Effect Of The Halo Effect

Effect Of The Halo Effect
In the video, The Halo Effect – Science of Attraction, the speakers conduct an experiment to find
what impact the halo effect has on personal relationships and the way we perceive others. The Halo
Effect is a type of cognitive bias in which our overall impression of a person influences how we feel
and think about his or her character. The experiment consisted of two groups of women seeing two
different sides of the same guy. The team will then investigate how easily we deceive ourselves. Mr.
X AKA Dan provided two videos, one happy and upbeat and the other negative and downbeat. The
experiment is about acceptance of a person through first impressions; do we ignore the bad ones
because of the good ones? It was revealed that both dating ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net
...
In the 90s, at Harvard University, a psychologist Nalini Ambady and her colleagues did multiple
experiments comparing the ratings given to college professors by classes at the end of the semester
with ratings that another group of students gave the same professors based only on three ten–second
silent voice clips shown prior to any actual lectures. They found that both of the groups agreed on
how good or bad the professors were. Another question was brought to the table; is we're not
consciously and rationally judging people, what causes us to initially like or dislike them? Daniel
Kahneman a Nobel Prize–winning author and psychologist believes the answer lies in the 'mental
shortcuts" we use to help us make decisions. An idea, based off a book called What You See Is All
There Is, is that when the mind makes a decision it deals only in 'known knowns' and largely ignores
facts about that might make decisions more complex. For example, when we meet someone that we
know very little about, we decide that we all know is what is true and ignore the new facts. The
lasting effects of this belief can damage relationships with other people.
While reading this article I felt that I could take on any future job interview head on. It gives the
science behind first impressions and suggests advantages to help in your first impression. It is
interesting to know that there is a scientific term for people being attracted to one another. The
concept of thin–slicing is incredible, we break down various situations to make it easier to
understand for
... Get more on HelpWriting.net ...

Perception And Perception Of Perception
The term friendship is defined as a mutual strand of affection between two or more people. It is a
stronger form of interpersonal bond than an association. It is a link between people who show trust
and altruism with one another without the placement of sexual or physical intimacy that commonly
happens in a romantic relationship. Friends tend to share common interests, demographics,
backgrounds, and traits of the self. However, before we get to know a person, we use perception to
categorize them into a certain role. It often causes us to assume that the other party is superior or
inferior to us. We do this more often than not without even realizing we've engaged in perception.
Perception played a very large part in the first meeting of my best friend, Cinda, and I. In Chapter 4:
Interpersonal Perception (Floyd, 2011), there are many examples of the ways in which people
instantly perceive another person as being one way or another. This exact thing happened when I
met Cinda. Our perceptions of one another were not complimentary or nice, in fact, we were
practically enemies at the time. Negativity bias, or the tendency to weigh negative information more
heavily than positive (Floyd, 2011), would describe what we felt with each other. We were unable to
see anything good or complimentary about the other. What exactly brought on these feelings? One
might ask. Well, embarrassingly enough, it all started with a boy; Cinda and I had never even spoke
to each other. Ironically

Essay Meaning and influences of The Halo Effect
Have you ever judged someone by just taking in consideration one physical aspect of that person?
Has that judgment been a positive statement? If it is, you would need to know what the Halo effect
is. This effect consists in making good judgments about a person base on one of his or her character
´s aspect. To make clear, who have never listen or think that beautiful people are smart, or that
people who wear glasses are nerds. I am pretty sure that you have criticized someone by using some
of these statements. Therefore, you have used the Halo Effect to draw conclusions about a person.
This effect can be present in different aspects of our lives like job, education, government, media,
etcetera, and it also can influence our everyday ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Consequently, they have found out that there is a serious difference between "the attractive and
average looking interviewees in terms of high and low status job packages offered". During the
experiment, women interviewers gave more high positions to handsome men than attractive women.
But, on the other hand, men did not have preferences of gender or attractiveness. Beauty is an
influential aspect in different camps such as media or jobs. People may think that beauty human
beings are more intelligent and popular than other people. They are just taking in consideration this
characteristic to employ these people, but they don't see if these people are more capable mentally or
intellectually than other citizens to do certain jobs.
In education, we also can see it. This effect can interfere in how students grade his/her teacher. The
article "Do Goods Look Equal Good Evaluations?" written by Gabriela Montell states clear that
students are taking the physical aspect as an important statement to qualify their teachers. Students'
rates about their professors are based on good–looking and skin's color. Beautiful and white people
have high scores as teachers. This resolution has been a concern to all teachers and professors. They
are not completely sure that they as educators and their pedagogical techniques are competent to
teach their students. Moreover, this effect also can lead to injustices. Professor or teachers can be
fired because of The Halo

Perception And Perception Of Perception
Everybody was born in different situations and with different personalities that makes our world
colorful and complicated. However, the differences in viewing the world between people cause
many problems which is relevant to a concept called perception. In this essay, the concept of
perception will be described through academic definitions and knowledge also with practical
examples. The main objective is to provide readers with a better on what perception is, why it is
important to the study of Organization Behaviour (OB) and the effects and implications of it onto
managers' job.
Perception is defined as the process in which perceivers give meaning to the things they see after
comprehend and rearrange the data in their brains (Robbins, 2014). The final information concluded
by each person can be different comparing to the reality and the others' conclusion. Briefly,
perception is what our brains, instead of our eyes, see.
The main reasons for those differences are the factors that influence perception. Robbins (2014)
divided these factors into three categories which are the perceiver, the target and the situation.
Firstly, factors in the perceiver consist of experiences, motives and emotions (Johns & Saks, 2010).
For example, a person who is happy at the moment will think a flower really beautiful; however,
that same one when he/she is in a good mood will not care or probably show hateful attitude and
behaviour to the flower.
Secondly, factors in the target are as well

Cognitive Biases Are An Influence On An Individuals Method...
It is known that cognitive biases are an influence to an individuals method of decision making.
'Cognitive biases' are the tendencies to think in certain and specific ways which could lead to
systematic reasons to a standard of rationality or good or bad judgement. 'Decisions' are the acts or
processes of deciding out of question or doubt, determination, making a judgement or the act for
making up one's mind to conclude to a selection of choices. 'Conscious and controlled decisions' are
when an individual are in a circumstance or when they are being aware of the decision being made
know they have to make a decision under any requirements they are in. NOTES: Decision making
by Individuals/Critical thinking The decisions made by ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In a study of 79 students, it has been found that the ability to avoid biases as measures of critical
thinking was correlated with more than the traditional laboratory measure of how to measure critical
thinking, and found that the ability to reason logically was due to prior and already experienced
logic conflicts that involved prior beliefs (Stanovich, Toplak & West, 2008). It has been said that
decision making can be processed into focused attention to what may be a relevant aspect in how
some decisions can be problematic and damaging to ones self esteem, finances, family life, social
life, work life, and love life (Böhm & Pfister, 2008). Heuristics Heuristics are general decision
making strategies that people use which are based on not a lot of information, yet sometimes seem
to show a better outcome of making correct decisions (Shah & Oppenheimer, 2008). Heuristics are
mental short cuts that greatly help and reduce cognitive burdens associated with conscious and
controlled decision making (Shah & Oppenheimer, 2008). It has been argued that heuristics reduce
work in decision making in several ways (Shah & Oppenheimer, 2008). Heuristics offers decision
makers the ability to scrutinize signals and alternative choices in decision making. Heuristics also
diminishes work of influential and retrieving information necessary to making a choice or passing
judgement, therefore making it easier for one to make a

Influence Of Cognitive Biases On Decisions
The influence of cognitive biases on decisions Society once had a conjecture that only
discriminatory people used stereotypes, however, studies in unconscious bias now reveal that we all
are guilty of using stereotypes, all the time, without knowing it. Finally, the antagonist of equality
has been found, and it is us. With a limited perspective, we all have a bias view of the world, this is
because we are only capable of hearing, seeing, and reading what is around us. A definitive version
of reality is not subject to one person. Our position in society helps inform our world view, such as,
our race, class, gender, religion, and culture, impacting how we view, respond and react to every
experience. Often times, decision makers or not aware of their bias, which can effect the decisions
being made. To begin, I will define stereotyping as it is expressed in modern society and the impact
of mass media, then I will explain the process of storing stereotypes in the brain, I will give a theory
of why man–kind stereotypes, and then explain how it effects decision making. Stereotyping is one
of many cognitive bias, that allows us to quickly identify strangers as friends or enemies, and with
the use of stereotypes, we classify others as we interact with them, allowing us to know the proper
way to respond (Lebowitz). The scientific definition of stereotyping is; an exaggerated belief, image
or distorted truth about a person or group. A generalization that allows for little or no

A Short Note On Silent And Oral Modes Of Learning
Introduction: The focus of this Investigation Project is Remembering and Forgetting, specifically
Memory. "Memory is often defined as the processing, storage and retrieval of information acquired
through learning." (Grivas, 2013, 263). The Von Restorff effect – also known as the Isolation effect
– is a form of a Memory bias in favour of remembering the unusual. It predicts that "if an item is
isolated, that item is learned faster, retained longer, and recalled better than a non–isolated item"
(Homes, C. & Arbogast, R., 1979) Previous research on the Isolation effect has focussed on which
conditions the isolate is more recalled in. I–Ning Huang and Craig Wille (1979) conducted research
on the difference in recall of the isolate for ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Method:
Participants:
A convenience sample of 40 students (M=10, F=30) aged 16–18 was selected from a senior
secondary college.
Procedure: Two groups were used in the experiment – a control group and an experimental group.
The groups were divided by the class they were attending at the time.
Control Group: The Control Group was shown a list of 16 words, all with a length of 5 letters and
none with any obvious meaning to the participants (Appendix 1¬). The participants were given 1
minute to read and memorise the words and 1 minute immediately following to recall as many as
they could.
Experimental Group: The experimental group was shown the same list of words as the control
group, but with one words written in a different colour to the rest; this was to be the outstanding
item (Appendix 2). The participants were also given 1 minute to read and memorise the words and 1
minute immediately following to recall as many as they could. The independent variable for this
experiment was the colour of the word 'pride'; and the dependent variable was the number of people
that remembered the word 'pride'. Ethical considerations were met by a disclaimer at the top of the
page of words assuring the participants of confidentiality and informing them that they were free to
withdraw from the experiment at any time.
Results:
Figure 1. shows the results for the Control group. 50% of this

Mgmt 3720
The story is about a ski instructor named Miranda who is having several issues with her new boss,
Hank because he has done and said many things over the course of the time that he has been there to
show that he may be sexist. This scenario has a lot to do with perception. Perception is defined as "a
process by which individuals organize and interpret their sensory impressions in order to give
meaning to their environment" (Robbins & Judge, 166). This paper will discuss what perception is
and how much of an impact in can have in the work place.
Miranda's perception of her boss Hank is that he is a sexist. The initial problem that is discussed is
the fact that she did not like the fact that as one of the most experienced ski instructors at ... Show
more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Robbins and Judge claim that consensus happens if everyone who faces a similar situation responds
in the same way. (168). Miranda responds the same way after was told by Nancy's son that the
people at the front desk told him that she was not working that weekend "I thought you weren't here
today; that's what the people at the front desk told me." (Cohen, Fink, Gadon, Willits, & Josefowitz,
2013), and another customer was told the same thing by the front desk people when she asked for
Miranda the following weekend, "But the following weekend, another customer approached
Miranda expressing surprise that she was on the slope because the front desk has said that she had
not shown up." (Cohen, Fink, Gadon, Willits, & Josefowit z, 2013). Miranda stayed optimistic
thinking it was a mistake by her boss. Consistency is when an observer looks for consistency in a
person's actions. Does the person respond the same way overtime? (Robbins & Judge, 168). Hank is
looking for consistency in his employees as he wants the female employees to teach children while
the male employees teach adults. Overtime, Miranda asked a client to go to the front desk and book
an appointment for private classes with her saying "Sure, why don't you just check with the front
desk and let them know what you want?" (Cohen, Fink,Gadon, Willits, & Josefowitz, 2013 ). The
different errors and shortcuts that can influence someone's perception are

How Well Do Individual Investors Perform?
Week2 question
1. How well do individual investors perform? Is the average performance consistent with your
personal experience or expectation?
According to the articles, a statement had been made that the average individual investor
underperforms the market for not taking the cost into consideration. But the performances would be
various across the time horizon. In the long–horizon, the underperformance would exist even
regardless the tax effect or frequently trading. However, in the short horizon, the individual investor
could get the return from the situation contrary to the long run.
The performance is inconsistent with the theory. Based on the efficient market hypothesis, all
investors are rational, they would choose the same portfolios with the same risk to gain the excess
return. Under this hypothesis, the market would work efficiently. However, the transaction cost as
well as the tax payment need to be considered in the real situation. However, it consistent with my
personal experience. People would easily trade frequently because of the market change. Therefore,
the transaction fees of frequently trading would eventually became a large proportion of the cost
which would lead to the underperformance of market.
2. Do you think institutional investors suffer from cognitive biases? Explain why or why not.
Yes. The institutional investors might suffer from the cognitive biases. Compared to the individual
investors, the institutional investors as the skilled investors

How Do Cognitive Biases Influence Decision Making?
CSGC required reading "Problem Solving and Psychological Traps" illustrates how cognitive biases
influence and affect decisions through psychological factors, paradigms and facts and assumptions
in which ultimately affect how an individual makes a decision. Therefore, hidden psychological
traps significantly impact leaders' decision–making processes. Psychological factors termed
heuristics are a mental shortcut based on past experiences for making decisions; sometimes even
referred to as common sense or an easy way to solve problems. Cognitive biases are likely to affect
how and why leaders will make their decisions. If leaders do not surround themselves with an
effective staff (i.e. team) who can identify and communicate the cognitive biases that exist within
one's own framework, ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
According to Hammond, Priestly and Hakes, the confirming–evidence trap "leads us to seek out
information that supports our existing instinct or point of view while avoiding information that
contradicts it." By choosing staff members based primarily on loyalty, MacArthur failed in his
ability to assess the situation and make decisions based on facts rather than assumptions or intuition.
A key decision made by MacArthur based on a cognitive bias was the assignment of MG Almond to
command the X Corps and remain his Chief of Staff. In the Korea 1950 case study MacArthur made
an intuitive decision regarding MG Almond's ability to command X Corps. MacArthur selected MG
Almond because of his loyalty to MacArthur, not because of his experience in amphibious
operations or reputation as a good commander. MacArthur did not even discuss the selection of MG
Almond as the X Corps Commander with the Joint Chiefs of Staff, which troubled the Joint Chiefs.
This decision was strictly based on emotion rather than a deliberative style of

What Is The Dunning-Kruger Effect?
As a child, I believed I would pirouette my way to become the top ballerina at the American Ballet
Theatre, but I was unaware of my title as the worst dancer in class. However, as I watched myself
fumbling on stage on tape, my pride and dreams were soon destroyed. I was thus under the cognitive
bias of the Dunning–Kruger Effect. Mark Murphy's article, "The Dunning–Kruger Shows Why
Some People Think They're Great Even When Their Work is Terrible," explains that incompetent
individuals tend to overestimate their abilities because they are under the Dunning–Kruger Effect.
This effect also exists in other environments besides a children's dance class, such as work
environments. While the false stigma is that poor workers are aware of their overconfidence ... Show
Employees who are under the Dunning–Kruger Effect continue to work at the level they consider
right because their superiors do not correct their errors, assuming it to be acceptable. To illustrate the
effects of a bystander to Dunning–Kruger Effect, take President Donald Trump's advisors. President
Donald Trump's advisors have allowed him to falsely tweet countless unverified stories, including
Barak Obama wiretapping the Oval Office and the Chinese lying about global warming. Even
though the federal government and scientists, respectively, have disproven each story, President
Trump's advisors took no action to prevent the president from making future false remarks online. If
his advisors had corrected the president under the Dunning–Kruger Effect, Trump would have
corrected and improved his public image. This relationship is similar in the work environment; a
leader guiding its subordinates allows for errors. If no corrections are made because managers
assume that the problem would fix itself, then no change will occur. Therefore, as managers allow
failure, they encourage workers to continue to descend into

Priming Effects : The Florida Effect, The Lady Macbeth '
ANSWER Q 1
1. Florida Effect, the Lady Macbeth effect, the money effect, the holding pencil in mouth effect are a
few of many examples of Priming effects, explain how priming works using these as examples.
Lastly, contrast that to the association of ideas and how does it relate to holding a pencil in your
mouth or how pictures of flowers and eyes placed over a coffee and tea station effect our behaviors?
More importantly this presents what flaw in which system?
Feeling that the spirit of the human being contaminated leads to the desire to cleanse the body of this
phenomenon, according Kahneman, this phenomenon called (Lady Macbeth).
Kahneman refers to the "Florida effect" that it involves two stages of priming. First, the set of words
primes thoughts of old age, though the word old is never mentioned; second, these thoughts prime a
behavior, walking slowly, which is associated with old age". For example, the Florida effect As
evoked by Kahneman in his book, reports for an astonishing experiment made on a group of young
students. After reading some words and phrases related to old age, they will tend to behave like
elderly people. we have been introduced to the stranger in ourselves. And they also affect the rest of
our mindset, a priming is one of the most common concepts in Kahneman's book because it can take
many forms. A simple example is to ask what word PA_N is associated with. If we speak of food
just before, the word PAIN will emerge most often. But, if we speak of

Judges Are Judges Vulnerable To Biases
Even though it is hard for people to admit, judges can fall prey to biases. After several studies,
researchers use the term cognitive biases to categorize the group of decision errors that can be made
by judges. Researchers have found that judges appear to be similar to juries in their inability to
disregard legally prejudicial and impermissible facts when deciding on a verdict. Three types of
cognitive biases or illusions have been identified as those which trail judges are most vulnerable.
These include anchoring, hindsight bias, and egocentric biases. These will all be explained further,
including examples. The first type of bias is anchoring, which is very common among civil cases. It
involves giving excessive weight to the initial starting value, "the ... Show more content on
Helpwriting.net ...
This is the tendency to change a previous judgment or decision in the direction of newly provided
information. This is one of the most common errors in everyday human judgement and prediction.
Legal scholars have noted that it is rare to expect people to predict the outcome of past events in real
life. However, people in law are asked to make the type of judgment quite often. Since courts
usually evaluate events after they have happened, judges are extremely vulnerable to hindsight bias.
Researchers note that judges could not help but rely on information that was not available before a
relevant event took place, but that later became available. The susceptibility to hindsight bias is
troubling because judges are frequently expected to suppress their knowledge of some set of facts
before making decisions. An example of this bias can be seen from exactly this. Judges are to ignore
their knowledge of the outcome of a police search for purposes of determining whether the officers
had probable cause to conduct said search. If the evidence found during the search was damning,
this could prove to be incredibly difficult for the judge to write off when making their

Cognitive Biases Essay
In human lives, individuals keep on experiencing about themselves and the world, in which they are
living, which create personal theories about the person itself and social environment. It is that source
of the knowledge for a person, which serves as an individual's cognitive filter and influence different
aspects of individual's thought. Such theories represent cognitive schemata which are mostly not
based on real life experiences. More often they reflect positively biased descriptions of the world or
the self and are therefore often called positive illusions (Taylor & Brown, 1988) or positive
cognitive biases (Cummins & Nistico, 2002). Most commonly described positive illusions include,
positive view of self, illusion of control, and unrealistic optimism. Positive cognitive biases or
positive illusions have been much criticized for their role in maintaining and promoting
psychological well being (Taylor and Brown 1988, 1994). Much of the criticism is based on the
notion that it is rational thought and not the distortion of reality that predicts mental health (Colvin
& Block, 1994; Myers & Brewin, 1996). The answer of this criticism is by differentiating between
delusions and cognitive biases (Cummins and Nistico, 2002). According to them delusional beliefs
are incongruent ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
So BJW has been considered another positive illusion which is not generally caused by direct
experience of just and unjust experience in life (Dalbert, 2001). On the other hand this notion
implies that people perceive more justice for themselves than for others. Although, a recent study by
Sutton et al. (2008), has challenged this claim with the findings that strength of BJW is affected by
knowledge of just and unjust events in the world. There are different strategies which are very useful
for maintaining the belief in a just world in threaten

How Does Mere Exposure Influence Affective Responses
Eddie Harmon–Jones and John J. B. Allen (2001) designed a study that focused on the mere
exposure effect, which states that more exposure to a stimulus results in a positive affect toward that
stimulus. Numerous studies have been conducted based on cognitive responses, but this study
focused on the affective responses. The main purpose of the study was to accept or reject (test) the
hypothesis that mere exposure influences affective responses using other measures than a cognitive
response, such as self–report. They would test this by measuring facial electromyographic or EMG
responses to the stimuli, thus measuring emotional responses. They also had three other hypothesis'
that dealt with the main hypothesis but were more specific. They alos hypothesized that familiar
stimuli would stimulate a larger zygomatic (cheek) muscle region activity and/or smaller corrugator
(brow) muscle region activity compared to novel stimuli and that motivational responses would be
affected by familiarity when evaluating frontal cortical activity. The second purpose of the study
was to determine if individual differeces in affective traits influence the reactions of mere exposure
to stimuli. If ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
It is a correlational study because data was measured without manipulating variables. The study is to
identify a correlation between mere exposure to a stimulus and a positive affect, but cannot
determine the cause. The dependent variables are the self–reported liking and facial EMG responses.
The independent variables are the familiar pictures, novel pictures, heterogeneous order and
individual differences. (familiar vs novel) order, individual differences . the control variables include
the same photographs of ten women, right handed women participants, duration of the experiment,
overall environment, postion of each photograph and exposure time. (explain

Examples Of Positive And Negative Framinging
Engin 270a Quiz
Please complete this quiz and the upload it to the assignment tab when you are finished.
Please define and explain how positive/negative framing works. Please provide one real–world
example.
Framing can be defined as the manipulation of others through the use of their perception of reality
and the social constructs behind their behavior. By playing on the perspective with which one
presents a situation, one can influence the outcome of the decision process of the counterpart. Thus,
positive and negative framing are cognitive biases.
On one hand, negative framing uses the fact that when people are choosing between a sure loss and
a gamble, they tend to be risk seeking and they gamble. On the other hand, positive framing uses the
fact that when people are choosing between a sure win and a gamble, they tend to be risk averse and
choose the certain – perceived as safe – outcome.
Actually, one real–world example of framing is the way the results new drugs are presented to
physicians. Depending on whether or not clinical trials results are presented as "5 out of 10 patients
taking this new drug report not being completely cured" whereas "5 out of 10 patients taking this
new drug report being cured, it influences the decision made by the clinicians. From the
mathematical standpoint, there is no difference between both statements However, what happens in
reality is that this tends to influence physicians' judgements of framing. This generic real–world
example follows several papers in the literature like [1],[2].
Please define and explain how anchoring and adjustment works. Please provide one real–world
example.
Anchoring and adjustment is a cognitive bias insidiously induced by the importance we give to the
first information it perceive. From this systematic mistake, the information imprints itself and we
unconsciously build upon it for future estimates, impressions, judgments of number, persons,
decisions.
Actually, one real–world example of anchoring and adjustment is salary negotiation at play during a
job interview. Recruiters tend to ask the recruit their current/former salary. Afterwards, the move
onto the salary they offer you. What happens is that, our former

Reflective Report On Negotiation
Negotiations: Reflection Report Negotiations are pivotal in everyday life; however, it is in politics
and business where negotiations have the capacity to shape the history and economic future of a
society. This reflective report is a citation of one of negotiation simulation I have been part of my
organization in recent month. This reflective report will first appraise current learning against
personal experience in a multi–party business negotiation. Specifically, I compare and contrast the
various emotions, relationships and coalitions formed in day one and day two of the negotiation. The
outcome will then be measured for its value and 'success' from my perspective as the spokesperson
for the employee representation group. To ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
However, the nature of the negotiation, being a simulation, made it difficult to measure the veracity
of the anchoring effect since the payoffs (70%, 80%, 90% and 100%) were known fixed variables.
The general information provided explicitly stated the MGMT and CONTR conflicting stance on the
integrative issue, so neither parties gained valuable information from the first or counter offer.
Furthermore, following negotiations could not be made in increments less than 10% so my
conjectured capacity to frame and control the negotiation was greatly inhibited. Intra–group
conflicts emerged in the last joint conference, consequently evoking apprehension and vulnerability.
The CONTR's outrageous proposal, to accept a supposed $7.00 share price at the expense of all
other parties, seemingly appealed to the MGMT. MGMT also hinted thoughts of compromising
support for USA based employment in exchange for a longer–term management contract. Cohesion
within the coalition quickly deteriorated, and increasing pressure was put on my role to compromise
with CONTR for a better joint outcome. Simon's (1979) notion of 'satisficing' for an acceptable but
inferior payoff, in the face of uncertainty, became apparent in my own negotiation attempts. I left
Day One verbally assenting to 80% USA employment, a markedly different result to my own target
value. Day Two: Post–new information The last day of

The Dunning-Kruger Effect
Unsuccessful employees are products of unsuccessful employers (Draft 2)
As a child, I believed I would pirouette my way to become the top ballerina at the American Ballet
Theatre, but I was unaware of my title as the worst dancer in the studio. My pride, and my dream,
was soon destroyed as I watched myself fumbling across the stage on tape. I was thus under the
cognitive bias of the Dunning–Kruger Effect. This effect also exists in other environments besides in
a children's dance class, such as work environment relationships. In Mark Murphy's article, "The
Dunning–Kruger Shows Why Some People Think They're Great Even When Their Work is
Terrible," it explains that incompetent workers tend to overestimate their work abilities because they
are ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
In other words, they overestimate their work abilities. Most employers tend to blame incompetence
to the workers' inability to take constructive criticism. To illustrate this belief, in a study of over
10,000 workers, only 39% could accept constructive criticism and learn to adjust their work
performance (Murphy, 2017). The low percentage of workers accepting criticism leds to the
assumption that their work confidence stems from their inability to accept that their work needs to
improve. On the contrary, there are workers who can accept criticism, but continue to underperform
since they assume their work is acceptable enough to continue. Managers have encouraged this
assumption, caused by the Dunning–Kruger Effect, by not informing their employees of their poor
work performance. These unskilled workers have worked without much correction to the point that
they automatically assume they are good enough that they don't need to be corrected. To better
explain, it would be like a child continuing to misbehave as a custom because they were not taught
the proper way to act. In other words, without correct, an act will continue to repeat

Limitations of the Anchoring Effect
Anchoring Effect
Anchoring effect, also known as a relativity trap, is the tendency we have to compare and contrast
only a limited set of items. It is called the anchoring effect because we give disproportionate weight
to the first piece of information we receive. The initial impact of the first information, our
immediate reaction to it, is so significant that it outweighs everything else, 'drowning' our ability to
evaluate a situation. (http://www.entendeo.com/decision_making_and_the_paradox_of_choice.php)
The classic example is an item at the store that is on sale. We tend to see and value the difference in
price, but not the overall price itself. This is why some restaurant menus feature very expensive
entrees, while also including more (apparently) reasonably priced ones. It is also why, when given a
choice, we tend to pick the middle option– not too expensive, and not too cheap.
http://io9.com/5974468/the–most–common–cognitive–biases–that–prevent–you–from–being–
rational4 You depend on anchoring every day to predict the outcome of events, to estimate how
much time something will take or how much money something will cost. When you need to choose
between options, or estimate a value, you need footing to stand on. How much should you be paying
for a new refrigirator? How much should your water bill be each month? What is a good price for a
house in this neighborhood? You need an anchor from which to compare, and when someone is
trying to sell you something they are more

Cognitive Biases
In our daily life we often face with various cognitive biases. Today, there are about 166 types of
cognitive biases. Even though we are rarely able to recognize them, cognitive biases have a great
effect on our way of living. Personally, by analyzing my daily behaviour, as well as people around
me, I can identify four cognitive biases, that occur more often than other. One of them is Law of the
instrument,or in other words an over–reliance on a familiar tool or methods, ignoring or under–
valuing alternative approaches. This cognitive bias I experience very often, since one of the weak
sides of my character is stubbornness and risk aversion, so in my daily behaviour while making any
decision, I tend to rely on a "familiar tool" rather than

Chronic Musculoskeletal Pain : Interpretation Bias...
The current study was designed to explore whether people with chronic musculoskeletal pain show
interpretation bias favoring pain–related interpretations of ambiguous real–world images with both
possible pain–related and non–pain related interpretations. The results did not support the hypothesis
that chronic musculoskeletal pain participants, compared to healthy control participants, would
interpret ambiguous real–world images in pain–related ways. No significant effects were found for
written responses or endorsement of statements. Interpretation bias has been found in studies using
homophone, homonym, and the word–stem completion task. For example, Pincus et al. (1994)
found individuals with chronic pain made more pain–related ... Show more content on
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According to the Threat Interpretation Model proposed by Todd et al. (2015) recently, the degree of
perceived threat of pain has an impact on whether an individual will demonstrate cognitive bias
towards the stimuli. The association between perceived threat and cognitive bias is mediated by
sustained attention. When threat is in medium level, chronic pain patients have difficult disengaging
from pain–related stimuli while healthy individuals can disengage quickly in order to maintain
positive mood. However, when the level of threat is either very low or very high, chronic pain
patients tend to avoid pain–related stimuli, as proposed by fear–avoidant models (Todd et al., 2015).
In the current study, pre–experiment ratings showed that ambiguous images were much less
arousing than pain–related images. It is possible that lack of threat in ambiguous images precluded
observable interpretation bias in chronic pain patients. Secondly, priori power calculation showed a
sample size of 52 was needed to reach a power of 0.8 with a large effect size. However, only 42
participants were successfully recruited, which reduced the power of the current study. However,
previous studies with similar sample sizes (Pincus et al., 1996) found evidence of cognitive biases in
chronic pain patients. On the other hand, we assumed a large effect size based on

Cognitive Biases And Structured Analytic Techniques
There are many cognitive biases that affect the analytic process and inhibit analysts from reaching
the height of their accuracy. Each of these cognitive biases affect thinking in a unique way, but there
are different techniques that can be used to overcome these biases. Most of the time cognitive biases
are not intentional which is why it is so important that measures are taken to reduce the effect of
cognitive biases. Structured Analytic Techniques effectively reduce the effect of cognitive biases in
many different ways. This paper will examine four cognitive biases and Structured Analytic
Techniques that can help intelligence analysts be more accurate and less biased in their analysis.
Anchoring is a cognitive bias in which there ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Outside–in thinking is a strategy that requires analysts to think from the perspective of the outside.
The first step of outside–in thinking is to list all of they forces that could have an impact on a certain
topic or issue. From there the analyst looks at possible factors that could influence that topic such as
policy changes or actions of an adversary. The next step is to analyze how each of those factors
could affect the topic or issue that the analyst is focusing on. The final step of outside–in thinking is
to judge whether or not the factors you identified are relevant to the issue at hand. This process
requires the analyst to first look at all possible information and then work until they have reached a
conclusion. The conclusion is the last step of this process and the analyst is aware of this fact so they
are less likely to only look for information that supports their conclusion. This thinking process is
effective in encouraging analysts to avoid the pitfalls of the confirmation

Cognitive Biases In Research
Cognitive biases refer to the tendencies of thinking in certain ways that can lead to the systematic
deviations from the standard of rationality or the good judgment which are often studied in
behavioral economics and psychology. The reality of biases according to many psychological
scholars is confirmed by the replicable research since there are numerous controversies regarding
the classification and explanation of these biases. Heuristics can be termed as the effects of the
information processing rules or the mental shortcuts that are used by the brain in production of
decisions or judgments (Tversky, Amos; Kahneman, Daniel 1983). The different forms of biases are
cognitive bias also known as "cold" bias and motivational bias also known as ... Show more content
on Helpwriting.net ...
This lends me it building confidence in my own personal beliefs a situation that brought about a
total failure. For instance, during the class discussions I believed to be the most talkative student
without knowing that I was supporting the wrong topic of discussion. In most cases, this
overconfidence brought about embarrassment rather than the success. To rectify these incidences I
had to learn on how to give my fellow group members humble time to contribute to the discussion.
As seen in my experience "my side bias" can lead to poor decision making like in the case of
political and the organizational

The Positive Importance Of The Halo Effect
Managers or coaches should know that sometimes their expectations can be formed by the Halo
effect (a psychological phenomenon that allows a general opinion of someone, to be gathered from
only one element). Despite the fact that influence of the Halo effect, as well as any other perceptual
effect, can have both negative and positive consequences, initial elimination of them will do
managers more objective. The race, gender, age, educational level and class biases, which are rooted
in stereotypes, also, influence the level of expectations that leaders have for employees.
Another factor that has its influence on the result of this conception is employees' acceptance or
resistance. People tend to respond positively to a manager's high expectations and confidence in
their abilities. Although, some employees are resistant to the Pygmalion effect, especially, when they
receive biased feedback. Of course, this doesn't mean that managers should always seek for
employee's acceptance. Careful consideration of target personality and a possibility of resistance can
alter employee's behaviour and trigger powerful effects. Some employees, particularly with a strong
sense of their own, often strive to disprove inaccurate/unappealing expectations by inspiring
imaginative and creative thinking. As usual, this happens when targeted employees are to discount
negative expectations and use other sources such as from peers or other co–workers to form their
perceptions of how competent or

Anxiety And Depression, With Support From Meta Analyses
anxiety and depression, with support from meta–analyses (Bar–Haim et al., 2007; Peckham,
McHugh, & Otto, 2010). Cognitive biases are also frequently explored in patients with chronic pain,
and are predicted by a number of theoretical models, in addition to Beck's schema theory, such as
the Self–Regulatory Executive Function theory (SREF), the Fear–Avoidance (FA) model, and the
Misdirected Problems–Solving (MPS) model. The SREF models argues that metacognitive factors
like beliefs about worry, cognitive confidence, and the need to control thoughts direct and focus
one's attention on disease–related information ((Wells & Matthews, 1996). The FA model suggests
that fear of pain leads to hyper–vigilance towards pain sensations and avoidance ... Show more
content on Helpwriting.net ...
The illness schema, comprised of the affective and behavior consequences of the illness, has been
shown to have an impact on goal achievement and quality of life (Covic et al., 2004). The self–
schema, including self–relevant descriptions and episodes of behaviors, is related to self–esteem.
The self–schema also ensures that self–relevant information is processed first (Pincus & Morley,
2001). The SEMP model argues that the pain schema is enmeshed with the illness and the self
schema when pain experience is continual and remitting. Because pain sensations are self–relevant
for chronic pain patients, prioritized processing of pain information produces congruent cognitive
biases. In certain cases, preference is also given to generally negative information in processing
(Pincus & Morley, 2001). Numerous research has observed cognitive biases, including attentional
bias, memory bias, and interpretation bias in chronic pain patients, as predicted by the models
mentioned above. Attentional bias has been most commonly explored and demonstrated in a range
of paradigms. Two meta–analyses of attentional bias, one on the visual–probe task (Schoth, Nunes,
& Liossi, 2012) and the other on the modified Stroop paradigm (Roelof et al., 2002), concluded that
there is ample evidence showing chronic pain patients selectively

Does Cognitive Bias Influence The Patterns We Exist?
"Humans are pattern seeking animals and we are adept at finding patterns whether they exist or not"
(adapted from Michael Shermer). Discuss knowledge questions raised by this idea in two areas of
knowledge.
My knowledge question is to what extent does cognitive bias influence the patterns we see in life?
Cognitive bias is defined as pattern of distortion in perception and a deviation from rational
decision; irrationality Decision–making, belief and behavioral biases. If a person was to look into
human sciences and mathematics as ways of knowing, he or she would determine that cognitive bias
is present every time a person sees a pattern. However, they are unable to see the bias for themselves
because of the selectivity of perception. Human sciences will be beneficial in answering this
question because looking at studies and experiments previously done on the subject would give
insight into cases in which people use cognitive bias. Fallacies such as the bandwagon effect and the
ambiguity effect could be seen in experiments to help prove or disprove the claim. Mathematics as
an area of knowledge is helpful because it uses logic and reason through values and shapes to
present patterns and it is the most common form of patterns. Also in math we can look at imaginary
and irrational numbers as well as geometry to determine if cognitive bias causes pareidolia in logical
patterns.
My claim for human sciences is that human sciences show

Limitations Of Selective Perception
Selective perception is an aspect that influence decision making corresponding to the hypothesis of
Hastorf and Cantrill which states that out of all the occurrences going on in the environment, people
will choose those that is important to them in their own egocentric perception. Specifically, in the
study of escalation of commitment Biyalogorsky, Boulding, and Staelin established that one of the
most influential drivers of intensification is biased belief updates. In the investigation, students
received statistics regarding recent merchandise with the history of its marketed competitors, based
on this information they had to decide whether the organization should invest 2.5 million to improve
and relaunch the product. Additionally, in the second part of the experiment the students received
new information that was negative about the net present value forecast for the investment. Notably,
the result of the experiment reveals that the student did not update their beliefs concurring to the
new information, and in the final analysis, their evaluation was influenced by their initial beliefs.
Selective perceptive seem to have occurred (Steinkuhler et al. 2014). In a like manner, Keil,
Depledge and Rai's experiment with the students on selective perceptive involved software quality
and its following effect on escalation. First, students were asked to roll–play some were marketed
staffers while others were chosen as quality assurance staffers. Comparatively, the student who was

Example Of Confirmation Bias
Confirmation Bias The confirmation bias is about us giving priority or being biased towards
information that affirms preceding and existing beliefs or experiences. Suppose that a person
believes that people who are left handed are more creative compared to right handed people. On any
occasion the person with this belief meets a person that is creative and also left handed they regard
this evidence quite important as it confirms their existing belief. They also might find proof further
to back up the belief and will disregard other examples which do not support the fundamental belief.
While confirmation biases have an influence on people collecting information they also have an
impact how information is being interpreted and ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
Necessarily, we have the tendency to believe that are successfulness are mainly because of our inner
characteristics and abilities. Although the failures experienced are a cause of the variables which
cannot be manipulated. In terms of how the Self–Serving Bias operates in our day to day life, if you
get an A+ in an exam this bias will steer a belief within you which is that you prepared well for the
exam. At the same time by any chance if you failed the exam again it will make you believe that the
teacher did not do justice to this subject by teaching properly, the heat in the classroom was terrible
or you were disturbed by someone the night prior to the exam. This bias occurs mainly for people to
keep their self–esteem in place. By the attribution of positive situations to personal traits, the
confidence in one is boosted. Also by casting the blame to the external sources people secure their
self–esteem as well as deliver themselves from the individual control they may have over a
situation. There are also many factors that influence the Self–Serving Bias such as age, gender,
culture, one's mental state and

Theories Regarding Behaviors And Cognitive Biases And The...
In recent years politicians and foundations have focused attention on the large numbers of students
who begin college but never finish. More than 40 percent of full–time starting students fail to
complete within six years, and more than 70 percent of community college students fail to complete
within three years (NCES 2012). Whether or not these rates are a sign of a problem, it remains true
that the nation would gain the benefit of more college graduates if policies could be identified that
would substantially increase graduation rates, assuming the increase does not come with a reduction
in standards or a problematic shift in majors. The goal of this paper is to apply theories regarding
behaviors and cognitive biases to the task of improving college outcomes. We start by making some
simplifying assumptions about the motivations of college students in order to pinpoint relevant
barriers to student progress. This allows us to tap the research literature for strategies to consider
applying, including altering incentives. In the second section, we discuss behaviors to which these
strategies can be applied, and we describe some approaches that could be considered. The point of
college is to create independent and self–motivated learners. The reader should be warned that the
lists of possible experiments, when reviewed en masse, can create a disturbing specter of students
being micromanaged through every aspect of a college education. In considering creative use of
incentives,

The Self-Serving Bias Essay
In this comic strip by Matt Groening, the main character, Bongo, is being picked on by another
character that is telling him "that everyone in the world hates your guts." Generally, most individuals
perceive their selves as being "better than average." We are familiar with our own talents, thoughts,
feelings, and emotions more so than anybody else's. This leads to a self–serving bias. In the comic,
Bongo reassures himself of his "greatness" until he looks in the mirror. The mirror causes Bongo to
be more self–aware of his uncertainty. I chose this particular comic not only because it illistrates the
self–serving bias, but also because of the way it incorporates the mirror and Bongo's self–awareness.
The text defines self–serving bias as ... Show more content on Helpwriting.net ...
If an undesirable action cannot be forgotten or undone, then often it is justified. Social psychological
research has established, that our past actions influence our current attitudes. Every time we act, we
increase the idea behind what we have done, especially when we feel some responsibility for having
committed the act. In experiments, people who oppress someone, take the Stanford prison
simulation by Dr. Phillip Zimbardo for example, tend later to criticize their victim. The self–serving
bias is universal. Even education does not eliminate this bias.
Let's discuss some elements of the self–serving bias. First individuals often seem to have an
unrealistic optimism. You can call this the "It won't happen to me" attitude. Optimism predisposes a
positive approach to life. Sometimes this unrealistic optimism can make an individual seem larger
than life. For example, students who are overconfident tend to under prepare. Another example of
unrealistic optimism can be seem in newly weds. Most couples marry feeling confident of long term
love when in reality half of all marriages fail. The false consensus effect is the tendency to
overestimate the commonality of one's opinions and one's undesirable or unsuccessful behaviors.
When we behave badly or fail in a task we reassure ourselves by thinking that such mistakes are
common. Individuals presume that others have the same

Essay On Hostile Media Bias
People who perceive media bias will factor in the news source when they attempt to formulate
opinions of ideological bias in the news content. This idea is called the hostile media phenomenon
or hostile media effect. In a groundbreaking study in 1985, researchers, Vallone, Ross, and Lepper,
postulated that when there is a controversial issue, a partisan is more likely to perceive bias against
their viewpoint, even if the information is coming from an objective news source. The causes effects
of the hostile media are far–ranging and several researchers have come to different conclusions
about them. Researchers like Kevin Coe, David Tewksbury, Bradley J. Bond, Kristin L. Drogos,
Robert W. Porter, Ashley Yahn, and Yuanyuan Zhang in their 2008 ... Show more content on
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The writers argue that the phenomenon appears to involve two separate mechanisms. They say,
"First, partisans evaluated the fairness of the media 's sample of facts and arguments differently: in
light of their own divergent views about the objective merits of each side 's case and their
corresponding views about the nature of unbiased coverage" (Vallone et al., 1985). Their second
finding was that "partisans reported different perceptions and recollections about the program
content itself; that is, each group reported more negative references to their side than positive ones,
and each predicted that the coverage would sway nonpartisans in a hostile direction" (Vallone et al.,
1985). The researchers had the viewers complete a questionnaire about the fairness and objectivity
of the news programs after the videotape was shown. They were asked questions about "the
standards applied to Israel in relation to the standards applied to its adversaries, the amount of
attention focused on Israel 's role in the massacre, the strength with which the positive case for and
the negative case against Israel was presented, and the apparent personal views of the editors
responsible for the programs" (Vallone et al., 1985). The results of the study were scored from 1–9,
1 being biased against Israel and 9 being biased in favor Israel. In every category, pro–Israeli and
pro–Arab respondents had opposing viewpoints and were always on the opposite sides of

Pros And Cons Of Cognitive Biases
The purpose of this leadership issue paper is to address the effects cognitive biases have on decision
making, thus by stating the merits and demerits of cognitive biases as they pertain to
management/leadership and healthcare. This leadership issue paper is organized using a systematic
approach where the reader can distinctly identify the pros and cons of cognitive biases on decision
making. It is the author's belief that cognitive biases do more harm than help in the process of
decision making. The paper includes four scholarly articles to support the author's position with a
recommendation and provide the reader with a perspective on the relationship between cognitive
biases and decision making.
Introduction Faced with the imperfectability of decision making, researchers have sought to achieve
an optimal way where people can make decisions if not perfect, at least that will deliver a better
outcome. Whether it is a manager trying to hire people, a nurse/doctor trying to make a clinical
decision, and or a lay person trying to decide what to eat for lunch we all decide in some shape way
or form. One of the ways decision making can be affected is through cognitive biases. In general
term, bias refers to "an inclination or prejudice for or against one person or group, especially in a
way considered to be unfair" (Oxford English Dictionary). These inclinations are mostly driven ...
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To distinguish the pros and cons of cognitive biases, the biases should be dealt in a case by case
scenario. However, there are groups that benefit from using the main cognitive biases, and those are
the media, business marketing, and politicians. These groups play to the erroneous intuition that
people usually depend on to make their

What Is Negativity Bias?
"A word of scandal spreads like a spot of oil." As the old saying goes, negative events always have a
higher impact than positive events. This phenomenon, referred as the negativity bias (Baumeister et
al. 2001; Rozin and Royzman 2001), is ubiquitous in our daily life. Ill news travels faster than good
ones (Basu 1997). Negative feedback have a higher impact than positive feedback (Basuroy et al.
2003, Chevalier and Mayzlin 2006). And negative experiences are easier to recall (Baumeister et al.
2001, Huang et al. 2014). Indeed, negativity bias exists in different ways and it has been identified
as a cognitive bias that is persistent and difficult to correct. The consequences of the negativity bias,
which is obvious that people are exposed to more negative information, become more conservative
(Basu 1997) and may end with sub–optimal judgments or decisions. It is notable that the literature
has attempted to explore the possible accounts for negativity bias (Baumeister et al. 2001; Rozin and
Royzman 2001; Taylor 1991; Fiske 1980; Peeters and Czapinski 1990). The literature has also
established the effect of information technologies on different decision biases. In general,
information technologies could alleviate decision biases effectively. Previous research have shown
that IT can mitigate the sunk cost effect bias (Herrmann et al. 2015), anchoring and adjustment bias
(George et al. 2000), base rate bias (Roy and Lerch 1996), and the first impression bias (Lim et al.
2000).

Effective Appraisal Approaches And Its Influence On...
In business, in the word of investment can be defined as the outflow of money for the purchase of
valuable item with an expectation of positive future return or the purchase of equipment or
inventory by owner in order to improve future business. (Kahraman, 2011) Moreover, the part of
decision–making acts a crucial role in business investment that depends upon the investor's profit
expectation, the availability to finance the investment and the potential cost of assets. (Virlics, 2013)
However, risk and uncertainty are the basic terms to the decision–making framework. Risk can be
defined as the probability of outcomes or loss that is caused by internal or external vulnerabilities
where the probabilities of the possible negative occurrence ... Show more content on
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(Kahneman & Tversky, 1979) It also can be assigned by the probabilities and calculated by taking
the average of weight of all possible outcomes under certain circumstance. (Investopedia
organization, 2015) To be more specific, the expected utility of an act is a weighted average of the
utilities out of their potential outcomes, where the utilities of an outcome measures the extent to
which that outcome is preferred to the alternatives. The utility of each outcome is weighted
depending on the probability of which outcome will it be led to. (Stanford University, 2014)
On the other hand, the form of prospect theory is developed by Kahneman & Tversky (1992)
through a value function (1979), which is defined on gains and losses that related to a reference
point, and is normally curving inward for gains, commonly curving outward for losses. Additionally,
prospect theory can be defined as a descriptive model of decision–making under risk, which is
designed to better explain how individuals actual choice–making between different options and
prospects. It also evaluates an outcome based on the alternation of total resources and judges by
gains and losses that related to the status. (Wen, 2010) Under prospect theory, value is allocated to
gains and losses rather than to final assets. Moreover, the investment decision–making is an analogy
to the behaviour of

Cognitive And Perceptual Biases
What approaches can an analyst use to reduce cognitive and perceptual biases? Perceptual and
cognitive biases are two different challenge that almost all analysts face in the performance of their
duties. There are many ways that cognitive and perceptual biases can influence the analyst and their
final product even without the analyst knowing or realizing that these biases are present. It would be
wise for any analyst to use more than one analytical method in their attempt to remove their own
personal biases. Three methods of eliminating an analysts perceptual and cognitive biases are the
Analysis of Competing Hypotheses (ACH), Key Assumption Check and the Devil's Advocacy
methods.
The first way to prevent the influence of biases is to utilize ... Show more content on
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This analytical method is useful in eliminating those possible outcomes or hypothesis that our biases
have accepted to be true.2 This method explain the logic behind various hypotheses and can expose
faulty or false information or reality's. It helps the analysts understand the key factors of an issue
and activate their critical thinking skills in regards to the issue.2 The last method an analyst could
use is the devil's advocacy method more commonly used to challenge a majority held point of view
by establishing a detailed case for an alternative explanation. This method "outlines the mainline
judgment and key assumptions and characterizes the evidence supporting that current analytic
view."2 This method would then use the information in determining whether any of the analysis is
questionable in its validity or if any biases exist in the information.
References:
Heuer, Richards J. "Psychology of Intelligence Analysis". https://www.cia.gov/library/center–for–
the–study–of–intelligence/csi–publications/books–and–monographs/psychology–of–intelligence–
analysis/art11.html (Accessed on 10JUL14)
U.S. Government. "A Tradecraft Primer: Structured Analytic Techniques for Improving Intelligence
Analysis". https://www.cia.gov/library/center–for–the–study–of–intelligence/csi–
publications/books–and–monographs/Tradecraft%20Primer–apr09.pdf (Accessed on

Transcript: The Most Important Exchanges Of The...
SS
BG
Philosophy
17 April 2017
Bias Analysis "Transcript: The Most Important Exchanges of the Presidential Debate, Annotated."
Los Angeles Times. Los Angeles Times, 26 Sept. 2016. Web. 12 Apr.
2017.http://www.latimes.com/politics/la–na–pol–debate–transcript–clinton–trump–20160926–snap–
htmlstory.html The transcript cited above is between Donald Trump and Hillary Clinton. This
argument shows different biases throughout the speech. This transcript is of Donald Trump and
Hillary Clinton both arguing with each other about policy ideas, and policy issues in the public.
They are arguing on issues of trade and economic policies. Cognitive bias is an error in thinking that
affects the decisions people make. In the debate between Donald Trump ... Show more content on
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Throughout the article, Moskowitz and Wertheim identify examples of strategies that are not win–
maximizing. Examples such as punting in football, pulling the goalie to late in the game of hockey,
and benching players with five fouls in the NBA. From the debate over trade and economic policy I
was able to identify an example of loss aversion. An example of loss aversion is gaining trade over
the economic policy. Losing trade is an example of loss aversion because people need trading for
items that we do not have in the United States and need from other parts of the country.
Moralization has two perspectives in a conflict. Stated by Steven Pinker, "The Moralization Gap
consists of complementary bargaining tactics in the negotiation for recompense between a victim
and a perpetrator" (Pinker 491). Perpetrators point of view is action that was reasonable, we have
time to put it behind us, and is when harm has ceased. Victims point of view is when the only
motive was evil, you never forget it, and the harm is high. An example I found was stated by

Using Cognitive Biases In Research
At first I did not know what the meaning of cognitive biases is, so I had to do some research to
better understand the meaning. From what I have research cognitive biases is basically you see what
you want, and look for things to confirm what you are looking for essentially ignoring or
disregarding any information that disproves your believe. According to CIA.gov it states that
"Cognitive biases are mental errors caused by our simplified information processing strategies. It is
important to distinguish cognitive biases from other forms of bias, such as cultural bias,
organizational bias, or bias that results from one's own self–interest."(CIA.gov, 2012) another way
to look at cognitive biases is that it is a subconscious decision made on a certain issue. I feel that the
best way for intelligence analyst to reduce or overcome the thought of cognitive biases would be to
always look at the different perspectives to an occurrence before judging it too greatly. ... Show
An analyst can also reduce their cognitive biases by simply using critical thinking to think through
the issue or problem allowing the brain to identify logic, reason and empiricism. Using critical
thinking also allows the analyst not to rush into any conclusions or decision that may be wrong or
miss leading. Leading to the intelligence to be more precise trustworthy. In since the events of 9/11
could be used as an example of cognitive biases although the threat was there people has a belief
that an attack of that magnitude could never happen in America. People only wanted to see what
they wanted, end result was that information was potently ignored or

The Halo Effect On Job Prospects
Beautiful people use their looks to gain better job prospects however the argument is, is it really on
their attractiveness, weather it being their looks or how they come across. There is an old saying that
no matter what people look like its how a person presents them self's, this however shows how
peoples perception is caused by the Halo effect, this is a cognitive bias of ones impression on that
person. This bias can influences the individual's behaviour and cause judgments taken apron that
person. Also known as the "physical attractiveness stereotype" and the "what is beautiful is good".
The halo effect refers to how people are rated by their attractiveness of individuals more for their
personality and their traits and characteristics. The Halo effect is also used to describe an impression
of a person and see's their likeable personality, and their success, which is caused by creating a
biased judgment therefor, the effect can have a influence how people are treated. The halo effect as a
huge impact on job applicants as the employer is looking at their appearance and weather there
attractiveness would fit in before they look at their academic intelligence. Kanazawa, (2004).
Valentine, Darling, and Donnelly (2004) suggest that the images of faces can be manipulated to
make their appearance more attractive of their face. For example, the shapes of the face are to be
made closer and are to be perceived as better appearance. The influences are often confounded in

Effect Of The Halo Effect

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