Literature Review On Atherosclerosis

Literature Review On Atherosclerosis
Literature Review Draft
Atherosclerosis is characterised by gradual decrease in the luminal diameter of large arteries, it has major health implications and contributes to around
50% of all deaths within westernized countries (7). Patients can undergo coronary artery stenting to prolong the effects of this. Treatments for this have
undergone major developments over the past 40 years, including balloon angioplasty in 1977, development of bare–metal stents (BMS) in the 1980's,
introduction of drug–eluting stents (DES) in 2000 (43) and current research into incorporating NO donors into stents. The first stent implantation
performed on a human was conducted in 1986 (13), since then they have become one of the most common ways of intervention due to atherosclerosis.
In the US there are 500,000 people who undergo stenting annually (42). The success of stenting is inhibited by the reoccurrence of restenosis. Multiple
things can affect the rate of in–stent restenosis, elevated LDL levels, increased levels of plasminogen activator inhibitor I, type 2 diabetes and
enhanced platelet aggergability (10). Therefore the severity of restenosis will differ between patients.
Nobuyoshi et al, (1) and Serruys et al (2) found that restenosis is not an instantaneous development after stent implantation, it develops between the 1st
and 3rd month after implantation, although the greatest change in luminal diameter occurred between the 2nd and 3rd month. These studies suggest
that restenosis is
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Chronic Pancreatitis Case Studies
SYNOPSIS
KEY POINTS
Early–stage disease is generally asymptomatic, whereas advanced disease may present with persistent abdominal or back pain, jaundice, sudden–onset
diabetes, sudden weight loss, and/or a palpable abdominal mass
Smoking, obesity, diabetes, history of chronic pancreatitis, and a family history of pancreatic cancer are major risk factors.
Diabetes and chronic pancreatitis are comorbidities
Combination ultrasound, multidetector CT (MD–CT), and magnetic resonance cholangiopancreatography (MRCP) offer the highest sensitivity for
detecting pancreatic cancer; tissue biopsy is important for staging.
Surgical resection of the primary tumor is the treatment of choice for localized tumors with clear margins.
Chemotherapy

Persuasive Essay About Cancer
Researchers at the National Cancer Institute have found that approximately 38.5% of both male and female will be diagnosed with some form of
cancer throughout their lives. Unfortunately, this statistic hits a little too close to home for many of us. (BE3) Because there are so many
different branches, forms, and strings of cancer, scientists are still unable to find a specific cure for all of them. (BE2) Cancer affects all of us in
so many different ways and with so many different people, for me, it was my grandpa Davis and lung cancer. Losing my grandpa to cancer was
one of the hardest things I have experienced and had to go through in my life so far, and a situation that has had an enormous impact on my life in
more than one way, not just negative. All of my life I have lived in the same house same town and my grandparents have always lived a block and
a half away from us. This could be a major contributor on why we were so close, I guess it was all I have ever known. In 2014 My grandpa Davis
was diagnosed with lung cancer in the third stage. He and Grandma immediately started radiation and chemotherapy at Mercy and Mayo clinic hoping
to put the cancer in a dormant stage. These harsh treatments worked for a while and bought him more time with us, which is all anybody can ask for
in the end. We know he wouldn't back down easy because he was strong–willed, and stubborn, and did not back down easily. (SC5) Determined and
strong, grandpa fought a long hard battle. (BE1) When

Peritoneal Asbestos Is A Uncommon Illness
Peritoneal asbestos is a uncommon illness. The depend of cases per season in the United Declares is estimated between 100 and 500. A variety of
sufferers have past visibility to asbestos. Because of the standard submission of pleural asbestos to the peritoneal gap, one must concept out distribute
from a primary pleural metastasizing melanoma as the cause of peritoneal illness. No got, nutritional, career or local organizations have been revealed.
Peritoneal asbestos is uncommon in that it shows numerous types of medical aggressiveness. The cystic edition of asbestos may cause repeating
circumstances of serious lower stomach pain but may not lead to the deaths of the individual for a very extensive period. On the other hand, the most ...
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The extensive growth and growth of dangerous tissues on peritoneal locations produces in large liquid manufacturing. The liquid manufacturing can be
related to the servicing of an working property of frequent mesothelial tissues. In these sufferers the peritoneal space becomes a free entry for asbestos
tissues emigrate from spot to position. In creating ascites liquid, the body of melanoma provide themselves with a service agency way to distribute all
through the stomach and pelvic areas.
Treatment of Peritoneal Mesothelioma
Due to a lack of symptoms from the natural popularity of peritoneal asbestos, a tremendous majority of everyone is first known as having a tremendous
variety of illness diffusely distribute all through the stomach and waistline. The disease produces up in greatest quantity at websites of peritoneal liquid
reabsorption and at dependent websites by strength. The small intestinal locations and mesenteries are not saved of asbestos improvements as in the
mucinous appendiceal neoplasms.
Promising outcomes of therapy from a new strategy: cytoreductive surgery therapy treatment therapy plus perioperative intraperitoneal chemotherapy:
Four categories have now revealed on roughly 300 dangerous peritoneal asbestos sufferers. The Nationwide Cancer Company in Bethesda, MD, The
California Cancer Company in California, DC, The Brazil Mesothelioma Center in New You are able to and the Nationwide Cancer Company in
Milan, France. Each team has

Ovarian Cancer : A Common Gynecological Cancer
OVARIAN CANCER by Jaymie Bailey
SCIENTIFIC WRITING and CAREERS – BIOL 296
February 23, 2015
Epithelial ovarian cancer (EOC) is a common gynecological cancer that has affected many women of all ages. This disease is the leading cause of
cancer related death and has killed many every year. Ovarian cancer is a disease in which cancerous tumors begin to grow in your ovaries and pelvic
region and then spread further to other major organs. Fertility drugs, health habits, obesity and genetics all contribute to the risk of developing ovarian
cancer. A few ways to treat epithelial ovarian cancer involve surgery, chemotherapy, platinum
–based drugs, and growth inhibitors.
Introduction:
Epithelium Ovarian Cancer is one of the most common forms of cancer in women and ranks at the number 5 cause of death relating to cancer in
the United States in women (Bristow 2013). Out of all the common gynecological diseases ovarian cancer is the most lethal with an average of
240,000 new cases of ovarian cancer per year and 152,000 deaths every year (Mezzanica 2015; Hong et al. 2013). Most women are diagnosed around
the age of 63, but diagnosis is not limited to older or younger women. Ovarian Cancer makes up 90% of all ovarian diseases, and is the main diagnosed
disease of women after menopause (Jelovac and Armstrong 2011). "A woman's risk of getting invasive ovarian cancer in her lifetime is about 1 in 71
and the lifetime risk of dying from invasive ovarian cancer is about 1 in 95"

Characteristics Of Prostate Cancer
There are some tumors found to be primarily relying on FAO for development and survival. Prostate cancer suggested to has a characteristic of low a
glycolysis rate and poor avidity to FDG 2–deoxy–2–fluoro–d–glucose with positron emission tomography, that is using as diagnostic, staging, and a
monitoring therapy tool for several malignant tumors (9). Recent studies indicated that prostate cancer cells have a low glucose consumption rate and
exhibiting changes of fatty acid metabolism for cancer cell proliferation and growth, also stated that glucose transporters (GLUT1) were found with
low expression levels in human prostate cancer cells (9,10). Another observation was proposed by a study in which the inhibition of CPTI activity
using safe ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
FAO produces a molecule of acetyl CoA in each oxidation cycle and two after full completed cycles. The resulted acetyl CoA is the major
requirement for producing the reduced NADP+ in which the generated acetyl CoA enters the TCA cycle and with the availability of oxaloacetate
provides citrate that can be export to the cytoplasm. The citrate then enters two reactions to produce cytosolic NADPH (1,3,12). These reactions
include the conversion of malate to pyruvate that is catalyzed by malic enzyme (ME1) and the oxidation of isocitrate to О±–ketoglutarate by isocitrate
dehydrogenase (IDH1) (1,3,12). The produced cytosolic NADPH from FAO acts to sustain the antioxidant system against oxidative stress and to
promote cancer cell survival. For instance, during severe oxidative stress the accumulation of oxygen reactive species (ROS) leads to cell death,
cytosolic NADPH counteracts ROS by maintaining the reduced form of glutathione (GSH) thereby promoting cancer cell survival (12). In addition, the
produced cytosolic NADPH from FAO targets ROS–induced oxidative damage to prevent disrupting mitochondrial and glycolytic ATP production. For
example, in a study using SF188 glioblastoma cells the inhibition of FAO by CPTI inhibitor etomoxir hindered NADPH production and resulted in
significantly increased of superoxide level in etomoxir treated cells, ATP depletion, and eventually cell death (12). A

Lung Cancer: The Relationship Between Gender, Age, and...
HINTS is an acronym for Health Information National Trends Survey and its purpose is to collect cancer–related data on a national level (HINTS,
2007). The goal of HINTS is to assess how information pertaining to cancer is accessed, how the risk of developing cancer is viewed by the public,
how the course of communication has changed, and how the patterns of health has changed through the course of the past several years (HINTS,
2007). Once data has been collected, researchers are able to gain a better understanding of how adults are obtaining health related information. All of
this information allows researchers to adjust, or fine tune, their theories and offer superior suggestions that aid in decreasing the burden brought on by
a cancer... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Or is it found to occur more frequently among a particular race?" The independent variables gender and race/ethnicity are both on a nominal scale.
The dependent variable of likeliness to develop lung cancer is on an ordinal scale. The hypothesis to the first research question is that women are more
likely than men to be diagnosed with lung cancer. The hypothesis to the second research question is no, a diagnosis of lung cancer is not stable across
different races/ethnicities.
Three questions were asked pertaining to the variables and were retrieved from the
HINTS codebook found on Titanium. First, "Are you male or female". The responses were: male
(2,969) or female (4,696). Second, "Which one or more of the following would you say is your race?" The responses were: White (5853); African
American (743); Asian (227); American
Indian/Alaskan Native (179); Native Hawaiian/Other Pacific Islander (30); refused (42); and don't know (99). Finally, "How likely do you think it is
that you will develop cancer in the future? Would you say your chances of getting cancer is..." The responses were: very low
(1,130); somewhat low (1,729); moderate (2,872); somewhat high (995); very high (353); refused (27); and don't know (217). The numbers associated
next to the variables are the amount of people who responded to or chose

Taxol and Docetaxel Revisisted
The development of taxol and docetaxel into two of the worlds most important anticancer drugs (TaxolВ® and TaxotereВ®) has proven the stabilization
of cellular microtubules to be a clinically relevant mechanistic principle.
Microtubule stabilization thus also provides a promising conceptual framework for the future discovery of new and improved antitumor agents and this
is not in the least reflected in the significant number of new agents (taxane and non–taxane based) that are currently undergoing clinical evaluation in
humans.
Until the recognition of the tubulin–polymerizing activity of epothilones in 1995, the capacity for microtubule stabilization appeared to be associated
solely with taxol–like structures, but the last decade has witnessed the discovery of a number of new and structurally diverse microtubule stabilizing
agents, which do not bear any structural resemblance with taxol.
These compounds are all characterized by the ability to induce tubulin polymerization in vitro and their gross cellular profiles are similar.
At the same time, it is becoming increasingly clear that not all microtubule stabilizers are made equal and that differences exist between individual
agents with regard to their interactions with tubulin, in the way they affect the cellular microtubule network and in their effects on cell proliferation
and the induction of apoptosis.
This includes, e.g., the discovery of compounds which do not bind to the taxol site on b–tubulin or the identification of

Symptoms And Treatment Of Cancer
Docetaxel also sold as Taxotere or Docecad, is a settled threatening to mitotic chemotherapy pharmaceutical that works by intruding with cell division.
Docetaxel is affirmed by the FDA for treatment of secretly advanced or metastatic chest infection, head and neck development, gastric tumor,
hormone–adamant prostate danger and non small cell lung disease. It works by preventing the disease cells from isolating into 2 new cells, so it
obstructs the development of tumor. Docetaxel ties to microtubules reversibly with high fondness and has a greatest stoichiometry of one mole
docetaxel per mole tubulin in microtubules. Docetaxel can be used as a lone administrator or in mix with other chemotherapeutic pharmaceuticals as
shown depending upon specific tumor sort and stage.
Chemotherapy refers to the use of medicines or drugs to treat cancer. The capacity of chemotherapy to murder cancer cells relies on upon its capacity to
end cell division. For the most part, the medications work by harming the RNA or DNA that advises the cell how to duplicate itself in division. In the
event that the cells can 't partition, they eventually die. The faster the cells are partitioning, the more probable it is that chemotherapy will murder the
cells, creating the tumor to contract. The utilization of medications (whether chemotherapy, hormonal treatment or focused on treatment) constitutes
systemic treatment or tumor in that they are brought into the circulatory system and are along these lines on

Facts About Docetaxel
What is Docetaxel
Docetaxel (doe–se–TAKS–sel) is a man–made antineoplastic chemotherapeutic agent developed to treat different types of cancers by stop cancer cell
replication. Antimicrotubule agents such as docetaxel inhibit the microtubule structure of the cell ultimately results in the cells death. Microtubules are
part of the cell's machinery for dividing and replicating itself. Belonging to the taxoid family Docetaxel is an antineoplastic. Also known as Taxotere
its original trademarked brand name but is also available under these generic names from several manufacturers Pfizer, Sandoz, Hospira, Accord, and
Activas. Docetaxel is used by itself or with other cancer medications prescribed. Docetaxel is most commonly used to treat breast, lung, prostate,
stomach, and head cancers. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Docetaxel chemical name is (2R,3S)–N–carboxy–3–phenylisoserine,N–tert–butyl ester, 13–ester with
5ОІ–20–epoxy–1,2О±,4,7ОІ,10ОІ,13О±–hexahydroxytax–11–en–9–one 4–acetate 2–benzoate, trihydrate. Docetaxel's structural formula:
Docetaxel has an empirical formula of C43H53NO14 3H2O. A molecular weight of 861.9. It is lipophilic and pretty much insoluble in water.
Docetaxel is a whitish powder.
The Taxotere injection is concentrated at 20 mg/mL or 80 mg/4 mL. Each mL has 20 mg docetaxel in 0.54 grams polysorbate 80 and 0.395 grams
dehydrated alcohol

Nanoparticles Essay
Nanoparticles are materials with overall dimensions less then one hundred nanometers, they are also known as zero–dimensional materials. These
particles differ from other nanomaterials because all their dimensions are in nanoscale, apposed to one dimensional or two–dimensional nanomaterials
which have one or two dimensions greater then a nanoscale. Nanoparticles have amazing applications in medicine pushing the boundaries of what we
can accomplish in areas like medical imaging and drug and gene delivery. Nanoparticles are replacing conventional organic dyes used to dye tissue and
cells for imagining with quantum dots. In drug delivery, they are using natural nano–polymers delivery methods to increase the solubility of drugs and
prolong the... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
One of the most advanced applications of QD's is its use in drug and gene delivery, methods like polymer and liposome based drug deliveries.
Polymer based delivery is the use of a natural polymer that is known to be or have antiviral or antitumor characteristics, these are referred to a PEG.
PEG is known for there high–water solubility and biocompatibility, these PEG's are attached to drugs to increase their solubility, increase drug uptake
by cells and decrease their renal clearance of the drug. The PEG's ability to do this prolongs the half life of a drug and reduces dosing frequency.
Liposome based drug delivery, is the formation of vesicles where an amount of fluid is trapped inside a Nano–phospholipid molecule. Vesicles can
range in size from tens of nanometers to thousands of nanometres (Torchilin and Weissig 2003). Liposome and polymer delivery methods are being
used to treat cancer, Paclitaxel is an anti–cancer drug that had to be administered with a verity of other drugs due to its side effects. In 2005, it was
improved and a form of Paclitaxel was loaded within a nanoparticle of a natural polymer, in tests it eliminated some of the side effects of the drug but
also provided some additional benefits. In treatment of tumors that have become resistant to specific delivery methods, Paclitaxel can be loaded into
different forms of polymer nanoparticles and this ability to provide a drug in a

Combination In Chemotherapy
Introduction:
Chemotheraputic drugs used in cancer treatment can be administered as a single agent or in combination (combination chemotherapy). It is known that
the combination works better because different drugs work by different mechanisms and thus decreasing the chance of developing of resistant cancer
cells. Also, combination allows the use of each drug at its optimal dose without side effects that can't be tolerated by the patient. Sometimes combination
chemotherapy is used to reduce symptoms and increase quality of life. As many things in this life, combination is a double edged sword may lead to
serous side effects and risks and which could be reversible or irreversible.
Benefits of combination in chemotherapy: П– Increase remission and decrease mortality rate
In metastatic ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Hematologic toxicities susceptibility and severity are usually difficult to be predicted in patients. Myelotoxicity is one of the primary causes of death
following cancer treatments use. Patients who have myelosuppression are at a great risk of developing adverse effects rlated to chemotherapy. Adverse
effects include fatigue which makes the routine tasks difficult to perform, bleeding and life threatening infection manifesting as febrile neutropenia and
sepsis. (4) П– Sever nausea and vomiting
Cisplatin is a chemotherapeutic agent used as a part of combination therapy in the treatment of germ cell tumors. Beside the huge benefit of this
combination, a big problem exists. Cisplatin has common side effects which are sever nausea and vomiting. In germ cell tumors, the combination is
used for five days so, it was noticed that the patients are suffering from nausea and vomiting during the treatment period and it tends to be milder at the
end of these 5 days. (5) П– Life threatening

Cell Structures And Transporters Unit Assessment
Cell Structures and Transporters Unit Assessment
Cancer is one of the most dangerous and fatal diseases, which is caused by uncontrolled growth and proliferation of cells. Cancer cells' survival,
progression and metastasis are tightly associated with the cellular components. For example, when cells metastasizing, they use cell protrusion which
provided by the actin cytoskeleton to penetrate the extracellular matrix, they also secrete plasminogen activator to increase protease plasmin's activity
in order to penetrate the membrane. Then some of the tumor cells transfer to other tissue and form metastatic tumor. The specific functions of several
cell structures and transporters in tumor cells are discussed as follows.
Lysosome plays important role in cells' behavior, it not only the degradation and recycle place for cells, but it also associated with cellular processes
such as autophagy and signaling. Especially in cancer cells, the lysosomes are greater in number, larger, more active than normal cells. [1] The
mechanism for lysosome in cancer cells is that lysosome can release certain cathepsins, which is a kind of virtual acidic hydrolases released from
tumor cells into the extracellular space, which lead to cancer cells' progression and death by apoptosis and apoptosis–like pathways. [2] On the one
hand, the cathepsins contribute to the degradation of intracellular substrates, regulation and recycle of extracellular substrates. On the other hand, the
cathepsins control

Application Of Nanotechnology : Diagnosis And Treatment Of...
Application of Nanotechnology in diagnosis and treatment of tumors
Abstract
The application of nanotechnology for cancer therapy has received considerable attention in recent years. Cancer nanotechnology (an interdisciplinary
area of research in science, engineering and medicine) is an upcoming field with extensive applications. It provides a unique approach and
comprehensive technology against cancer through early diagnosis, prediction, prevention, personalized therapy and medicine. Target–specific drug
therapy and methods for early diagnosis of pathologies are the priority research areas in which nanotechnology would play a vital part. This review
focuses on the approaches of cancer nanotechnology in the advancement of cancer therapy.
Introduction
Cancer is a major cause of mortality: more than ten million people are diagnosed with the disease annually. Cancer is known to develop via a multistep
carcinogenesis process entailing numerous cellular physiological systems such as cell signaling and apoptosis, making it a highly incomprehensible
and complex disease [1,2]. Initially, cancers start as localized diseases, but they are prone to spread to distant sites within the body, which makes cancer
incurable. To date, cancer treatments have been performed on the basis of clinical and pathologic staging that is determined using morphologic
diagnostic tools, such as conventional radiological and histopathological examinations. The most common cancer treatments are restricted

Cancer : Cancer And Cancer
Cancer
Cancer is one of the leading causes of morbidity and mortality worldwide, with approximately 14 million new cases in 2012.2 The amount of new
cases is expected to rise by about 70% over the next 2 decades. Cancer which causes nearly 1 in 6 deaths, is the second leading cause of death globally,
and was responsible for 8.8 million deaths in 2015. Approximately 70% of deaths from cancer occur in low– and middle–income countries. In 2012
about 14.1 million new cases of cancer occurred globally (not including skin cancer other than melanoma).3 The most common types of cancer in males
are lung cancer, prostate cancer, colorectal cancer and stomach cancer.
The purpose of cancer tissue engineering is understanding cancer biology which is a ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
When cell populations are used to form tissues and organs, proper 3D systems, with clinically relevant dimensions, are required to eventually scale up
these findings into effective new treatments. 6
Cervical Cancer
Cervical cancer is one type of cancer happening from the cervix due to abnormal growth of cells. There are many reasons to cause cervical cancer.
One of them is that the abnormal cells from other parts of body are able to invade or spread to the cervix and cause the abnormal growth.
Unfortunately, in early stage, typically no symptoms are seen, and later symptoms may include abnormal vaginal bleeding, pelvic pain, or pain during
sexual intercourse. What's more, when bleeding after sex, it also may indicate the presence of cervical cancer.7
In the United States, it is one of the eight–most common cancer of women. According to researches, the data shows that Hispanic women are
significantly more likely to be diagnosed with cervical cancer than the general population and their median age at diagnosis is 48. In 1998, about
12,800 women were diagnosed in the US and about 4,800 died. Among cancers of the female reproductive tract, it is less common than endometrial
cancer and ovarian cancer. The rates of new cases in the United States was 7 per 100,000 women in 2004. Cervical cancer deaths decreased by
approximately 74% in the

Symptoms And Treatment Of Cancer
Docetaxel also sold as Taxotere or Docecad, is a settled threatening to mitotic chemotherapy pharmaceutical that works by intruding with cell division.
shown depending upon... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Systemic treatment is regularly utilized as a part of conjunction with different modalities that constitute "nearby treatment" (i.e. medications whose
adequacy is limited to the anatomic territory where they are connected) for growth, for example, radiation treatment, surgery, and/or hyperthermia
treatment. The adequacy of chemotherapy relies on upon the sort of tumor and the stage. The general viability ranges from being corrective for a few
growths, for example, some leukemias, to being inadequate, for example, in some mind tumors,to being unnecessary in others, as most non–melanoma
skin cancers. Clinical information has indicated docetaxel to have cytotoxic movement against bosom, colorectal, lung, ovarian, prostate, liver, renal,
gastric, head and neck tumors, and melanoma. In hormone unmanageable prostate growth docetaxel enhances future and general life quality. Docetaxel
has a place with a class of chemotherapy medications called plant alkaloids. Plant alkaloids are 7produced using plants. The vinca alkaloids are
produced using the periwinkle plant. The taxanes are produced using the bark of the Pacific Yew tree. Vinca alkaloids and taxanes are otherwise called
antimicrotubule operators. Treatment with docetaxel has the particular result of expanding survival time in patients with certain sorts of tumor. Some
clinical trials show median survival times to be expanded by just three months,

Is Cancer A Dangerous And Fatal Diseases?
Cancer is one of the most dangerous and fatal diseases, which is caused by uncontrolled growth and proliferation of cells. Cancer cells' survival,
progression and metastasis are tightly associated with the cellular components. For example, when cells metastasizing, they use cell protrusion which
provided by actin cytoskeleton to penetrate the extracellular matrix, they also secrete plasminogen activator to increase protease plasmin's activity in
order to penetrate the membrane. Then some of the tumor cells transfer to another tissue and form metastatic tumor. The specific functions of several
cell structures and transporters in tumor cells are discussed as follows.
Lysosome plays important role in cells' behavior, it not only the degradation and recycle place for cells, but it also associated with cellular processes
such as autophagy and signaling. Especially in cancer cells, the lysosomes are greater in number, larger, more active than normal cells. [1] The
mechanism for lysosome in cancer cells is that lysosome can release certain cathepsins, which is a kind of virtual acidic hydrolases from tumor cells
into the extracellular space, which lead to cancer cells' progression and death by apoptosis and apoptosis–like pathways. [2] On the one hand, the
cathepsins contribute to the degradation of intracellular substrates, regulation and recycle of extracellular substrates. On the other hand, the cathepsins
control degradation of secretory proteins by crinophagy and degradation

Microtubule Stabilizing Drugs Research Paper
Microtubule Stabilizing Drugs and the Effects on Cancer Cells
By: Amber Erickson
Introduction
Microtubule Structure and Dynamics Microtubules are structures that are existing in all eukaryotic cells and are a part of the cytoskeleton, and are
important components of many cellular functions such as structural support, cell motility, intracellular transport of vesicles and organelles, and cellular
division. Microtubules are composed of О± (–) and ОІ (+) tubulin heterodimers that are arranged in a polar longitudinal rows called protofilaments,
and then further organized into a circular 13 protofilament arrangement (Valiron et al, 2001).
Microtubules are assembled at the microtubule organizing center (MTOC), which consist of centrosomes surrounded by pericentriolar material (PCM)
in animal cells. Nucleation, which is the initiation of microtubules, occurs at the MTOC and consists of 13 gamma–tubulin subunits forming an open
ring where the first set of tubulin are added at the positive end (Tassins and Bornens, 1999). Growth of the microtubule consists of the polymerization,
addition of tubulin dimers on the positive end near the cell periphery, faster than tubulin dimers can be lost at the minus end, which is attached to the
centrosome toward the cell center. ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The specific binding site on the tubulin and on the microtubule differ amongst the microtubule targeting drugs. Other aspects of how microtubule
targeting drugs can be varied include the sensitivity to tubulin isotype, different tissues and tumors susceptibility, different forms of resistance ,
different mechanisms for suppression of microtubule, and different degrees of variability (Mooberry, 2011). These different factors all contribute to
how a specific microtubule targeting drug will act when used in treatment of cancer and the success or failures it will

Herbal Anti Cancer Medicine : The Vinca Alkaloids Isolated...
The first herbal anti–cancer medicine was the vinca alkaloids isolated from the Madagascar periwinkle plant, Catharanthus roseus. Extracts from this
plant was found to have therapeutic anti–tumour activity and clinically began being used as Vinblastine and Vincristine in 1960. [2] The mechanism of
Vinca Alkaloids is the inhibition of microtubules. The drug prevents the alignment of daughter chromosomes by depolymerizing the tubulin molecules
inhibiting the formation of spindle fibres ultimately causing mitosis arrest and killing dividing cells. [3]
This class of drug is at danger due to resistance mechanisms via the over expression of multi–drug associated p–glycoprotein which acts as an efflux
pump to remove the drug out of the cell. [5] Resistance has led to the development of second generation Vinca Alkoids– Vinorelbine and Vinflunine.
these drugs disrupt microtubule formation by alternate methods compared to the older generation hence prolonging multi–drug resistance and
anti–angiogenesis which prevents new blood vessels forming to the tumour. From clinical studies Vinorelbine is approved for treatment of Non–small
cell lung cancer, (Gregory et al. 2000) over 15 trials with Vinorelbine as monotherapy has produced an overall response rate of 23.6% increasing
patient's survival. A phase 3 trial from an Italian study in 1999 (The Elderly Lung Cancer, Vinorelbine) found that 'monotherapy vinorelbine seemed
reasonable in the elderly whom polychemotherapy is not possible'.

Cisplatine Subtypes And Breast Cancer
)Platinum agents
Platinum salts, including carboplatin and cisplatin, lead to DNA cross–link strand breaks, which may be especially important in cells that are deficient
in homologous recombination repair mechanisms such as BRCA–mutated cells and TNBC. Leong and colleagues (Leong, et al. 2007).reported a
p63–dependent tumor survival pathway that mediates cisplatin sensitivity, specifically in TNBC cells grown in vitro. Extending this observation to the
clinical setting, Rocca and colleagues (Andrea, et al.2008).conducted a retrospective analysis of core biopsies of patients with breast cancer treated with
neoadjuvant cisplatin–based chemotherapy in breast cancer and showed that administration of cisplatin without anthracyclines yielded a ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
CALGB40603 (NCT00861705) is a randomized phase II trial with a 2 Г— 2 factorial design that explored the addition of carboplatin В± bevacizumab
to neoadjuvant weekly paclitaxel followed by dose–dense AC in 443 patients with stage II/III TNBC (Sikov, et al. 2014) The pCR rate improved from
41% to 54% with the addition of carboplatin; bevacizumab had no added benefit. It is important to note that neither of these studies was powered to
detect disease–free or overall survival (OS) benefit.( Ingrid et al.,2014)
B) Capecitabine
Several ongoing trials are addressing the intensification of adjuvant chemotherapy in TNBC patients, either through integration of novel agents into the
adjuvant setting such as platinum, X, ixabepilone, or bevacizumab, or through introduction of maintenance therapy such as X (CIBOMA and
SYSUCC–001) or bevacizumab (BEATRICE). Preliminary results of the CREATE
–X (JBCRG–04) trial by the Japan Breast Cancer Research Group
were presented at the 2015 San Antonio Breast Cancer Symposium (Toi, , et al.2016). The trial randomized 910 patients to observation versus 8
cycles of X therapy, and reported improved rates of 2–year DFS (87.3 vs. 80.5%; p = 0.001) and OS (96.2 vs. 93.9%; p = 0.086) with X. All of the
observed benefit was driven by the improved outcome in the ER–

Polymer Drug And Its Effects
Polymer drug conjugates as the name would suggest, are systems where drug molecules are chemically conjugated onto long chain polymers via
covalent linkages. At the moment there over fourteen polymer–drug conjugates that have made it through the rigorous clinical evaluation, these are
based on polyglutamic acid (PGA)–paclitaxel conjugates (CT–2303, OPAXIOВ®, initially known as XyotaxВ®) (Greco and Vicent 2009).
Polymer–drug conjugates hold the potential to protect the drug from early degradation, inhibit drug from prematurely release with the biological
setting and improve the absorption of the drugs into the tissues (by means of improved permeability and retaining effected or active targeting). Drugs
molecules possess the ability to be... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
A PEG–DTX derivative (NKTR–105; Nektar Therapeutics, San Francisco, CA) has entered Phase clinical trial on patients with solid tumors including
hormone–refractory'. Ernsting et al. (cited in Paramjot et al. (2015) shows that the design of a polymer conjugate (Cellax_) consisting of acetylated
carboxymethylcellulose, DTX and PEG has been reported. The results in vitro and in vivo studies established that the conjugate improved the
pharmacokinetics, biodistribution and antitumor effectiveness of DTX over Taxotere, with minimal toxicity. Polymer–drug conjugates have become a
fast developing field, with several polymer conjugates systems heading for clinical trials monthly. Results from these clinical trials have shown that the
advantage of these systems far outweigh the parent drug indicating few side effects, easy drug administration, advanced therapeutic effectiveness and
enhanced patient acceptance. Larson and Ghandehari (2012) indicate also that polymer–drug conjugates offer the opportunity for drug delivery in a
controlled manner. In contributing to the advantage of polymer conjugation to the patient. Vicent and Duncan (2006) state that polymer conjugation
extends plasma half–life by ensuring the prevention of 'renal elimination and avoidance of

Sybil's Life
3.Critical Events (see Appendix 3): Sybil explains that the most critical events have been when she married her husband Kelly, each time she had her
children, and when she graduated from high school and from college. When she earned her social work master's degree was another important event
for her life. She has made it very important that the time she found out she had breast cancer was the most critical event to happen and has resulted in
her coming here.
4.Sexual: Sybil sexual orientation is straight. Sybil is a female who has had a mastectomy. She reports that this surgery has made her feel less of a
women but her husband has been very supportive with making sure Sybil know he still finds her attractive. She mentioned that she met

Treatment Of Chemotherapy With Cell Division
Docetaxel (XT) sold as Taxotere or Docecad, is a settled threatening to mitotic chemotherapy pharmaceutical that works by intruding with cell division.
shown depending upon... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Systemic treatment is regularly utilized as a part of conjunction with different modalities that constitute "nearby treatment" (i.e. medications whose
adequacy is limited to the anatomic territory where they are connected) for growth, for example, radiation treatment, surgery, and/or hyperthermia
treatment. The adequacy of chemotherapy relies on upon the sort of tumor and the stage. The general viability ranges from being corrective for a few
growths, for example, some leukemias, to being inadequate, for example, in some mind tumors,to being unnecessary in others, as most non–melanoma
skin cancers. Clinical information has indicated docetaxel to have cytotoxic movement against bosom, colorectal, lung, ovarian, prostate, liver, renal,
gastric, head and neck tumors, and melanoma. In hormone unmanageable prostate growth docetaxel enhances future and general life quality. Docetaxel
has a place with a class of chemotherapy medications called plant alkaloids. Plant alkaloids are 5produced using plants. The vinca alkaloids are
produced using the periwinkle plant. The taxanes are produced using the bark of the Pacific Yew tree. Vinca alkaloids and taxanes are otherwise called
antimicrotubule operators. Treatment with docetaxel has the particular result of expanding survival time in patients with certain sorts of tumor. Some
clinical trials show median survival times to be expanded by just three months,

Key Trends and Characteristics of the Cytostatic Industry
1ONCOLOGY INDUSTRY ANALYSIS
1.1Key trends and characteristics of Cytostatic industry
high growth rate – higher propotion of the global pharma market in the years to come
one of the fastest growing and most profitable therapeutic areas of the next few decades
shift from accute cancer treatment to chronic disease management and prevention
more and more biotech companies enter the market – connections with pharma to help through the maze of regulatory processes and clinical
development
patient advocacy programs
1.2Opportunities of L therapeutic class to pharma companies
large unmet medical needs – o 5 mil new cases every year, second leading causes of dead o according to WHO 10 mil cases in 2000 and ... Show more
As a result of nature of the market, prices of generic cancer drugs have not fallen to the same extent as those in other therapeutic fields. There is a little
to indicate that this situation will change significantly over the next few years.
Future development of the cancer generic market
Dependent on several factors:
an overall increase in the number of cancer patients
launch of new products
drugs coming off patent
new regulation and policies introduced
Taking all of this factors into account, the cancer generic market will continue to grow, both in terms of volume as well as in value.
CEE Products key drivers
L01L02
199920022007199920022007

VinorelbineVinorelbineVinorelbineGoserelinGoserelinGoserelin
CarboplatinDocetaxelDocetaxelMegestrolMegestrolAnastrozol
PaclitaxelIrinotecanPaclitaxelLetrozolAnastrozolMegestrol
DocetaxelPaclitaxelNCEAnastrozolLetrozolLetrozol
Irinotecan NilutamidNilutamidNilutamid
DoxorubicinNCE
1.4Trends in Ca treatment
–New drug delivery systems in "old" drugs liposomes (doxorubicin, cytarabine), cyclodextrines inclusions (paclitaxel, cyclosporine), biopolymeric
carriers (goserelin, leuprorelin,

Essay On Pancreatic Cancer
Surgery:
Localized Disease
Approximately 20% of pancreatic cancer is found to be operable or resectable. The complete resection of the primary lesion is best treatment for
patients with localized pancreatic cancer. However the risk of both local and distal recurrence is high in following resection. In early stage pancreatic
cancer the complete resection are associated with considerable morbidity in 40–60% of patients and mortality in less than 3% of patients (Sohn et al.,
2000; Winter et al., 2006). Moreover, it takes 2–3 months for complete recovery to a normal quality of life. Although the 5–year survival rate of
resected pancreatic cancer is approximately 20% and the median overall survival time is 17–27 months (Winter et al., 2006). ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
The total pancreatectomy is used for removes the whole pancreas and the spleen. It is possible to live without a pancreas but these people had
increased diabetes, which can be complicate to control. People who complete this surgery moreover need to take pancreatic enzyme pills for digesting
of certain foods.
Radiotherapy:
Usually, radiation therapy is treated by neoadjuvant, adjuvant or definitive treatment with systemic therapy. Around 20% to 80 % of the patients with
cancer received radiation therapy through the way of their treatment (de Gonzalez et al., 2011). In this treatment the radiation is usually given along with
chemotherapy, which is recognized as chemoradiation or chemoradiotherapy. The Duke University conducts investigational study of neoadjuvant
radiation therapy in 96 resectable patients. Everyday patients who received 50.4 Gy dose of radiotherapy are combined with 5–FU–based
chemotherapy. After this patients were then surgically findout if there was no evidence of metastatic disease and less mortality. Overall survival (OS)
and median survival was (28%:23 months) respectively (Spitz et al., 1997; White and Tyler, 2004). In 1980's The Gastro–intestinal Tumor Study
Group (GITSG) conducted randomized study in purpose of adjuvant chemoradiotherapy in resected pancreatic cancer. After R0 resection 49 patients
were treated with chemorediotherapy for evaluation of adjuvant

Target Therapy For Ovarian Cancer
Title: Targeted Therapy in Ovarian Cancer
Authors: Hui Jun, Lim1 and William, Ledger2
Affiliations: University of New South Wales, Australia1, School of Women and Children's Health, Prince of Wales Hospital, Sydney, Australia2
Abstract
Among female–specific cancers worldwide, ovarian cancer is the leading cause of death from gynaecologic malignancy in the Western world. Despite
radical surgery and initial high response rates to first–line chemotherapy, up to 70% of patients experience relapses with a median progression–free
survival of 12 to 18 months. There remains an urgent need for novel targeted therapies to improve clinical outcomes in ovarian cancer. This review aims
to assess current understanding of targeted therapy in ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Limitations and Challenges...................................................................................................10
4.Conclusion...............................................................................................................................13
Table 1: Anti–VEGF Angiogenic Inhibitors in Ovarian Cancer.................................................14
Table 2: PARP Inhibitors in Ovarian Cancer..............................................................................16
Table 3: EGFR Inhibitors in Ovarian Cancer..............................................................................17
References.....................................................................................................................................18
1.Introduction
Among female–specific cancers worldwide, ovarian cancer is the third most common following breast and cervical cancers.1 It is the leading cause of
death from gynaecologic malignancy in the Western world, with a 5–year survival rate of approximately 30% in advanced–stage disease.2 Despite
radical surgery and initial high response rates to first–line chemotherapy, up to 70% of patients experience relapse with a median progression–free
survival of 12 to 18 months.3 Furthermore, sensitivity to platinum–based chemotherapies decreases with each subsequent relapse with the development
of platinum–resistant and refractory disease.4 As such, there remains an urgent need for novel targeted therapies to improve clinical outcomes and
tolerability in ovarian cancer treatment. In an age when great advances have been made in understanding the genetics and molecular biology of this
heterogeneous disease,

The Psychological Effects Of Chemotherapy
According to the National Cancer Institute and other cancer organizations, there are about 250000 to 400000 people who receive chemotherapy each
year. Medical professionals knows enough about the side effects that these drugs pose an acceptable amount of risk in relation to the benefits that they
offer. Health care professionals do ways to prevent, detect and diagnose, control, and treat the cancer through studying the psychological impacts of the
disease and its treatment and the ways to improve patients' comfort and the quality of life.
Cancer can't be cured, but it may be controlled for a time by chemotherapy. Its goal is to stop or slow down the growth of a tumor or shrink it at least
partially or to decrease any pain, bleeding, abstractions ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Cancer patients who have received chemotherapy treatment, will be affected by cancer related– fatigue. The impact of fatigue on daily functioning,
including physical, mental and emotional, behavioral and social, occupational and economic effects. The mental–emotional effects of fatigue results in
the need to push themselves to do things, decreased motivation or interest, and feelings of sadness, frustration, or irritability during their experiences
with fatigue. Fatigue management can be bed rest and relaxation followed by diet or nutrition, vitamins, and prescription drugs (Christine at.al,

Balloon Angioplasty Essay
1. Introduction Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death in the world accounting for 17.5 million people, or more than 30% of all deaths.
Atherosclerosis leads to coronary artery disease, which is a manifestation of ischemic heart disease [1,2]. When an artery narrows, or becomes blocked,
intervention is required to restore normal blood flow. In patients with multi–vessel coronary artery disease, coronary artery bypass graft surgery in
generally accepted as a better method due to the greater risk of developing recurrent ischemic events. However, in those with a single vessel
obstruction, the non–surgical procedure known as percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) has been shown to be as effective in treating stenosis [2].
PCI is achieved using balloon angioplasty, which was first introduced in 1977 [1]. 1.1 – Bare Metal Stents (BMS) By the mid 1980's, bare metal stents
(BMS) were developed to overcome the limitations of balloon angioplasty [1]. Coronary stents are metal lattices that hold the vessel open, which
prevents recoil following angioplasty [2]. They are delivered using a catheter–mounted balloon inserted either in the brachial or femoral artery, which is
then threaded to the site of blockage in the coronary artery. The balloon is inflated, and the stent is released covering the stenosed lesion... Show more
Out of 744 cases, eight main reasons for using BMS were found to be: large vessel diameter (32.4%); ST–segment elevation MIs (17.7%);
reimbursement/other reasons (9.4%); advanced age (12.4%); concomitant oral coagulant treatment (11.3%); increased bleeding risk, cancer, or anemia
(9.5%); planned surgery within 12 months (5.5%); and anticipated poor dual antiplatelet therapy (DAPT) compliance (1.7%). Patients often receive
BMS over DES to avoid long term DAPT; this reduces treatment from 1 year for DES to 1 month for BMS

Metformin Hypothesis
Objective: More evidence has come to light revealing that the drug Metformin, (a medication commonly used for type 2 diabetes mellitus) has a chance
to protect against Cancer. Inspired by these new studies we asked the following questions:
1)Can metformin in fact prevent ovarian cancer growth by modifying metabolism?
&
2)Will Metformin increase the susceptibility to chemotherapy?
Study Design:
Two different mouse models were used to test (in vitro) the effects of the drug. Cell lines [in vitro, n=6] were given either the metformin drug, or
phosphate–buffered saline solution and cellular proliferation and metabolic alterations (adenosine monophosphate–activated protein kinase activity,
glycolysis, and lipid synthesis)]. Each of which

Delivery of Low Molecular Drugs Using Chitosan and Its...
Delivery of low molecular drugs using chitosan and its derivatives
1.Introduction
The primary focus of this term paper consists of two parts. First, review chitosan–based drug delivery system for the delivery of traditional low
molecular weight drugs based on a review paper titled "targeted delivery of low molecular drugs using chitosan and its derivatives" (Advanced Drug
delivery reviews, 2010). Second, critique an original research paper about hydrotropic oligomer–conjugated glycol chitosan as a carrier for
tumor–targeted paclitaxel delivery, which was published in Journal of Controlled Release in 2013 (title: Enhanced drug–loading and therapeutic
efficacy of hydrotropic oligomer–conjugated glycol chitosan nanoparticles for tumor–targeted paclitaxel delivery).
Chitosan, a linear aminopolysaccharide composed of randomly distributed (1в†’4) linked D–glucosamine and N–acetyl–D–glucosamine units, is
obtained by the deacetylation of chitin, a structural element in the exoskeleton of crustaceans, which is the second most abundant natural biopolymer
after cellulose (Fig. 1). The most easily exploited sources of chitin are the protective shells of crabs and shrimp. The primary aliphatic amines of
chitosan can be protonated under acidic conditions (amine pKa is 6.3). Fig 1. Chemical structure of chitosan
Research showed that long circulating macromolecules (polymer–drug conjugates) and nano–sized particulates (such as micelles and liposomes)
accumulate passively at the

Chemotherapy Research Paper
Chemotherapy is the gold standard that frequently used to lessen symptoms in patients with advanced breast cancer and reduce the risk of return in
patients with localized breast cancer. In principle, chemotherapy involves the administration of chemical agents that target proliferating cancer cells.
The aim of chemotherapy is to shift the balance of cell proliferation to one of cell death or apoptosis (Moulder et al., 2008; Pohl et al., 2008).
Chemotherapeutic agents can be given in an adjuvant form post–primary treatment (after surgery, anti–hormone therapy, and radiation) to reduce the
risk of recurrence or to offer remedy care in patients with the advanced metastatic disease. In contrast, neoadjuvant chemotherapy is given before
primary treatment ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
The kinase enzymes are specifically phosphorylate tyrosine amino acids, (RTKs) with similar homology; HER1, HER2, HER3, and HER4, has known
as an oncogene which guided to the development of anticancer treatment directed against them (termed as "HER inhibitors") (Moulder et al., 2008).
RTKs are regulators of normal cellular processes and have a critical role in the progression and development of many types of cancer. RTKs transfer
extracellular signals influence cancer cell growth, survival, and differentiation. These proteins are localized to the cell membrane and contain an
extracellular domain that is the site for ligand binding, a transmembrane domain, and a kinase domain that contains the ATP–binding site necessary for
protein phosphorylation. RTKs phosphorylate some downstream proteins, which lead to the activation of signaling cascades such as
phosphatidylinositol–3–OH kinase (PI3K) pathways. The HER family of receptors are targeted for treatment of breast cancer (Moulder et al., 2008;
Paez et al.,

The Catania в„ў Coronary Stent System
Testing
The CATANIAв„ў Coronary Stent System with PolyzeneВ®–F is indicated for patients with coronary heart disease in coronary vessels, this stent can
be applied to coronary vessels which diameter range from 2.0 mm to 4.0 mm. The CATANIAв„ў stent with PolyzeneВ®–F is intended to: 1) in both
native coronary arteries and vein bypass grafts, ameliorate the vessel lumen when treating lesions (de novo and restenotic). 2) treat patients with acute
& threatened occlusions, whose PTCA interventional treatment was unsuccessful.
Method1
12 Months Studies
In this study, the Assessment of The Last Advanced Non
–Thrombogenic Angioplasty Stent (ATLANTA) enrolled 55 patients with:1) stable or unstable
angina, 2) documentation of myocardial ischemia attributable to native coronary artery stenosis, 3)amenable to treatment by percutaneous stenting from
May 2007 to August 2007.[1] The standards of enrollment are:1) patients age must between 30 to 70 years old with up to 2 de novo type A and/or B
American Heart Association/ American College ofCardiology lesions to be treated with the Catania stent in a vessel with a reference diameter 2.5 and
3.5 mm by visual assessment.[1] This clinical study was completed based on Declaration of Helsinki. The Primary end points of this study are: Stent
Thrombosis, non– target lesion revascularization, target lesion revascularization, target vessel revascularization, index vessel–related nonfatal
myocardial infraction and cardiac death. Secondary end points are:

Patent Strategies Like Evergreening Differently Impact The...
By: Anuradha Prasad
Patent strategies like evergreening differently impact the developing world. The practice of evergreening not just refer to extending the original patent,
but also includes strategies and practices used to protect a cluster of related, but unoriginal, technologies through the filing of secondary applications.
This contributes to increased medical costs by keeping lower–cost generic alternatives out of the marketplace. This chapter gives an overview of the
evergreening strategies that are employed by branded pharmaceutical companies as a tactic to bypass existing patent laws and limit generic competition
in the marketplace. The frequency of such strategies demands strong patent interpretations that are protective of ... Show more content on
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Taking the advantage of this existing loophole in patent law, patent applications for the developments or modifications is not just filed by the original
product developer but also by other companies including generic companies. One the one hand the branded companies advertise to customers their
brand value and reliability, and on the other hand they try to cast generics negatively on the basis of poor replication, or unsatisfactory testing before
commercial production of the original formula. However, the argument put forth by branded companies is that they enable the development of a
non–infringing competitor product thereby channeling "designing around" the patent.
A monopoly right that is suitably limited is vital in helping preserve the policy underlying the Patent Act of promoting innovation while still allowing
the intellectual property to enter the public domain.
II.EVERGREENING STRATEGIES
A.DELAY THE LAUNCH OF GENERIC PRODUCTS/ 30 MONTH PERIOD OF STAY PROVISION
In US, innovator drug companies have been able to use provisions of the Hatch Waxman Amendments to the Federal Food, Drug and Cosmetics Act,
1984 to delay or restrict the launch of generic competitor products. The innovator pharmaceutical company has been allegedly using the listing of
additional patents in the 'Orange Book ' to try to benefit from

Unusual Presentation Of Metastatic Sebaceous Carcinoma
CASE REPORT Unusual presentation of metastatic sebaceous carcinoma and its response to chemotherapy: is genotyping a right answer for guiding
chemotherapy in rare tumours? V. Kumar MD* and Y. Xu MD PhDв
Ђ METASTATIC SEBACEOUS CARCINOMA: PRESENTATION AND
CHEMOTHERAPY, Kumar and Xu Correspondence to: Vivek Kumar, Department of Medicine, 4802 10th Avenue, Floor 3, Maimonides Medical
Center, Brooklyn, New York 11219 U.S.A. E–mail: vivkumar@maimonidesmed.org :: DOI: http://dx.doi.org/10.3747/co.22.2467 ABSTRACT
Sebaceous carcinoma is a rare malignant tumour of skin. It commonly occurs in the head and neck region. The standard of care for localized disease
is wide local excision followed by radiotherapy. Occasionally, sebaceous carcinoma can be... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It can also occur as a periocular or extraocular variant, the former being more common. Presentation varies from a painless subcutaneous nodule to
pedunculated lesions, irregular masses, or diffuse thickening of the skin 2. It is not clear if the rate of distant metastasis and recurrence is more
common in the periocular type of sebaceous carcinoma 3. Wide excision with negative margins and selective use of radiotherapy is the treatment of
choice in localized tumours 4. Being rare, distant metastasis offers little experience concerning the efficacy of chemotherapy in its treatment. Here, we
report a case of recurrent metastatic sebaceous carcinoma, with metastasis to the rectum initially mimicking Muir–Torre syndrome, and its response to
multiple lines of chemotherapy. CASE DESCRIPTION An 81–year–old woman presented in the oncology clinic with colorectal carcinoma. Six years
before presentation, she had been diagnosed with sebaceous carcinoma of the right ocular surface and lower eyelid. At that time, she had been treated
with topical mitomycin, followed by excision and cryotherapy. One year before her current presentation, the tumour recurred over the right upper
eyelid. The patient declined debulking surgery and underwent external–beam radiation (6000 cGy in 30 fractions, with en face 8 MeV electrons).

The Effects Of Lumpectomy As A Breast Conserving Surgery
Lumpectomy. The lumpectomy is a breast–conserving surgery that removes only the tissue containing the cancer. Lumpectomies are more successful
when tumor detection occurs in an earlier stage and smaller size. A patient may opt for a tissue biopsy and lumpectomy simultaneously however,
research is dismal in the lifespan impact on this particular surgical approach. Radiation. Radiation therapy can be useful in all stages of breast cancer,
however Stage I and II radiation therapy with lumpectomy is recommended. The ongoing research identifies without radiation treatment there is a
relatively high chance of cancer recurrence up to 35%; with radiation as an adjuvant therapy the cancer risk decreases to 5–10% (MCGWC, 2007).
Radiation treatment also accompanies a mastectomy if axillary lymph nodes test positive, a tumor is greater than five centimeters, or margin borders of
the tumor are narrow between healthy cells and tumor cells (MCGWC, 2007). Systemic therapy. Both surgery and radiation therapy target tumor cells
in a specific region. However, tumor cells can migrate and metastasize to other regions in the body through the lymph system. Adjuvant systemic
therapy may be beneficial depending on staging, grade, tumor size, cell proliferation and oncogene activation. Oncogenes warrant further study as a
treatment to alter genes that are unable to suppress cell proliferation; when damaged the proteins produced by the oncogenes can turn normal cells into
cancer cells. The most

So Pretty Taxol Is A Natural Product
Is a natural product that is a chemical compound or substance produced by a living organism that so happens to be found in nature. So pretty much this
natural product is any substance that is created naturally in nature. These natural products can also be prepared by chemical synthesis and also played a
role in the development in organic chemistry by providing challenging synthetic targets. This also entails the term natural product that has been
extended for commercial purposes such as cosmetics, dietary supplements, and foods produced from natural sources without added artificial ingredients.
Meanwhile a synthesized product is a module that consists of chemicals, compounds, or other reagents that are synthesized in a laboratory. So pretty ...
Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Paclitaxel works to treat cancers because it breakdowns the microtubules during cell division. Microtubules are part of the cell that is known for
dividing and replicating itself. So by implementing this natural product in the process of chemotherapy it aims to target rapidly reproducing tumor cells
in order to slow down or eliminate cancer. Taxol is in fact a natural product that is found in the yew pine tree that happens to grow very slowly. The
bark of the tree needs to be peeled off in order to obtain the paclitaxel that so happens to kill the tree in the process. Some Paclitaxel has become
essential in the medical field that it is on the World Health Organization's list of essential medicines. In the case of producing the important drug
where was a new way to create the drug faster since it takes a lot of time to create the drug naturally. According to A New Synthesis of Taxol from
Baccatin III by Erkan Baloglu, "The partial synthesis of Taxol is very important when compared to that of direct isolation of Taxol from the western
yew, since the availability of baccatin III or 10–DAB is greater than that of Taxol. Another advantage of the semi–synthetic approach is that various
Taxol analogs, such as Taxotere, which may have improved bioactivity as compared with Taxol, can also be synthesized"(pg.32). Meaning that in this
case producing medicine in a semisynthetic production it would yield equal results compared to the natural extraction of Taxol; however the
semisynthetic can be produced in a faster mater compared to the natural form. The only difference in the performance and effectiveness of natural and
synthesized (semi–synthesized taxon) is Taxotere, also known as Docetaxel that happens to be a production of the synthesized product. This products
is twice as strong in potency compared to paclitaxel however, paclitaxel may cause fewer side

Paclitaxel Titration Lab Report
Medication Regimen Pretreatment regimen included vital signs (blood pressure, pulse, respiratory rate, temperature, and weight), lab work as
indicated, written and verbal medication information of first dose, and the administration of the following premedications as indicated –
dexamethasone 20 mg IV, or 20 mg orally at 12 and 6 hours prior to dose, diphenhydramine 25 or 50 mg, and famotidine 20 mg. Following an acute
hypersensitivity reaction and return to baseline, the paclitaxel titration regimen was initiated. Paclitaxel is mixed in 250 mL NS or D5W for weekly
doses, and in 500 mL NS or D5W for every 3 weekly doses. Titration rate for rechallenge paclitaxel infusions is as follows: 30 mL/hour = 5 mL; 60 mL
/hour = 10 mL; 90 mL/hour = 15... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Desensitization protocols provide the flexibility for re–administration of taxane–based therapy3. Feldweg et al4 supported the use of a 12–step
desensitization protocol in patients and demonstrated safety and efficacy for the re–administration of paclitaxel or docetaxel after severe
hypersensitivity reactions. Seventeen patients who previously had severe taxane–related hypersensitivity successfully underwent seventy–seven
planned courses of desensitization and seventy–two were without reactions4. With this evidence, they were able to conclude a 6 to 7–hour
desensitization protocol could be safely used after severe hypersensitivity

Nocodazole Effect
Nocodazole is a synthetic tubulin–binding agent. It inhibits mannose efflux by preventing and disrupting microtubule assembly and disassembly. This
results in the prevention of mitosis and induction of apoptosis in tumor cells. The more nocodazole present, the more mannose efflux was inhibited.
For example: in Figure 4a. efflux of mannose is over four times greater when there is no nocodazole than when there is 25 ВµM. The effects were
also shown to increase as the amount of exposure time increase. At 30 minutes to efflux of mannose is around 20 cpm/Вµg. But at 60 minutes the
efflux has risen to over 80 cpm/Вµg. It is concluded rapid efflux of mannose out of the Golgi Apparatus occurs through a nocodazole–sensitive
transporter. In the article, Sharma and Freeze believe paclitaxel should stabilize and reverse the inhibitory effect of nocodazole, however this is not the
case. Paclitaxel binds to tubulin and inhibits the disassembly of microtubules, thereby likewise inhibiting cell division. It also induces apoptosis by
binding to and blocking the function of the apoptosis inhibitor. It was found in Figure 4b. the presence of both nocodazole and paclitaxel the movement
of compounds by mannose is less than when only nocodazole is present.... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
illustrates mannose cells with no treatments applied. In this picture the mannose cells contain microtubules. Figure 4d. shows are cells treated with
only paclitaxel. These cells have intact microtubules. Figure 4e. is of cells treated with nocodazole. These cells cannot be seen because nocodazole
has caused the depolymerization. This means polymers are converted into a monomer or a mixture of monomers. Figure 4f. is similar to 4b. in that
mannose cells are treated with both nocodazole and paclitaxel. These cells have microtubules present. This is due to paclitaxel stabilizing the effects of
nocodazole. This means mannose cells in the presence of paclitaxel and nocodazole have intact microtubules but the efflux is

Lung Cancers And Its Effects
INTRODUCTION
What are lung cancers? Lung cancers are the abnormal cells which grow in uncontrolled manner in one or both lungs. They do not function as normal
lung cells and do not develop into healthy lung tissue. The abnormal cells can grow, form tumours and interfere with the normal functions of the lung
(Lungcancer.org, 2015). Lung cancers can be divided into two major types, namely non–small cell lung cancers (NSCLC) and small cell lung cancers
(SCLC). NSCLC can be further classified into three main subtypes, namely adenocarcinoma, squamous–cell carcinoma and large–cell carcinoma
(Longo & Harrison, 2012). Lung cancers can be diagnosed by chest X–ray, computerised tomography (CT) scan, positron emission
tomography–computerised tomography (PET–CT) scan, bronchoscopy and biopsy (Nhs.uk, 2015). Unfortunately, lung cancers are often diagnosed at
the later stages. This is due to the unrecognisable symptoms and warning signs at the earlier stages. NSCLC are often diagnosed at stage IV which
accounts for 30–40% of cases whereas 60% of SCLC is diagnosed at stage IV.Lung cancer usually originates from the cells lining the bronchi,
bronchioles and alveoli. Carcinogens especially tobacco smoke will alter the gene expression of the normal human lung cells, resulting in cell mutation.
The proto–oncogenes will be converted to mutated form, oncogenes. Mutation leads to the decreased expression of the tumour suppressor genes. This
results in uncontrolled cell proliferation, cell

Literature Review On Atherosclerosis

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