1. 1

2. Diversity Patterns and the Conservation
of Amphibians and Reptiles
in the Philippines
Arvin C. Diesmos
National Museum of the Philippines
Mae Lowe L. Diesmos
University of Santo Tomas
Rafe M. Brown
University of Kansas
2

3. Rediscoveries
Taylor’s Igorot Frog Rana igorota
Balbalasang-Balbalan Natural Park, Luzon Island. March 2000. Photo by RMB.
3

4. Rediscoveries
Philippine Flat-headed Frog Barbourula busuangensis
Puerto Princesa, Palawan Island. January 2002. Photo by ACD.
4

5. Rediscoveries
Mindanao Caecilian Ichthyophis mindanaoensis
Mt. Kitanglad, Mindanao Island. April 2003. Photo by ACD.
5

6. Rediscoveries
Philippine Forest Turtle Siebenrockiella leytensis
Dumaran, Palawan Island. April 2002. Photo by ACD.
6

7. New Discoveries
Southern Luzon Limestone Frog Platymantis biak
Biak-Na-Bato National Park, Luzon Island. January 2009. Photo by ACD.
7

8. New Discoveries
Southern Luzon Limestone Forest Gecko Gekko carusadensis
Biak-Na-Bato National Park, Luzon Island. March 2010. Photo by ACD.
8

9. New Discoveries
Northern Sierra Madre Forest Monitor Lizard Varanus bitatawa
Isabela Province, Luzon Island. April 2005. Photo by ACD.
9

10. New Discoveries
Northern Sierra Madre Forest Monitor Lizard Varanus bitatawa
Isabela Province, Luzon Island. April 2005. Photo by ACD.
10

11. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
New Species Discoveries
Endemic
Non-endemic
Brown & Diesmos 2002; Brown, Diesmos & Alcala 2008.
11

12. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
New Species Discoveries
 Morphological (traditional techniques)
 Bioacoustics
 Genetics
12

13. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Asian amphibian diversity &
endemism: Present
Timor
Pakistan
Singapore
Taiwan
endemics
Napal
Nepal
nonendemics
Laos
Sri Lanka
Philippines
Thailand
Indonesia
China
0 100 200 300
0 100 200 300
Global Amphibian Assessment (GAA; www.globalamphibians.org); Stuart et al. 2008.
13

14. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Projected diversity and endemism
Timor
Pakistan
Singapore
Taiwan
endemics
Nepal
Napal
nonendemics
Laos
Sri Lanka
Philippines
Thailand
Indonesia
China
0
0 100
100
200
200
300
300
Brown & Diesmos 2002; Brown 2004; Brown, Diesmos & Alcala 2008.
14

15. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Projected diversity and endemism
Timor
Pakistan
Singapore
Taiwan
endemics
Nepal
Napal
nonendemics
Laos
Sri Lanka
Philippines
Thailand
Indonesia
China
0
0 100
100
200
200
300
300
Brown & Diesmos 2002; Brown 2004; Brown, Diesmos & Alcala 2008.
14

16. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Habitat loss/Deforestation
The primary cause of biodiversity
loss and extinction of species in
the Tropics.
e.g., Simberloff 1986; Wilson 1988; Whitmore & Sayer 1992; Myers et al. 2000; Laurance & Peres 2006.
15

17. Legal and illegal logging.
Image by RM Brown, Mt. Busa, Sarangani Province, Mindanao, 1993.
16

18. Intensive and extensive kaingin farming.
Image by AC Diesmos, San Mariano, Isabela Province, Luzon, 2006.
17

19. Destructive mining is the greatest threat to
remaining forests.
Image from flickr.com/photos/storm-crypt/.
18

20. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Forest
Original & secondary
(natural) forest
DENR 2003; FAO 2007; Conservation International Philippines GIS Program.
19

21. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Deforestation rates (%) among
selected Southeast Asian countries
1990–2000 2000–2005
Philippines 2.8 2.1
Indonesia 1.7 2.0
Cambodia 1.1 2.0
Malaysia 0.4 0.7
Thailand 0.7 0.4
Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) 2007.
20

22. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
General Question
How does habitat destruction
impact herpetofaunal biodiversity?
21

23. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Objectives
 Describe the patterns of distribution of
amphibians and reptiles in terms of
biogeography, elevation, and habitat
preference
 Correlate the observed patterns with species
richness, endemicity, distribution of
threatened species and their habitats
22

24. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Databases
 Habitat data: based on Forest Management
Bureau (2003) and FAO (2007)
 Topography: based on Forest Management
Bureau (2003); NAMRIA maps; literature
 Amphibians and reptiles: Global Amphibian
Assessment (www.globalamphibians.org);
Global Reptile Assessment (unpublicized);
HerpWatch Philippines (www.herpwatch.org);
literature; own field data
23

25. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Data Analyses
 Gradient analysis; non-metric
multidimensional scaling, NMDS (PC-ORD)
 Parametric and non-parametric tests:
ANOVA, χ2 , correlation, regression (JMP ver.
5.1)
 Excluded marine & introduced species
 Conservation status of species from IUCN
(2010)
McCune & Mefford 1999; MjM Software, Oregon, USA; SAS Institute, NC, USA; <www.iucnredlist.org>
24

26. Results & Discussion
25

27. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 1
Biogeography
Inger 1954; Heaney 1985; Brown & Diesmos 2002, 2009.
26

28. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 1
Biogeography
 Herpetofauna is generally distributed
according to paleo-islands: Pleistocene
Aggregate Island Complex (PAIC)
Inger 1954; Heaney 1985; Brown & Diesmos 2002, 2009.
26

29. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
PAIC
Pleistocene Aggregate
Island Complex
Inger 1954; Heaney 1985; Brown & Diesmos 2002, 2009.
27

30. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
PAIC
Pleistocene Aggregate
Island Complex
Inger 1954; Heaney 1985; Brown & Diesmos 2002, 2009.
28

31. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
1
Centers of 2
biodiversity &
endemism
3
4 6
5
8
7
9
Inger 1954; Heaney 1985; Ong et al. 2002; Brown & Diesmos 2002, 2009.
29

32. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 1
Biogeography
 Herpetofauna is generally distributed
according to paleo-islands: Pleistocene
Aggregate Island Complex (PAIC)
Brown & Diesmos 2002; Brown & Guttman 2002; Evans et al. 2003; Esselstyn et al. 2008; Brown & Diesmos, 2009.
30

33. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 1
Biogeography
 Herpetofauna is generally distributed
according to paleo-islands: Pleistocene
Aggregate Island Complex (PAIC)
 Significant exceptions: dispersal events have
also occurred INTO, WITHIN, and OUT OF
the Philippines well before the Pleistocene
and PAIC landmass formations (i.e., Eocene
or Oligocene, > 30 million years ago)
Brown & Diesmos 2002; Brown & Guttman 2002; Evans et al. 2003; Esselstyn et al. 2008; Brown & Diesmos, 2009.
30

34. WITHIN The Philippines
31

35. 32

36. 32

37. 33

38. 33

39. INTO & OUT OF
The Philippines
34

40. More ancient dispersal events
Blackburn et al. 2010.
35

41. More ancient dispersal events
Blackburn et al. 2010.
36

42. More ancient dispersal events
Blackburn et al. 2010.
37

43. More ancient dispersal events
Blackburn et al. 2010.
38

44. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Species
richness
Patterns of
Distribution 2
Richness &
geography
*(r = 0.18, df = 209, p = 0.008)
39

45. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Species
richness
Patterns of
Distribution 2
Richness &
geography
*(r = 0.18, df = 209, p = 0.008)
39

46. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 3
Richness vs. elevation
300
Richness 150
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
40

47. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 3
Richness vs. elevation
Reptiles
300
Richness 150
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
40

48. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 3
Richness vs. elevation
Reptiles
300 Amphibians
Richness 150
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
40

49. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 3
Endemicity vs. elevation
400
Non-endemic
Endemic
300
No. of species
200
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
41

50. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Stratified distribution pattern
in elevation
Diesmos et al. 2002; image by AC Diesmos, Mt. Mayon, Albay Province, Luzon, 2004.
42

51. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Stratified distribution pattern
in elevation
Diesmos et al. 2002; image by AC Diesmos, Mt. Mayon, Albay Province, Luzon, 2004.
42

52. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Stratified distribution pattern
in elevation
Species F
Species E
Species D
Species C
Species B
Species A
Diesmos et al. 2002; image by AC Diesmos, Mt. Mayon, Albay Province, Luzon, 2004.
42

53. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Stratified distribution pattern
in elevation
Species F
Species E
Species D
Species C
Species B
Species A
Diesmos et al. 2002; image by AC Diesmos, Mt. Mayon, Albay Province, Luzon, 2004.
42

54. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 4
Reproductive mode vs. elevation
Direct development
Oviparous
60
No. of species
40
20
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
43

55. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Direct development vs. elevation
Species
(direct developers)
0 500 1000 1500
Elevation
44

56. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Direct development vs. elevation
Species
(direct developers)
0 500 1000 1500
Elevation
44

57. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Platymantis
Direct
Philautus
Developers
Oreophryne
45

58. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
46

59. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 5
Ecological variables
47

60. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 5
Taxa & ecological variables
48

61. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 6
Threatened & endemic species
400
Endemics
Threatened
species
300
No. of species
200
100
0
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
49

62. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
200
Richness 100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
50

63. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
Luzon
200
Richness 100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
50

64. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
Luzon
200 Mindanao
Richness 100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
50

65. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
Luzon
200 Mindanao
West Visayas
Richness 100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
50

66. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
Luzon
200 Mindanao
West Visayas
Mindoro
Richness 100
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
50

67. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
Luzon
200 Mindanao
West Visayas
Mindoro
Richness 100 Palawan
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
50

68. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Forest
Original & secondary
(natural) forest
DENR 2003; FAO 2007; Conservation International Philippines GIS Program.
51

69. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Numbers of species predicted to
become extinct with current habitat loss
Batanes
Babuyan
Luzon
Mindoro
Romblon–Sibuyan
Palawan Predicted
extinctions
West Visayas
Gigante
Camiguin
Mindanao
Jolo–Tawitawi
0 40 80 120
Number of species
52

70. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Numbers of species predicted to
become extinct with current habitat loss
Batanes
Babuyan
Luzon
Mindoro
Romblon–Sibuyan
Palawan Predicted
extinctions 19–55%
West Visayas
Gigante
Camiguin
Mindanao
Jolo–Tawitawi
0 40 80 120
Number of species
52

71. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Top PAICs with highest proportions and
numbers of predicted species extinctions
Rank PAIC Predicted extinct
1 West Visayas 55.1% (42 species)
2 Mindoro 41.2% (38 species)
3 Gigante 36.1% (3 species)
4 Batanes 33.7% (5 species)
5 Luzon 33.5% (38 species)
53

72. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Synopsis
54

73. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Synopsis
 Biogeography is generally understood but
recent studies indicate high complexity and
needs resolution through fine-scaled studies
54

74. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Synopsis
 Biogeography is generally understood but
recent studies indicate high complexity and
needs resolution through fine-scaled studies
 Low elevation habitats are species-rich
54

75. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Synopsis
 Biogeography is generally understood but
recent studies indicate high complexity and
needs resolution through fine-scaled studies
 Low elevation habitats are species-rich
 Species influenced by distribution of key
microhabitats and other environmental
variables
54

76. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Synopsis
 Biogeography is generally understood but
recent studies indicate high complexity and
needs resolution through fine-scaled studies
 Low elevation habitats are species-rich
 Species influenced by distribution of key
microhabitats and other environmental
variables
 Hotspots of herpetofaunal conservation: West
Visayas, Mindoro, Batanes, Gigantes
54

77. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
55

78. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
 Significant implications to current
conservation management efforts because of
heavy focus on protection of high-elevation
forests and intact (pristine) habitats
55

79. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
 Significant implications to current
conservation management efforts because of
heavy focus on protection of high-elevation
forests and intact (pristine) habitats
➡ Palawan Strategic Environment Plan (SEP)
➡ National Integrated Protected Areas System
(NIPAS)
55

80. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
Luzon
200 Mindanao
West Visayas
Mindoro
Richness 100 Palawan
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
56

81. Introduction Methods Results & Discussion Conclusions
Patterns of Distribution 7
Richness vs. elevation per PAIC
Luzon
200 Mindanao
West Visayas
Mindoro
Richness 100 Palawan
0 500 1000 1500 2000
Elevation
56

82. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
 Significant implications to current
conservation management efforts because of
heavy focus on protection of high-elevation
forests and intact (pristine) habitats
➡ Palawan Strategic Environment Plan (SEP)
➡ National Integrated Protected Areas System
(NIPAS)
57

83. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
 Significant implications to current
conservation management efforts because of
heavy focus on protection of high-elevation
forests and intact (pristine) habitats
➡ Palawan Strategic Environment Plan (SEP)
➡ National Integrated Protected Areas System
(NIPAS)
 Conservation efforts should embrace
protection of remaining natural habitats and
ecological restoration
57

84. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
58

85. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
 Hotspots cannot afford to lose more habitat.
A critical threshold has already been reached,
especially in the Western Visayas and
Mindoro, and in small island centers of
endemism of Batanes and Gigante island
groups.
58

86. Introduction Methods Results Discussion Conclusions
Conservation Implications
 Hotspots cannot afford to lose more habitat.
A critical threshold has already been reached,
especially in the Western Visayas and
Mindoro, and in small island centers of
endemism of Batanes and Gigante island
groups.
 Lack of basic survey, natural history
information, and autecological data
undermines our ability to accurately assess
conservation status of many species.
58

87. Acknowledgments
Thank you very much!
• Liceo de Cagayan University
• Funding and logistical support: Rufford Small Grant for
Nature Conservation, National University of Singapore,
Turtle Survival Alliance, Conservation International
Philippines, National Museum of the Philippines,
University of Kansas, US National Science Foundation
• Permits: Protected Areas and Wildlife Bureau (DENR)
• Valuable advice from: Angel Alcala
• Numerous colleagues from the Philippines and US
• Wildlife Conservation Society of the Philippines
• Our families
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88. 60