICLE Open Access
Relationship between Organizational Culture,
Leadership Behavior and Job Satisfaction
Yafang Tsai1,2
Abstract
Background: Organizational culture refers to the beliefs and
values that have existed in an organization for a long
time, and to the beliefs of the staff and the foreseen value of
their work that will influence their attitudes and
behavior. Administrators usually adjust their leadership
behavior to accomplish the mission of the organization, and
this could influence the employees’ job satisfaction. It is
therefore essential to understand the relationship between
organizational culture, leadership behavior and job satisfaction
of employees.
Methods: A cross-sectional study was undertaken that focused
on hospital nurses in Taiwan. Data was collected
using a structured questionnaire; 300 questionnaires were
distributed and 200 valid questionnaires were returned.
To test the reliability of the data, they were analyzed by
Cronbach’s a and confirmatory factors. Correlation analysis
was used on the relationships between organizational cultures,
leadership behavior and job satisfaction.
Results: Organizational cultures were significantly (positively)
correlated with leadership behavior and job

satisfaction, and leadership behavior was significantly
(positively) correlated with job satisfaction.
Conclusions: The culture within an organization is very
important, playing a large role in whether it is a happy
and healthy environment in which to work. In communicating
and promoting the organizational ethos to
employees, their acknowledgement and acceptance of it can
influence their work behavior and attitudes. When
the interaction between the leadership and employees is good,
the latter will make a greater contribution to team
communication and collaboration, and will also be encouraged
to accomplish the mission and objectives assigned
by the organization, thereby enhancing job satisfaction.
Background
Organizational culture is described by Robbins & Coulter
[1] as the shared values, beliefs, or perceptions held by
employees within an organization or organizational unit.
Because organizational culture reflects the values, beliefs
and behavioral norms that are used by employees in an
organization to give meaning to the situations that they
encounter, it can influence the attitudes and behavior of
the staff [2]. Understanding the organization’s core values
can prevent possible internal conflict [3], which is the
main reason for our research into these cultural issues.
In other management fields, empirical research of
organizational culture has involved the functionalist per-
spective, providing impressive evidence of the role of
organizational culture in improving performance [4].
The pervasiveness of an organizational culture requires
that management recognize its underpinning dimensions
and its impact on employee-related variables, such as
job satisfaction [5], organizational commitment [6], and

performance [7]. Lund [5] believed that less research
was done on the relationship between organizational
culture and job satisfaction within the research topic of
organizational culture and outcome. The organization
consists of the staff, with the behavior of its individual
members affecting outcomes. Since cultural research
within the nursing field is not common [8], it is neces-
sary to explore the way the culture influences the beha-
vior of the nursing staff, and in turn how the behavior
of the staff influences the organizational outcome.
A two-dimensional model of leadership that focuses
on the concern for people and production has been
used for many years in organizational research [9]. In
the late 1970s, leadership research started focusing on
behavior within organizational change and development
Correspondence: [email protected]il.com
1Department of Health Policy and Management, Chung Shan
Medical
University; Taiwan
Full list of author information is available at the end of the
article
Tsai BMC Health Services Research 2011, 11:98
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/11/98
© 2011 Tsai; licensee BioMed Central Ltd. This is an Open
Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons
Attribution License
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0), which permits
unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.
mailto:[email protected]

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.0
[10]. Leadership implies authority in the broadest sense
of the word and not simply the power to wield the stick
[11]. It is based on objective factors, such as managerial
ability, and more subjective characteristics that include
personal qualities of the leaders. The factors are of even
greater importance given the current emerging culture
of the nurse who has a clear and assertive vision about
the nature of clinical practice [12].
Currently, there is a shortage of nurses in clinical care,
and good leaders can help any attrition. Furthermore,
the leadership skills of nurse administrators can contri-
bute to the success of their organization [13]. Leadership
is of increasing importance in clinical nursing [14].
Although leadership and organizational culture con-
structs have been well studied, the relationship between
them has not been established in the field of nursing
[6]. This study explores the relationship between organi-
zational culture and leadership behavior.
Berson & Linton [15] discovered that within the
research & development (R&D) and administrative envir-
onments, leadership behavior of a manager is closely
related to work satisfaction of the employees. Nielsen et
al. [16] have stated that leadership behavior and job satis-
faction will depend on the organizational context; there-
fore another objective of this research was to understand
how the leadership behavior of the administrator in dif-
ferent organizational cultures affects job satisfaction.
Casida & Pinto-Zipp [17] explored how nurses felt about
the relationship between leadership and organizational
culture, and found them to be correlated. Although the
data indicated that the development of an organizational

culture is related to the behavior of its leaders, the results
failed conclude whether this affected their attitudes or
behavior as employees. From the nursing administration
perspective, the normal course of action taken to influ-
ence employee behavior and achieve the objectives set by
the administrators comes through administrative man-
agement. Therefore, as well as discussing the relationship
between leadership behavior and organizational culture,
this research will investigate the effect of leader behavior
and organizational culture towards employee job satisfac-
tion. The findings clearly show that hospital administra-
tors should be concerned about the effects of leadership
behavior and organizational culture on the attitude
towards work of their employees. This should help
administrators alter their behavior in order to maintain a
good mutual relationship with their subordinates,
improving their working attitude and, more importantly,
reducing potential conflicts.
Relationship between organizational culture and
leadership behavior
Culture is socially learned and transmitted by members; it
provides the rules for behavior within organizations [18].
The definition of organizational culture is of the belief that
can guide staff in knowing what to do and what not to do,
including practices, values, and assumptions about their
work [19]. The core values of an organization begin with
its leadership, which will then evolve to a leadership style.
Subordinates will be led by these values and the behavior
of leaders, such that the behavior of both parties should
become increasingly in line. When strong unified behavior,
values and beliefs have been developed, a strong organiza-
tional culture emerges. Leaders have to appreciate their
function in maintaining an organization’s culture. This
would in return ensure consistent behavior between mem-

bers of the organization, reducing conflicts and creating a
healthy working environment for employees [20].
Hypothesis 1- Organizational culture is positively cor-
related with leadership behavior.
Relationship between leadership behavior and job
satisfaction
Job satisfaction has been associated with nurses who
perceive their managers as supportive and caring. A
supportive manager shares values, believes in a balance
of power, and provides opportunities for open dialogue
with nurses [21], which in turn reduces the chances of
internal conflicts. This type of leader is successful in his
or her role and is supportive and responsive to clinical
nurses, thereby preserving power and status within the
hospital system. Such leaders are valued throughout the
organization and have executive power to do what they
see as necessary to create a positive environment for
nursing [22]. Accordingly, they have a measurable effect
on the morale and job satisfaction of nurses [23].
Hypothesis 2 - Leadership behavior is positively corre-
lated with job satisfaction.
Relationship between organizational culture and job
satisfaction
Organizational culture expresses shared assumptions,
values and beliefs, and is the social glue holding an
organization together [24]. A strong culture is a system
of rules that spells out how people should behave [25].
An organization with a strong culture has common
values and codes of conduct for its employees, which
should help them accomplish their missions and goals.
Work recognition and job satisfaction can be achieved
when employees can complete the tasks assigned to

them by the organization.
Hypothesis 3 -.Organizational culture is positively cor-
related with job satisfaction.
The measurement of organizational culture, leadership
behavior and job satisfaction
A structured questionnaire was compiled based on simi-
lar studies published in international journals [26,27].
Page 2 of 9
Twenty-three factors regarding organizational culture
were taken from Tsui et al. [26], a study based on two
groups of MBA students from two universities in Beij-
ing, China. Our research was focused on clinical nurses
in hospitals; therefore, refinements were made to the
questionnaire designed by Tsui et al. [26] to cater for
our particular research objective. The study invited
three directors or supervisors from the medical center
to validate the questionnaire. Lastly, there were 22 ques-
tions in the organizational culture section.
Thirty items regarding leadership behavior were taken
from Strange & Mumford [27], and the questions struc-
tured using this literature. However, the proposed test
was not empirically studied. Nurses from hospital A
were used as a pilot study sample. Four question items
were deleted to improve the validity of the question-
naire: “People will have an extreme reaction to the lea-
der"; “Followers will sacrifice themselves for the leader

and/or the leader’s vision"; “The leader is motivated by
the accomplishment of his vision"; and “The leader will
take into account the needs of the organization in his
decision making.”
Vroom [28] classified job satisfaction into 7 dimen-
sions: organizational, promotion, job content, superior,
reward, working environment and working partners. We
took into consideration that nurses’ salary increases are
based on promotion. Furthermore, a large number of
variables in organization culture and leadership behavior
were covered by this research. To prevent too few num-
ber nurses from responding to the questionnaires, we
asked only 4 job satisfaction dimensions out of a total of
12 items: job recognition, reward and welfare, superior
and working partners.
Methods
Study Design
A cross-sectional study was conducted in two hospitals
in Central Taiwan.
Data Source and Analysis
We employed self-administered questionnaires to collect
research data. Data was collected between October 1
and November 30, 2008. We selected 2 hospitals as our
sample target and appointed a designated person at
each to issue questionnaires to employees. The number
of questionnaires issued depended on the designated
person. The questionnaires were completed voluntarily
by all respondents. During the research period, there
were 325 nurses in hospital A; 100 questionnaires were
distributed, and 57 valid questionnaires were returned.
In hospital B there were a total of 572 nurses; 200 ques-
tionnaires were distributed, and 143 valid questionnaires
were returned (total return rate 66.7%).

Of the subjects, 99.5% were female, 83.5% single or
never married, 35.5% had a tenure at the hospital of 1-2
years, and 45.0% had had a college-level education. The
majority of employees at the hospitals were general
nurses (89.5%), and the average age was between 21 and
30 years (82.5%)(see Table 1).
All data were analyzed using the SPSS 17.0 software
package. Cronbach’s a coefficient was used to assessed
the internal consistency reliability of scales. To explore
the factor construct of scale, a series of exploratory fac-
tor analysis (EFA) were employed. Correlation analysis
was used to test for the relationships among subscales
of organizational culture, leadership behavior and job
satisfaction scale. Finally, a series of regression analysis
were used to identify the proposed hypotheses. For H1
and H3, two sets of simple linear regression were used
to assess the association between independent variable
and dependent variable. For H2, hierarchical regression
analysis was used to assess the independent association
between leadership behavior and job satisfaction after
controlling for the effect of organizational culture. Par-
tial R2 (ΔR2), F test and standardized regression coeffi-
cient (b) and their test statistics (t value) were reported
in all regression analysis.
Table 1 Participant Demographics
Variables Number %
Gender (n = 200)
Female 199 99.5
Male 1* 0.5

Marital status (n = 200)
Married 33 16.5
Single, never married 167 83.5
Tenure (n = 200)
<1 years 42 21.0
1-2 years 71 35.5
3-4 years 36 18.0
5-6 years 13 6.5
7-9 years 27 13.5
>= 10 years 11 5.5
Educational level (n = 200)
College 90 45.0
University 62 31.0
Postgraduate 48 24.0
Position in hospital (n = 200)
General Nurse 179 89.5
Head Nurse 21 10.5
Age (years, n = 200)

21-30 165 82.5
31-40 33 16.5
41-50 2 1.0
Note:* The gender of the majority nurses in Taiwan are female.
Within the
research sample there is only 1 male nurse.
Page 3 of 9
Measurement
Given the latent character of the variables considered in
the study, we used multi-item, 5-point Likert-type scales
(1=’strongly disagree’ and 5=’strongly agree’). After relia-
bility analysis, the Cronbach’s a of the organizational
culture scale was 0.958 (22 items). The Cronbach’s a of
the leadership behavior scale was 0.966 (26 items), and
for job satisfaction 0.855 (12 items).
The questionnaires used exploratory factor analysis.
We extracted 4 factors from the organizational culture
via principal component analysis, used the Varimax of
the rotation method, and named them: employee orien-
tation, customer focus, emphasizing responsibility, and
emphasizing cooperation. We extracted 4 factors from
leadership behavior and named them: leader’s encour-
agement and supportiveness to subordinates, leader giv-
ing subordinates a clear vision and trust, leader’s

behavior is consistent with organization’s vision, and
leader is persuasive in convincing subordinates to
acknowledge the vision. We extracted factors for job
satisfaction and called them: working partners, rewards
and welfare, superior and job recognition.
Results
Descriptive statistics
The average score for organizational culture was
between 3.73 and 3.19, but the highest score was 3.73:
“satisfying the need of customers at the largest scale.”
The second highest score was 3.68: “the profit of the
customer is emphasized extremely.” The lowest score
was 3.19: “concern for the individual development of
employees” (see Table 2).
The average score for leadership behavior was
between 3.77 and 3.42, where 2 items scored the highest
score at 3.77: “the leader will act accordingly with a cer-
tain ‘vision’ that specifies a better future state”, and “the
Table 2 Mean and Standard Division and the Factor Analysis of
Organizational Culture, Leadership Behavior and Job
Satisfaction
Dimensions Items Mean Standard
Division
Factor
Loading
Rotation
Sums of
squared
loadings

total
Percentage
of variance
explained
(%)
Percentage of
cumulative
variance
explained (%)
Employee orientation
(OC1)
■ Concerning for the individual
development of employees.
3.19 0.926 0.748 4.543 20.651 20.651
■ Caring about opinions from employees. 3.18 0.960 0.778
■ Adopting high-tech bravely. 3.20 0.895 0.604
■ Having a clear standard on praise and
punishment.
3.24 0.985 0.776
■ Possessing a comprehensive system and
regulations.
3.21 0.885 0.806
■ Setting clear goals for employees. 3.23 0.891 0.766
Customer focus
(OC2)

■ Sincere customer service. 3.50 0.908 0.693 4.292 19.509
40.159
■ Customer is number one. 3.60 0.962 0.781
■ Providing first class service to customers. 3.62 0.943 0.740
■ The profit of the customer is emphasized
extremely.
3.68 0.855 0.785
■ Developing new products and services
continuously.
3.61 0.873 0.779
■ Ready to accept new changes. 3.50 0.874 0.606
Emphasizing responsibility
(OC3)
■ Consideration among employees. 3.66 0.785 0.644 4.100
18.638 58.797
■ Satisfying the need of customers at the
largest scale.
3.73 0.806 0.678
■ Emphasizing innovation. 3.42 0.810 0.670
■ Keeping strictly working disciplines. 3.63 0.822 0.750
■ Showing social responsibility. 3.58 0.858 0.631
■ Emphasizing on economic and social
profits.
3.49 0.857 0.618

Emphasizing cooperation
(OC4)
■ Consideration among employees. 3.38 0.849 0.850 3.534
16.065 74.862
Page 4 of 9
Satisfaction (Continued)
■ Satisfying the need of customers at the
largest scale.
3.59 0.840 0.797
■ Emphasizing innovation. 3.62 0.830 0.789
■ Keeping strictly working disciplines. 3.54 0.838 0.667
Leader’s encouragement
and supportive to
subordinates
(LB1)
■ The leader will express high performance
expectations for followers.
3.58 0.772 0.671 0.6959 26.766 26.766

■ The leader will communicate a high
degree of confidence in the followers’
ability to meet expectations.
3.64 0.827 0.678
■ The leader will demonstrate behaviors
that selectively arouse unconscious
achievement, power, and affinitive motives
of followers when these motives are
specifically relevant to the attainment of the
vision.
3.61 0.862 0.767
■ Leadership occurs through articulation of
the vision and accomplishments that
pertain to vision attainment.
3.61 0.923 0.757
■ Followers are attracted to the leader
himself.
3.64 0.886 0.692
■ For the leader to be effective there must
be some catalyst to make the followers
open to the leader and her/his vision.
3.43 0.818 0.725
■ The leader will allow followers the
autonomy to make their own decisions but
will influence them to make decisions in
line with her/his vision.

3.60 0.862 0.705
■ The leader will back up orders with
justification based on the goodness of her/
his vision.
3.62 0.831 0.710
■ Followers are directly influenced by the
leader and their personal relationship with
her/him.
3.44 0.836 0.667
■ The leader cares about his image and
plays to the desires of followers.
3.53 0.902 0.674
■ The leader will take an interest in all
current and potential followers.
3.65 0.808 0.499
■ Followers are devoted and unquestioning
of the leader.
3.54 0.749 0.566
Leader giving subordinate
her/his clear vision (LB2)
■ The leader will negotiate her/his ideas
when it benefits her/his image or her/his
vision.

3.66 0.822 0.514 4.705 18.098 44.863
■ The leader will use positive rewards and
reinforcement with her/his followers.
3.69 0.804 0.524
■ The leader may change her/his vision to
meet the needs and wants of the followers
and the organization.
3.51 0.789 0.548
■ The leader will exude confidence,
dominance, and a sense of purpose.
3.62 0.817 0.633
■ The leader will motivate the followers to
act upon ideas already in place in society.
3.57 0.733 0.731
■ The leader will be narcissistic and wish to
bring power and attention to herself/
himself.
3.66 0.746 0.802
■ The leader will interact with followers-
social distance is low.
3.67 0.862 0.762
Leader’s behavior is

consistent with her/his
vision (LB3)
■ The leader will act accordingly to certain
vision that specifies a better future state.
3.77 0.855 0.734 4.317 16.606 61.469
Page 5 of 9
leader will behaviorally role model the values implied by
the vision by personal example”. The second highest
score was 3.69: “the leader will use positive rewards and
reinforcement with his followers.” The lowest score was
3.42: “the leader will try to persuade those who disagree
with his vision to agree with it” (see Table 2).
The average score for job satisfaction was between
3.84 and 2.56, where the highest score was 3.84: “to cer-
tain people my work is extremely important.” The sec-
ond highest score was “I am satisfied with how
colleagues communicate with each other in the office.”
The lowest score was 2.56: “I am satisfied with my salary
as I have less workload compared to other employees in
other divisions” (see Table 2).
Inferential statistical analysis
In relation to the 4 dimensions of organizational culture
(employee orientation, customer focus, emphasizing
responsibility, and emphasizing cooperation), the 4 dimen-

sions of leadership behavior (leader’s encouragement and
Satisfaction (Continued)
■ The leader will strive toward distal rather
than proximal goals.
3.72 0.847 0.789
■ The leader will communicate messages
that contain references to her/his overall
vision.
3.68 0.843 0.784
■ The leader will behaviorally role model
the values implied by the vision by personal
example.
3.77 0.781 0.561
Leader is persuasive in
convincing subordinates
to acknowledging her/his
vision (LB4)
■ The leader will excel in persuading
people to agree with her/him.
3.50 0.862 0.494 2.580 9.923 71.392
■ The leader will try to persuade those who
disagree with her/his vision to agree with it.

3.42 0.759 0.883
■ The leader will delegate authority for the
attainment of her/his vision.
3.58 0.739 0.655
Working partners (JS1) ■ I am satisfied with the communication
status between colleagues within my
department.
3.79 0.767 0.602 2.501 20.839 20.839
■ I am satisfied with the communication
status between my department and other
departments.
3.48 0.736 0.809
■ I am satisfied with the team I worked
with in my department as well as other
departments.
3.56 0.748 0.880
■ I am satisfied with the team formed
within my own department.
3.67 0.765 0.709
Rewards and welfare (JS2) ■ I am satisfied with my
remuneration
because by comparing the amount of
workload with other department, I actually
have less workload.

2.56 1.198 0.925 2.397 19.973 40.812
■ I am satisfied with the welfare provided
by the hospital.
2.74 1.100 0.903
Superior (JS3) ■ Whenever I require assistance, a
supervisor is always there to help.
3.77 0.781 0.869 2.302 19.182 59.994
■ A particular supervisor will always listen
to my issues and assist me in resolving
those issues.
3.66 0.780 0.770
■ Until now I am very satisfied with my job. 3.39 0.895 0.575
Job recognition
(JS4)
■ I will be recognized when I perform
outstandingly.
3.61 0.749 0.722 1.969 16.405 76.400
■ I will be rewarded if I provided good
service to the patients.
3.41 0.863 0.745
■ My role is considered very important to
some people.

3.84 0.786 0.611
Note: The leader is mean nursing director.
Page 6 of 9
support to subordinates, leader giving subordinates her/his
clear vision, leader’s behavior is consistent with the her/his
vision and leader is persuasive in convincing subordinates
to acknowledge the her/his vision), and the 4 dimensions
of job satisfaction (working partners, rewards and welfare,
superior and job recognition), variable analysis was carried
out. The results of the analysis showed that only 2 dimen-
sions from “leader giving subordinates her/his clear vision”
and “behavior consistent with her/his vision” and “reward
and welfare” under the job satisfaction were not signifi-
cantly correlated, whereas the other dimensions showed
significant correlation. The results also showed that orga-
nizational culture, leadership behavior and job satisfaction
were positively associated with hypotheses one to three,
which were supported (see Table 3).
Table 4 presents the results of several regression ana-
lyses. H1 was supported, as organizational culture was
positively associated with leadership behavior (b = .55, p
< .001). H3 was also supported as organizational culture
was positively related to job satisfaction (b = .66, p <
.001). Finally, H2 was supported as the partial regression
coefficient of leadership behavior reached statistically
significant (b = .33, p < .001) after controlling the effect

of organizational culture. The unique variance explained
attributable to leadership behavior was 8% (ΔF = 30.58,
p<.001) independent of organizational culture (see Table
4). The association among there three main variables
was illustrated as Figure 1.
Discussion
Casida & Pinto-Zipp [17] studied nurses in determining
the relationship between different leadership styles and
organizational cultures, and showed a correlation
between leadership and organizational culture, consis-
tent with the findings of our research. However, by
adopting regression analysis, we also found that leader-
ship behavior impacts on organizational culture.
Laschinger et al. [29] proposed that the variables
strongly correlated with job satisfaction included role
conflict, head nurse leadership, supervisory relationships,
autonomy, and stress. Mayo [30] argued that the key
Table 3 Correlation Analysis among Organizational Culture,
Variables Organizational Culture Leadership Behavior Job
Satisfaction
Dimensions OC1 OC2 OC3 OC4 LB1 LB2 LB3 LB4 JS1 JS 2 JS
3 JS 4
OC1 1
OC2 0.604** 1
OC3 0.597** 0.782** 1
OC4 0.678** 0.618** 0.601** 1

LB1 0.512** 0.359** 0.366** 0.405** 1
LB2 0.413** 0.489** 0.552** 0.523** 0.770** 1
LB3 0.345** 0.449** 0.444** 0.453** 0.746** 0.744** 1
LB4 0.297** 0.338** 0.406** 0.343** 0.562** 0.632**
0.516** 1
JS1 0.350** 0.360** 0.390** 0.381** 0.439** 0.411** 0.329**
0.341** 1
JS2 0.521** 0.234** 0.145* 0.352** 0.174* 0.138 0.057 0.165*
0.170* 1
JS3 0.481** 0.386** 0.427** 0.407** 0.657** 0.539** 0.447**
0.313** 0.502** 0.338** 1
JS4 0.530** 0.357** 0.341** 0.374** 0.906** 0.698** 0.607**
0.503** 0.362** 0.234** 0.575** 1
Note **Correlation is significant at the 0.01 level (2-tailed). *
Correlation is significant at the 0.05 level (2-tailed).
Table 4 The Linear Regression of Organizational Culture,
Leadership
Behavior
(H1)
Job
Satisfaction

(H3)
Job
Satisfaction
(H2)
b (t value) b (t value) b (t value)
Organizational
Culture
.55 (9.37***) .66 (12.26***) .47 (7.87***)
Leadership
Behavior
– – .33 (5.53***)
ΔR2 .31 .43 .08†
ΔF value 87.83*** 150.29*** 30.58***
Overall R2 .31 .43 .51
Overall F value 87.83*** 150.29*** 101.66***
Degree of
freedom
1, 198 1, 198 2, 197
Note: *** p <.001, b= standardized regression coefficient, t
value = test
statistics of b,
†Δ R2= is the unique variance attributable to leadership

behavior independent
of organizational culture in the hierarchical regression analysis.
Figure 1 The association between organizational culture,
leadership behavior and job satisfaction. (The values shown
were standardized regression coefficient and value in
parenthesis
was partially standardized regression coefficient)
Page 7 of 9
determinant of job satisfaction was group interaction,
and highlighted the importance of good leadership and
satisfying personal relations in the workplace. Manage-
ment and leadership behavior at the hospital affected
nurses’ job satisfaction [31]. The research also discov-
ered that leadership behavior will also influence
employee job satisfaction. As well as the above-
described individual factors, the research also showed
that factors at the organization level, such as the organi-
zational culture, also have an effect on job satisfaction.
This result is consistent with the results of Gifford et al.
[32]. It is recommended that it is also important for
hospital administrators to establish a good organiza-
tional infrastructure in addition to improving the work-
ing environment in order to increase employee job
satisfaction.
Decisions about patient care are often made by a
team, rather than by a single individual [33]. To main-
tain open communication and better coordination, as

well as avoiding possible conflicts, one must rely on the
role of leaders to motivate the team to achieve the orga-
nization goal. It was found that encouragement and sup-
port by leaders, their trust and clear vision, their
consistent behavior in this regard and their ability to
convince subordinates to acknowledge their vision, can
all influence employee job satisfaction. On the other
hand, we found that the factors in achieving job satisfac-
tion were not limited to the employee’s working envir-
onment, but also included interactions between working
partners. Good health care requires good team behavior,
so it is also recommended that hospital administrators
not only establish relationships within the health care
teams, but also work to improve these relationships to
increase employee job satisfaction.
Academics who study organizational culture as their
research topic feel that organizational culture is com-
plex. It will influence different employee attitudes and
behavior [34]; for example Jacobs & Roodt [35] discov-
ered a correlation between employee turnover inten-
tions, knowledge sharing organizational commitment,
organizational citizenship behavior, job satisfaction and
organizational culture. Other academics have found that
organizational culture is also related to organization or
employee efficiency. Good examples are an organiza-
tion’s innovative ability [36], employee effectiveness (e.g.
higher levels of goal orientation, self control) [37]. Kane-
Urrabazo [20] believed that a satisfactory work environ-
ment can be created by the employees when an organi-
sation possesses a healthy culture and thus has a
positive attitude towards employee work. Therefore the
relationship between organisational culture and
employee behaviour/attitude has been emphasised by
different academics from various fields [26]. Jacobs &

Roodt [35] showed a positive correlation between orga-
nisational culture and employee job satisfaction that is
consistent with the findings of our research.
Research limitations and future research
Since a wide range of variables were included in our
study, only a limited number of clinical nurses were
interested in participating. Furthermore, only 2 hospitals
were involved in this research; therefore, it is proposed
that in view of the response rate, future research should
consider adjusting the research variables.
Organizations face challenges in the external environ-
ment and changing internal context, and leaders will
alter their behavior to adapt to these environment
changes. Therefore it is proposed that longitudinal
research methods can be adopted in future investiga-
tions into how changes in organizational context impact
on leadership behavior. Will these changes create a
brand new organization culture? And how will these
changes in leadership behavior influence employee beha-
vior and their contribution to the organization?
Administrators usually adjust their leadership behavior
in order to reach the organizational goal. It is proposed
that future research can explore the type of leadership
behavior that will shape a particular culture within an
organization. Thus, administrators can achieve the
objective of shaping a new organization culture by
adopting different leadership behavior training
programs.
Conclusion
Culture within an organization is very important, play-
ing a large role in whether or not the organization is a
happy and healthy place to work [20]. Through commu-

nicating and promoting the organizational vision to sub-
ordinates, and in getting their acknowledgement of the
vision, it is possible to influence their work behavior
and attitudes. When there is good interaction between
the leader and subordinates, there will be contributions
to team communication and collaboration, and encour-
agement of subordinates to accomplish the mission and
objectives assigned by the organization, which in turn
enhances job satisfaction.
Acknowledgements
Special thanks to all persons who assist in distributing
questionnaires and
those hospital employees who assist in filling out the
questionnaires.
Author details
1Department of Health Policy and Management, Chung Shan
Medical
University; Taiwan. 2Department of Medical Management,
Chung Shan
Medical University Hospital; Taiwan.
Received: 3 September 2010 Accepted: 14 May 2011
Published: 14 May 2011
Page 8 of 9
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Pre-publication history
The pre-publication history for this paper can be accessed here:
http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-6963/11/98/prepub
doi:10.1186/1472-6963-11-98
Cite this article as: Tsai: Relationship between Organizational
Culture,
Leadership Behavior and Job Satisfaction. BMC Health Services
Research
2011 11:98.
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Page 9 of 9
http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/17078826?dopt=Abstract

http://www.biomedcentral.com/1472-
6963/11/98/prepubAbstractBackgroundMethodsResultsConclusi
onsBackgroundRelationship between organizational culture and
leadership behaviorRelationship between leadership behavior
and job satisfactionRelationship between organizational culture
and job satisfactionThe measurement of organizational culture,
leadership behavior and job satisfactionMethodsStudy
DesignData Source and
AnalysisMeasurementResultsDescriptive statisticsInferential
statistical analysisDiscussionResearch limitations and future
researchConclusionAcknowledgementsAuthor
detailsReferencesPre-publication history
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>> setpagedevice
Title: Organizational citizenship behavior
Author(s): D. Saldanha and K. Srivastava
Source: Industrial Psychiatry. 17.1 (January-June 2008): p1.
Document Type: Report
Copyright: COPYRIGHT 2008 Medknow Publications and
Media Pvt. Ltd.
http://www.industrialpsychiatry.org/
Full Text:
Byline: K. Srivastava, D. Saldanha
Organizational Citizenship Behaviors ( OCBs ) are a special
type of work behaviors that are defined as
individual behaviour that promotes the goals of the organization
by contributing to its social and
psychological environment (Organ, 1997; Rotundo & Sackett,
2002). It has been studied in a variety of
domains and disciplines (e.g. human resources management,
marketing, economics, health care). This

widespread interest in OCB primarily stems from the fact that
OCB leads to improved organizational
effectiveness (Podsakoff, Ahearne, & MacKenzie, 1997).
Research on OCB has benefited greatly from Organ's (1988)
conceptualization of OCB that consists of five
distinct factors: Altruism (e.g. helping behaviours directed at
specific individuals), Conscientiousness (e.g.
going beyond minimally required levels of attendance),
Sportsmanship (e.g. tolerating the inevitable
inconveniences of work without complaining), Courtesy (e.g.
informing others to prevent the occurrence of
work-related problems), and Civic Virtue (e.g. participating in
and being concerned about the life of the
company). The proposed model by Organ could find support for
a three factor model of OCB . In this recent
conceptualization, Conscientiousness is removed and Altruism
and Courtesy are combined to form a single
helping dimension (Podsakoff & MacKenzie, 1994), resulting in
three factors (i.e. Helping Behaviour, Civic
Virtue, and Sportsmanship). However A most recent meta-
analysis conducted by Hoffman, Blair, Meriac,
and Woehr (2007) suggested that "current operationalizations of
OCB are best viewed as indicators of a
general OCB factor.and wholistic approach is better than the

compartmentalization of the concept.
OCBs are thought to have an important impact on the
effectiveness and efficiency of work teams and
organizations, therefore contributing to the overall productivity
of the organization. Though not so well
researched the understanding of these behavior subset leads to
helping in facilitating productive behavior
and productive organizations .
Following are some of the types conceptualized as
Organizational Citizenship behaviours.
Type of organizational citizenship behaviours:
*Altruism (Helping): is selfless concern for the welfare of
others. helps others who have been absent, or
helps others who have very high work loads. *Courtesy: Take
steps to try to prevent problems with other
workers. Does not abuse the rights of others. *Civic Virtue:
Attends meetings that are not mandatory, but
considered important. Keep abreast of changes in the
organization. *Conscientiousness: Does not take extra
breaks. Obey company rules and regulations even when no one
is watching. *Sportsmanship: Does not
waste time complaining about trivial matters. Always focuses
on the positive side.Two forms of sustained

prosocial activity as a part of disposition have been extensively
studied, volunteerism and Organizational
Citizenship Behavior (OCB: Organ, 1988) Because of its
voluntary nature, OCB is variously referred to as
contextual performance or prosocial organizational behavior
(Brief & Motowidlo, 1986). While looking for
the literature on the above subject what attracted the attention
of the authors was that OCB occurs in absence
of rewards and punishments. It is understood beyond doubt that
these tendencies appear to be related with
dispositions and intrinsic motivation.
Citizenship behavior can be described as directed towards
individual (OCBI ) and directed towards
Organization. OCBI comprises behaviors that are directed at
individuals or groups in the organization, while
Page 1 of 4Download Document
6/24/2014file:///C:/Users/Carla/Desktop/Organizational.html
OCBO refers to helping targets of the organization. There have
been attempts to research this construct in
other international contexts such as in China, Singapore,
Taiwan, Australia, Japan and Hong Kong (Hui,
Law, & Chen, 1999: Lam, Hui, & Law, 1999; Tang, Furnham, &

Davis, 2002;). It is worthwhile to
synthesize this concept in Indian scenario for productive
organizational environment . Cultural context may
affect the forms of citizenship behaviour observed in
organizations hence there is a need to synchronize it in
the Indian scenario.
Role Identity
Role identity and Volunteerism OCB share important attributes.
Both involve long-term, planned, and
discretionary acts that occur in an organizational context and
benefit non intimate others. Penner (2002)
suggested that the factors that initiate and sustain volunteerism
could also be used to understand the
dispositional factors that underlie OCB. One's self-concept
comprises of an array of social role identities.
The more others identify one with a particular role, the role is
more internalized and incorporated into the
self-concept. Finkelstein, Penner, and Brannick (2005), in a
study of hospice volunteers, found significant
associations between role identity and amount of time spent
volunteering and length of volunteer service.
Applying the integrated perspective to workplace behavior,
Finkelstein and Penner (2004) quantified that

role identity helped predict OCB. Motives concerned with the
desire to help coworkers and/or the
organization proved to be better predictors of OCB than did
those concerned with the desire for impression
management. A citizen role identity also correlated with
citizenship behavior. Authors (Finkelstein and
Penner, 2004) found a strong positive association between
identity and both OCBI and OCBO in a sample of
public employees. Just as long-term volunteers develop a
volunteer identity, continued OCB was associated
with an "organizational citizen" self-concept. Together, the
studies suggested that similar mechanisms are
involved in sustaining both volunteerism and OCB.
Cultural differences and organizational Citizenship Behavior
It is well understood that behavior does not occur in vacuum
and culture has a very important role to
play .Cultural differences are noted in behaviors being
identified bad and undesirable ,good and desiarble.
Baron and Miller (2000) found Indian students perceive not
helping a stranger in a life threatening situation
to be far more harmful of than American students do. Hustedh
(2001) suggested that national differences in
what behaviors are considered to be harmful behavior are likely
to be affected by whether people hold

individualistic or collectivistic cultural assumptions, values and
norms. In individualistic cultures people
tend to perceive themselves as independent selves who pursue
their own goals that take priority over group
goals. In individualistic cultures personal rights take precedence
above duties. In collectivistic cultures, on
the other hand, individuals conceptualize themselves as part of
a group and the collective duties and interest
take precedents above personal interest and rights.
These different conceptualizations of the self and the duties
towards the others are likely to affect what
people perceive to be altruistic behaviors (Hustedh, 2001).
Hence prosocial behavior commitment and
dedication are integral part of our social network cultural
influences do play important role in determining
these behaviors.Further research is needed in the present
increasingly global environment, where
outsourcing and requirement to work in other countries have
increased manifolds.[sup][16]
References
1. Borman, W. C. & Motowidlo, S. J. (1997). Task performance
and contextual performance: The meaning
for personnel selection research. Human Performance, 10, 99-

109.
2. Brief, A. P., & Motowidlo, S. J. (1986). Prosocial
organizational behaviors. Academy of Management
Review, 11, 710-725.
3. Filip Lievens and Frederik Anseel (2004). Confirmatory
factor analysis and invariance of an
organizational citizenship behaviour measure across samples in
a Dutch-speaking contextJournal of
Occupational and Organizational Psychology, 77, 299-306.
4. Hoffman, B. J., Blair, C. A., Meriac, J. P., Woehr, D. J.
(2007). Expanding the Criterion Domain? A
Quantitative Review of the OCB Literature. Journal of Applied
Psychology, 92, 555-566.
5. Lam, S. K., Hui, C., & Law, K. (1999). Organizational
citizenship behavior: Comparing perspectives of
supervisors and subordinates across four international samples.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 84, 594-601.
6. Finkelstein, M. A., & Penner, L. A. (2004). Predicting
Organizational Citizenship Behavior: Integrating

the functional and role identity approaches. Social Behavior and
Personality, 32, 383-398.
7. Finkelstein, M. A., Penner, L. A., & Brannick, M. T. (2005).
Motive, role identity, and prosocial
personality as predictors of volunteer activity. Social Behavior
and Personality, 33. 403-418.
8. Hustedh, Bryan W. (2001). The impact of individualism and
collectivism on ethical decision making by
individuals in organizations. Unpublished manuscript. Instituto
Technol?ogico y de Estudios Superiores de
Monterrey and Instituto de Empresa. Cited on: 7
9. Hui, C., Law, K., & Chen, Z. X. (1999). A structural equation
model of the effects of negative affectivity,
leader-member exchange, and perceived job mobility on in-role
and extra-role performance: A Chinese case.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 77, 3-
21.
10. MacKenzie, S. B., Podsakoff, P. M., & Fetter, R. (1991).
Organizational citizenship behavior and
objective productivity as determinants of managerial
evaluations of salespersons' performance.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50,
123-150.
11. Organ, D. W. (1988). Organizational citizenship behavior:

The good soldier syndrome. Lexington, MA:
Lexington Books.
12. Organ, D. W. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior:
It's construct clean-up time. Human
Performance, OCB measurement 30510, 85-97.
13. Penner, L. A. (2002). Dispositional and organizational
influences on sustained volunteerism: An
interactionist perspective. Journal of Social Issues, 58, 447-467.
14. Podsakoff, P. M., Ahearne, M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (1997).
Organizational citizenship behavior and the
quantity and quality of work group performance. Journal of
Applied Psychology, 82, 262-270.
15. Rotundo, M., & Sackett, P. R. (2002). The relative
importance of task, citizenship, and
counterproductive performance to global ratings of job
performance: A policy-capturing approach.Journal of
Applied Psychology, 87, 66-80.
16. Tang, T. L., Furnham, A., & Davis, G. M. (2002). The
meaning of money: The money ethic endorsement
and work-related attitudes in Taiwan, the USA and the UK.
Journal of Managerial Psychology, 17, 542-563.
K. Srivastava, D. Saldanha

Source Citation (MLA 7
th
Edition)
Saldanha, D., and K. Srivastava. "Organizational citizenship
behavior." Industrial Psychiatry 17.1 (2008): 1.
Academic OneFile. Web. 24 June 2014.
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