Book Discussion ExampleEthical egoism fosters an environment of .docx

Book Discussion Example
Ethical egoism fosters an environment of competition and
promotes lack of self-lessness. Because self-interest differs
from person to person, competition to fulfill personal self-
interest becomes acceptable. For example, many people who
have careers in the trade of business view personal gratification
and fulfillment as essential to success. Pursuing one’s self
interest demands that individual desires are elevated above
another’s. Ethical egoism does not allow consideration for
another person’s needs or permit aiding someone to reach their
personal goals (Debelijak & Krkac, 2008). This philosophy
fundamentally alters how society and individuals uphold or
value standards of morality. If one’s goal in life is to seek
personal satisfaction, then it is morally justified via ethical
egoism. However, there are serious ramifications to this self-
seeking ethical philosophy.
Ethical egoism advocates individual preservation above the
common welfare of society. If one’s desire is to steal believing
he is justified because his own self-interest is being fulfilled,
then he commits the crime with the belief that he is morally
justified in doing so. An action is moral so long as self-interest
is the only goal being achieved. Individual interests and social
welfare are often in conflict due to the reality that self-interest
does not permit self-sacrifice. Ethical egoism mandates that
social welfare is not a priority, not even a consideration when
contemplating how best to pursue one’s self-interest (Olson,
1961). This corrupt pattern of thinking creates a fixation on
individual preservation rather than universal prosperity.
Therefore, the only one benefiting from ethical egoism is a
single individual. Everyone’s needs are not met nor are they
considered important. It is a human being’s tendency to value or
pursue self-interest at the cost of common welfare and
prosperity.
Individualism states that the interests or desires of an

individual are regarded as supreme. Individualism is often
associated with the ethical egoism because an individual’s
desires are considered paramount above the collective society.
As a result, the individual relates to society or their community
based upon what said community can offer them as an
individual. There exists no internal motive to assist another
individual in pursing their desires or achieving their goals.
Ethical egoism is self-centered by nature which causes a
disconnect and lack of care for another’s prosperity (Gantt &
Burton, 2013).
I believe that the only benefit to pursuing self-interest is
temporary fulfillment of a particular desire. A society or
community cannot benefit from each individual seeking self-
satisfaction. This self-centered philosophy ultimately leads to
competition and misplaced animosity between people. It would
be impossible to encourage, uplift, or connect with others if we
are viewing each other as obstacles or hindrances to our selfish
desires. I find ethical egoism to personify the selfish, depraved
nature characteristic of human beings. If self-interest is the idol
to be worshipped, then other people will suffer the
concequences of such narrow-minded thinking. I believe that
many people benefit when we put aside our self-interest to
acknowledge and consider another person’s needs above our
own.
Works Cited:
Debelijak, J. & Krkac, K. (2008). “Me, myself & I”: Practical
egoism, selfishness, self-interest
and business ethics. Social Responsibility Journal, 4(1/2),
217-227.
Gantt, E. E., & Burton, J. (2013). Egoism, altruism, and the
ethical foundations of personhood.
Journal of Humanistic Psychology, 53(4), 438-460.

Olson, R.G. (1961). Ethical egoism and social
welfare. Philosophy and Phenomenological
Research, 21(4), 528-536.
Computers in Human Behavior 39 (2014) 387–392
Contents lists available at ScienceDirect
Computers in Human Behavior
j o u r n a l h o m e p a g e : w w w . e l s e v i e r . c o m / l o c
a t e / c o m p h u m b e h
Five days at outdoor education camp without screens improves
preteen
skills with nonverbal emotion cues
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2014.05.036
0747-5632/� 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd.
This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
⇑ Corresponding author. Address: Department of Psychology,
University of
California, Los Angeles, 616 Via De La Paz, Pacific Palisades,
CA 90272, United
States. Tel.: +1 310 526 3316; fax: +1 310 230 7830.
E-mail address: [email protected] (Y.T. Uhls).
Yalda T. Uhls a,⇑ , Minas Michikyan b, Jordan Morris c, Debra
Garcia d,b, Gary W. Small e, Eleni Zgourou f,
Patricia M. Greenfield a
a Department of Psychology, University of California, Los
Angeles, Children’s Digital Media Center @ LA, United States
b Department of Psychology, California State University, Los

Angeles, Children’s Digital Media Center @ LA, United States
c Department of Social Welfare, University of California, Los
Angeles, United States
d Department of Education, University of California, Los
Angeles, United States
e Department of Psychiatry & Biobehavioral Sciences,
University of California, Los Angeles, United States
f Department of Education, University of North Carolina,
Chapel Hill, Children’s Digital Media Center @ LA, United
States
a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history:
Available online 15 August 2014
Keywords:
Social media
Nonverbal communication
Emotion
Adolescent
Social interaction
Development
A field experiment examined whether increasing opportunities
for face-to-face interaction while elimi-
nating the use of screen-based media and communication tools
improved nonverbal emotion–cue recog-
nition in preteens. Fifty-one preteens spent five days at an
overnight nature camp where television,
computers and mobile phones were not allowed; this group was
compared with school-based matched
controls (n = 54) that retained usual media practices. Both
groups took pre- and post-tests that required
participants to infer emotional states from photographs of facial
expressions and videotaped scenes with

verbal cues removed. Change scores for the two groups were
compared using gender, ethnicity, media
use, and age as covariates. After five days interacting face-to-
face without the use of any screen-based
media, preteens’ recognition of nonverbal emotion cues
improved significantly more than that of the con-
trol group for both facial expressions and videotaped scenes.
Implications are that the short-term effects
of increased opportunities for social interaction, combined with
time away from screen-based media and
digital communication tools, improves a preteen’s
understanding of nonverbal emotional cues.
� 2014 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open
access article under the CC BY-NC-ND license
(http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/).
1. Introduction study found that the amount of non-screen
playtime decreased
For several millennia, humans’ primary method for social learn-
ing and communication has been face to face. In the 21st
century,
as mobile technology and the Internet became available to most
of
the world’s population (Internet world stats, 2013), digital
media
have become an increasingly prevalent factor in the informal
learn-
ing environment (Greenfield, 2009). Children today, ages 8–18,
spend over 7½ h a day, seven days a week using media outside
of school (Rideout, Foehr, & Roberts, 2010). Moreover,
teenagers,
ages 12–17, report using phones to text message in their daily
lives
more than any other form of communication, including face-to-
face socializing (Lenhart, 2012). The extensive time that
children

and teenagers engage with media and communicate using
screens
may be taking time away from face-to-face communication and
some in-person activities (Giedd, 2012). Indeed, one
longitudinal
20% from 1997 to 2003, while screen activities (i.e., watching
tele-
vision, playing videogames and using the computer) increased
(Hofferth, 2010).
The advent of mobile technology enables today’s youth to
access and engage with screens 24/7 outside of school while in
cars, on vacations, in restaurants, and even in bed. A recent poll
found that children’s access to these kinds of devices has grown
fivefold in the last two years (Common Sense Media, 2013).
Extant
research indicates that, today, media exposure begins at early
ages,
consumes the majority of youth leisure time, and takes place in
many different environments and contexts. Such extensive use
of
new technology has raised concerns that children’s face-to-face
communication skills may be negatively affected (Bindley,
2011;
Giedd, 2012).
1.1. Face-to-face and mediated communication
When engaging in face-to-face communication, social informa-
tion is conveyed by vocal and visual cues within the context of
the
situation. Nonverbal communication, defined as communication
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.036&domain=pdf
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mailto:[email protected]
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388 Y.T. Uhls et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 39 (2014)
387–392
without words, includes apparent behaviors such as facial
expres-
sion, eye contact, and tone of voice, as well as less obvious
mes-
sages such as posture and spatial distance between two or more
people (Knapp & Hall, 2010). The understanding of these kinds
of
nonverbal social cues is particularly important for social
interac-
tion because of the need to modify one’s own behavior in
response
to the reactions of others (Knapp & Hall, 2010). The capability
to
effectively process emotional cues is associated with many per-
sonal, social and academic outcomes (Knapp & Hall, 2010;
McClure & Nowicki, 2001). In addition, children who better
under-
stand emotional cues in a social environment may develop supe-
rior social skills and form more positive peer relationships
(Blakemore, 2003; Bosacki & Astington, 1999).
Long before digital media became ubiquitous, investigators
developed theories, such as the Cues-Filtered-Out theory, which
postulated that the lack of nonverbal cues in computer-mediated
interactions could lead to impersonal communication, (Culnan
&

Markus, 1987), while others pointed out deficits in computer-
med-
iated communication due to the lack of social-context cues
(Sproull
& Kiesler, 1988). More recently, an experiment exploring the
differ-
ence in emotional connectedness experienced by emerging
adults
using either in-person or digitally mediated communication
showed that bonding and affiliative cues were significantly
stron-
ger when friends communicated in person rather than by text
(Sherman, Michikyan, & Greenfeld, 2013). The extensive use of
dig-
ital media, often text-based and thus inherently lacking
nonverbal
emotional cues, may thus curtail the face-to-face experiences
nec-
essary to master important social skills, even though they are
used
for social communication (Giedd, 2012).
1.2. The video deficit
Research regarding what children do and do not learn about the
social world through screen-based media, in particular
television,
is robust (Guernsey, 2011; Richert, Robb, & Smith, 2011;
Wartella, 2012; Wartella, O’Keefe, & Scantlin, 2000). Much of
the
research concentrates on early learning from imitation, socially
contingent interaction (e.g. joint attention and gaze following),
and word learning (Flom & Johnson, 2010; Moore & Dunham,
1995). This body of research shows that young children learn
bet-
ter from live interaction than from screens. For example, Hayne,

Herbert, and Simcock (2003) performed a series of experiments
using matched live and videotaped models who performed a
series
of actions with a rattle and stuffed animals. Although children
imi-
tated televised models, the mean imitation scores were signifi-
cantly higher in the live condition. This discrepancy in
imitation
appears to last until 30 months of age and was coined the
‘‘video
deficit.’’
1.3. Reading nonverbal emotion cues: processes of development
and
learning
Features of face-to-face communication such as eye contact and
pointing are crucial when teaching young children about social
interaction and the world they live in. For example, gaze
following,
a well-studied mechanism in the literature on human develop-
ment, guides infants from around one year of age to learn about
objects and humans (Flom & Johnson, 2010). Humans also learn
from cues such as pointing when interacting socially (Moore &
Dunham, 1995). Once a child is able to attend to an object that
another person highlights, their ability to learn through social
interaction increases. These means of learning are available
only
when a child can see another’s face and physical being (Gross &
Ballif, 1991).
In-person interaction also develops the accurate understanding
of nonverbal emotion cues. For instance, cooperative interaction
among siblings in the third year of life has been shown to
predict
skill in affective labeling of facial expressions and

understanding
of emotions in dramatized puppet scenarios in the fourth year of
life
(Dunn, Brown, Slomkowski, Tesla, & Youngblade, 1991). The
chil-
dren’s positive behavior toward their siblings in the third year
of life
continued to predict more advanced understanding of emotions
at
six years of age (Brown & Dunn, 1996). These longitudinal
findings
point to in-person peer interaction as a key learning experience
in
the early acquisition of skill in reading nonverbal emotion cues.
As children grow older, their peer focus shifts from siblings to
unrelated peers, whom they usually meet in school. In
preadoles-
cence, the period under investigation in the present research,
social
interaction skill with peers, assessed in an in-person school
situa-
tion, was correlated with an understanding of feelings presented
in
narrative (Bosacki & Astington, 1999).
2. Research question and hypothesis: the present study
In the present study, we designed a field experiment to ask the
research question: Does children’s frequent screen use—and the
possibility that this extensive use replaces critical face-to-face
com-
munication—promote the development of emotion
understanding
to the same extent as in-person interactions? If not, a shift in
chil-
dren’s activities to solely in-person peer and adult

communication
could enhance skill in understanding the emotions of other
people.
Our experimental condition was a naturally occurring environ-
ment where children experienced extensive opportunities for
social
interaction, combined with no access to screens, for five days.
Our
participants were preteens in the sixth grade. We chose this age
group because: (1) by the time they reach early adolescence,
chil-
dren are able to integrate information from many nonverbal
cues,
including face, gesture and tone, to make inferences about
social sit-
uations (Knapp & Hall, 2010); (2) the understanding of social
emo-
tions and the ability to take into account another person’s
perspective are some of the most dramatic changes during
adoles-
cence (Dumontheil, Houlton, Christoff, & Blakemore, 2010);
and
(3) this is an age when many children begin to access personal
mobile technology and media use peaks (Rideout et al., 2010).
We investigated whether an absence of screens, and, accord-
ingly, increased opportunities for face-to-face communication,
gave children the context to be more sensitive in comprehending
nonverbal emotion cues. Our hypothesis was that, relative to a
matched control group that continued their usual daily activities
–including screen-based activities– both in and outside of
school,
children’s skill at recognizing emotion from nonverbal cues
would
improve after five days of increased opportunity for face-to-

face
interaction in an environment without screens.
3. Method
3.1. Design and Participants
The study design involved a pre- and post-test, and a no-inter-
vention matched control group. Both the experimental and
control
(i.e., no-intervention) groups were comprised of sixth graders
recruited from the same public school in Southern California.
The
experimental group included 51 children from the Spring 2012
class,
and the control included 54 children from the Fall 2012 class.
Given
that the two groups attended the same public school, the groups
were drawn from the same population and therefore matched on
many important demographic variables. In an average day of the
week during the school year, both groups reported spending
approx-
imately 4 1/2 h a day outside of school texting, watching
television,
and playing videogames (see Table 1 for key demographic
variables
for both groups).
Y.T. Uhls et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 39 (2014) 387–
392 389
The experimental group participated in the Pali Institute, an
outdoor education overnight camp facility, located 70 miles out-
side of Los Angeles, where neither electronic devices nor access
to any kind of screens was permitted. Opportunities for face-to-
face social interaction included living together in cabins, going

on hikes together, and working as a team to build emergency
shel-
ters. Our choice to use the camp as an intervention, rather than
ask
children to stop using media on their own or bring them into a
lab
environment, was a deliberate strategy that provided control, as
well as ecological and external validity.
The camp is educational; schoolchildren spend the day
immersed in activities meant to teach science through outdoor
instruction (see Table 2 for a description of the daily activities).
The school signed up their entire sixth-grade cohort to attend
the
camp (and planned for the control group to attend in the Spring
of 2013), and thus there was virtually no self-selection. In
choosing
the control group, we considered other groups, such as an over-
night camp that integrated screens into the daily activities, but
we determined that the selection effects outweighed the benefits
of matching on the overnight experience; in other words,
children
who are interested in these kinds of technology-oriented camps,
and whose parents could afford the cost (e.g., currently, UCLA
Tech
overnight camps are approximately $2000 for one week), would
not be a good match for children who were sent to an outdoor
nat-
ure camp underwritten by a public school district. In addition,
the
children’s social network was controlled for, because the same
children were together at camp with their peers from their sixth-
grade classes at school.
Participants in the control group attended school, with a typical
week of instruction at a California public elementary school

(i.e.,
history, English, math instruction, etc.), each day between the
pre- and post-test with no restrictions placed on their media use
by our research team. While we did not collect information
about
after school, beyond asking children about their typical day’s
media activities, a teacher at the school polled her class and
shared
with us that the majority of the children participate in sports
two
to four times a week. UCLA’s Institutional Review Board
approved
this study.
Table 1
Key demographics for the experimental and control groups.
Camp
Sample size and gender 51 (25 Boy
Age (yrs; mean ± SD) 11.86 ± .46
Range 11–
Ethnicity� White 26
Hispanic 9
African Am
Asian 9 (1
Other/mix
Parents’ education Mother:
Finished h
Some colle
Finished c
Beyond co
Father:
Finished h

Some colle
Finished c
Beyond co
Media use/ownership 22 (43%) O
51 (100%)
Media use (mean ± SD) hours per school day Texting: .9
Watching
Playing vid
Note: no variables were significantly different between
experimental and control groups
with change scores on the dependent variables. Percentages of
parents’ education do no
3.2. Measures
Participants in both conditions began by taking a one-time
online media-use survey to measure their daily media activities.
We created this Media Use Questionnaire using items from pre-
existing surveys (Pea et al., 2012; Uhls, 2013). In order to
create
a media-use variable to employ as a covariate, we added
together
the amount of time during an average school day participants
reported spending on computers, television, video games, and
cell
phones. For computers and cell phones, amount of time was
calcu-
lated by summing amount of time reported for specific activities
using these media (e.g., video chatting, texting, posting videos).
This measure was used as a control in our analysis.
After comprehensive piloting, for our dependent variables, we
chose two well-validated tests, also extensively tested with chil-
dren, to assess the ability to decode emotional nonverbal

commu-
nication. Because the ability to accurately read emotion in the
facial expression of others is one of the most important
nonverbal
communication skills, we used the Faces subtests of the second
edition of the Diagnostic Analysis of Nonverbal Behavior
(DANVA2)
(Nowicki & Carton, 1993). This test has been validated with
partic-
ipants differing in age, gender, ethnicity, intellectual ability and
cultural background in over 385 studies (Nowicki, 2010). The
Faces
subtest includes 48 photos of faces (24 children and 24 adults)
with happy, sad, angry, and fearful emotions in both high and
low intensity. These photos of children and adult faces were
each
flashed onto a screen for 2 s after which participants recorded
on
a sheet the emotion the actor exhibited. Scoring assessed the
num-
ber of errors made in the identification of emotions.
Approximately
half the children in the control group and half the children in
the
experimental group were given adult faces first; the other half
in
each group were given the child faces first.
Our second test examined children’s ability to integrate and
accurately interpret different kinds of nonverbal cues within a
set-
ting that more clearly reflected real life. The Child and
Adolescent
Social Perception Measure (CASP), a measure that has been
vali-
dated for several different populations (Clikeman-Semrud,

Walkowiak, Wilkinson, & Minne, 2010; Guiltner, 2000; Magill-
Control
s; 26 girls) 54 (26 Boys; 28 girls)
11.81 ± .52
13 Range 11–13
(51%) White 11 (20%)
(18%) Hispanic 9 (17%)
erican 1 (2%) African American 1 (2%)
7%) Asian 19 (35%)
ed 6 (12%) Other/mixed 14 (26%)
Mother:
igh school 5 (10%) Finished high school 7 (12%)
ge 10 (20%) Some college 10 (18%)
ollege 15 (29%) Finished college 21 (37%)
llege 6 (12%) Beyond college 5 (9%)
Father:
igh school 6 (12%) Finished high school 9 (16%)
ge 9 (17%) Some college 7 (12%)
ollege 18 (35%) Finished college 21 (37%)
llege 5 (10%) Beyond college 3 (5%)
wn phone 26 (48%) Own phone
Computer at home 52 (96%) Computer at home
± 1.3 Texting: 1.1 ± 1.6
TV: 2.4 ± 1.4 Watching TV: 2.1 ± 1.6
eo games: 1.2 ± 1.3 Playing video games: 1.4 ± 1.4
except for *ethnicity: t(105) = �2.95, P < 0.01. However,

ethnicity was not correlated
t total 100% because some subjects did not know their parents’
educational history.
Table 2
Sample list of classes in a day at Pali Institute.
Class name Description
Forest
ecology
Students hike through the forest to explore and learn about the
ecosystems around them. They identify flora and fauna and
participate in hands-on
activities. Through these various activities, students understand
the history of the forest as the ecosystems come alive before
their eyes
Outdoor skills Mixing nature’s beauty with outdoor survival,
students learn the Ten Essentials for any outdoor trip. They
learn fire-building and cooking food in an
outdoor setting. While in the forest, they will band together as a
team to build emergency shelters. By the end of this class,
students understand basic
principles of exploring the great outdoors
Animal
survivor
Students are taught the importance and dynamics of food
chains/webs and how species depend on one another for
survival. In a fast-paced activity,
students are assigned an identity: carnivores, herbivores or

omnivores. They must search for food while avoiding predators
(their peers). Each student
begins the game with a certain number of lives and must have at
least one life remaining at the end to be a ‘‘survivor’’
Day hike Schools have the opportunity to select their focus for a
hike, such as birding, visiting a nature center and greenhouse,
or shortened versions of a double-
session forest ecology or outdoor skills class
Archery Students learn the history and mechanics of archery,
one of the oldest arts and means for survival. They are
introduced to the basic physics of a bow
and arrow, as well as the proper handling of this ancient device.
With this knowledge, they participate in target shooting.
Students gain an
understanding of the importance of archery and its influence on
society
Orienteering Students find their sense of direction while
engaging in one of several orienteering courses. During the
expedition, they learn how to navigate through
the forest by using compasses and coordinates. They gain an
understanding of the various skills involved in planning travel
from point A to point B
Note: (each lesson approximately 90 min); link to curriculum
for Pali Mountain outdoor education program:
<http://www.paliinstitute.com/oe.html>.
387–392
Evans, Koning, Cameron-Sadava, & Manyk, 1995), assesses the
social perception skills of children and adolescents using ten
video-
taped scenes in which actors (children and adults) perform a

rep-
resentative scenario in different situations typical of an
adolescent’s life (e.g., school, home) (Magill-Evans et al.,
1995). In
each scene, the verbal content is removed, requiring participants
to receive and interpret nonverbal social cues without speech
cues.
After watching the videotaped scenes, the test-taker is asked to
make a judgment about the emotional states of the actors.
To adapt the CASP for our design, we randomly separated the
videos into sets of five. The two sets were counterbalanced as
pre-
test and posttest in both the control and experimental groups.
Chil-
dren watched each of the five videos in sequence and were
given
several minutes to record a written description of the emotions
of each actor before moving on to the next one. These forms
were
then scored.
We used the existing coding system of the CASP to create a
total
emotion score based on the sum of number of accurate, partially
correct, or wrong answers for each character and scene. A
partici-
pant was given two points for each correctly identified emotion,
one point for a partially correct identification, and zero for an
incorrect identification or no identification. Different videos
had
different numbers of actors; in some videos an actor would
mani-
fest more than one emotion in different parts of the scene.
There-
fore, the maximum score varied from video to video. Because

the
maximum score on one form was 41, whereas the maximum
score
on the other form was 45, for our analysis, all scores were con-
verted into percentages, so that change scores would be
compara-
ble across both orders of administration.
The forward Digit Span (Wechsler, 2004) a subset of the
Wechs-
ler Intelligence Scale for children, was administered as a
distracter
task between the CASP and the DANVA2.
3.3. Procedure
3.3.1. Experimental group
Upon arrival to the camp on a Monday morning, and immedi-
ately after exiting the school bus, the entire sixth-grade class
took
the media use survey. Next, children were randomly assigned to
one of two administration groups to take the pre-test. A
moderator
in each group followed a scripted protocol to administer each
test.
In both groupings, children completed the DANVA2 and
watched
five videos from the CASP, with the distracter task in between
the measures. Group 1 first completed the DANVA2, followed
by the Digit Span, and next the CASP; whereas Group 2 first
completed the CASP, followed by the Digit Span, and
concluded
with the DANVA2.
The post-test was also administered at the camp, on the Friday
immediately before the children mounted school buses for their

ride home. Children stayed in the same groups that were
assigned
for the pre-test. We followed the same procedure of testing as in
the pre-test but did not re-administer the media use survey.
3.3.2. Control group
Children were kept with their classes (each class was one
group). Testing occurred on Monday and Friday at
approximately
the same time of school day as during the camp. We followed
the same procedure for administering the tests for the control as
we did for the experimental.
In both the experimental and control groups, we counterbal-
anced the testing order across two administration groups and pre
and post-tests (i.e., adult or children faces first for the
DANVA2
and set one or set two of the CASP videos).
3.4. Analysis
We began our analysis by conducting independent-sample t-
tests to compare each administration group within condition on
key socio-demographic characteristics, dependent variables at
pre-test, media use and social variables. Finding no significant
dif-
ferences, we combined data from the two administration groups
and next conducted the same analysis to confirm equivalent
soci-
odemographic characteristics and media use across conditions.
We
found only one significant difference between the experimental
and control condition; and that was a difference in ethnic
compo-
sition (t(105) = �2.95, P < 0.01) (see Table 1 for ethnic

breakdown in
each group). Following up this significant difference, we ran a
cor-
relational analysis to determine whether ethnicity was related to
any of the dependent variables; it was not, and thus was not
con-
sidered a significant factor in our analysis.
Statistical literature indicated that the reliability of gain scores
is higher than other variables in many practical situations with
designs similar to our experiment (i.e., nonrandomized control
group pretest and posttest designs); thus we chose change scores
as our dependent variable (Dimitrov & Rumrill, 2003). We
calcu-
lated change scores by measuring the difference between pretest
and posttest scores on each measure.
The DANVA change scores were calculated by subtracting post-
test errors from pretest errors and ranged from �10 to 31 with
positive numbers showing error reduction. The CASP change
scores
were calculated by subtracting the total emotion percentage cor-
http://www.paliinstitute.com/oe.html
Y.T. Uhls et al. / Computers in Human Behavior 39 (2014) 387–
392 391
rect on the pretest from the total emotion percentage correct on
the posttest and ranged from �14% to 31% with positive
numbers
showing improvement in the total emotion percentage correct.
Three coders achieved inter-rater reliability on 20% of the
CASP
responses (Cronbach’s alpha = .93).

We used these scores to investigate potential differences
between the experimental and control condition for both the
DAN-
VA2 and CASP. For both dependent variables, we ran univariate
analyses of covariance, the preferred method of analysis for this
design (Dimitrov & Rumrill, 2003), using gender, ethnicity, and
age, as well as a composite variable called media-use sum (i.e.,
sum of time spent watching television, playing video games,
using
cell phones, and using computers) as covariates, in order to
control
for demographics and prior media use.
4. Results
We found that children who were away from screens for five
days with many opportunities for in-person interaction
improved
significantly in reading facial emotion (DANVA 2), compared
to
those in the control group, who experienced their normal media
exposure during an equivalent five-day period (F5,88 = 4.06,
p < .05, d = .33). In the experimental condition, participants
went
from an average of 14.02 errors in the Faces pretest (including
both
child and adult faces) to an average of 9.41 errors in the
posttest (a
reduction of 4.61 errors), while the control group went from and
average of 12.24 to 9.81, which was a reduction of 2.43 errors
(we attribute this change to a practice effect). Thus, the group
that
attended camp without access to any screen-based media
improved significantly more than the control group, who experi-
enced their usual amount of screen time. Fig. 1 illustrates these
change scores.

We found a similar effect when using the videotaped scenarios
(CASP). Ability to correctly identify the emotion of actors was
sig-
nificantly greater for the children who had experienced five
days of
camp without personal media than for the control group
(F5,86 = 8.75, p < .01, d = .66). In the experimental condition,
scores
improved between pre- (i.e. M = 26% correct) and post-test (i.e.
M = 31% correct); in the control group, children’s scores stayed
flat
at 28% correct on pre- and posttest. Thus, children in the
experi-
mental group showed significant improvement in their ability to
recognize the nonverbal emotional cues in videotaped scenes,
while the emotion-reading cues of the control group showed no
change between pretest and posttest.
Fig. 1. Error reduction from pretest to posttest in assessing
emotion on DANVA2
faces in experimental and control group (F5,88 = 4.06, p <
0.05).
5. Discussion
In today’s world, digital media use begins at a very early age
(Common Sense Media, 2013) and takes up a large proportion
of
the informal learning environment (Greenfield, 2009), making it
essential to assess the effects of the substantial amount of time
children engage with media. This study provides evidence that,
in five days of being limited to in-person interaction without
access to any screen-based or media device for communication,
preteens improved on measures of nonverbal emotion
understand-
ing, significantly more than a control group.
We recognize that the design of this study makes it challenging

to tease out the separate effects of the group experience, the
nature
experience, and the withdrawal of screen-time; but it is likely
that
the augmentation of in-person communication necessitated by
the
absence of digital communication significantly contributed to
the
observed experimental effect. In other words, the time the
partic-
ipants spent engaging with other children and adults face-to-
face
seemed to make an important difference. The absence of screens
meant children could rely only on face-to-face interaction when
communicating during camp activities. Accordingly, the results
suggest that digital screen time, even when used for social
interac-
tion, could reduce time spent developing skills in reading
nonver-
bal cues of human emotion.
Another possibility for the observed effect is that nature activi-
ties could have caused the improvement in reading emotions
com-
municated through nonverbal cues. While other studies have
demonstrated the cognitive benefits from interacting with nature
(Atchley, Strayer, & Atchley, 2012; Berman, Jonides, & Kaplan,
2008) it is counterintuitive (and counter to the research on com-
municative learning) that being in nature, which is not an inher-
ently social activity and often is more isolating than urban
settings, could help someone learn to understand the emotions
of
other individuals.
Our findings are in line with developmental research pointing
to the importance of in-person peer interaction as a learning

pro-
cess that leads to skill in understanding the emotions of others
(Bosacki & Astington, 1999). These results are also in line with
find-
ings in neuroscience. For example, recent brain imaging with
adult
participants showed that the neural synchronization during face-
to-face dialog does not exist when communicating back to back
(Jiang et al., 2012).
5.1. Limitations and future research
As mentioned above, a limitation to our study is that we cannot
disentangle the effects of the three factors: the group
experience,
the nature experience, and the absence of screens, as these vari-
ables were all features of the experimental condition. We
hypoth-
esize that the effect of being in a setting that included
potentially
more opportunities for face-to-face group interaction than were
afforded in the control group was the critical factor. But even
with-
out being able to delineate all the conditions under which social
skill improvement would take place, this experiment does
suggest
that day-to-day, media-saturated environments interfere with a
preteen’s understanding of face-to-face communications, while
rich opportunities for in-person social interaction enhance
under-
standing of nonverbal emotion cues.
A next step is to attempt to generalize our findings by testing
the effects of eliminating screen time in the presence of a
different
set of activities, to determine whether withdrawing media expo-
sure or adding daily face-to-face interactions underlies the

improvement in recognizing nonverbal emotion cues. Because
skill
in reading emotional cues is essential to an individual’s ability
to
function in society (Gross & Ballif, 1991) further research is
called
for. In addition, it would be important to understand the extent
to
which these kinds of effects are lasting; one would expect that it
would be necessary to reduce screen time and increase face-to-
face
387–392
time on an ongoing basis in order to maintain or build on the
effects demonstrated in this short-term field experiment.
6. Conclusions
The results of this study should introduce a much-needed soci-
etal conversation about the costs and benefits of the enormous
amount of time children spend with screens, both inside and
out-
side the classroom. Given that a pre-requisite for effective
sociali-
zation is learning and practicing how to communicate with
others
in person (Eder & Nenga, 2003), face-to-face experiences must
be
emphasized in the socialization process. While digital media
pro-
vide many useful ways to communicate and learn, our study
sug-
gests that skills in reading human emotion may be diminished
when children’s face-to-face interaction is displaced by

technolog-
ically mediated communication. Today, even children under
2 years of age use mobile devices (Common Sense Media,
2013).
Moreover, computers and mobile tablets are rapidly entering
class-
rooms and being put in the hands of every child beginning as
early
as kindergarten (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, 2009;
Rotella,
2013) without sufficient attention to the potential costs (Cuban,
2001). Our hope is that this study will be a call to action for
research that thoroughly and systematically examines the effects
of digital media on children’s social development.
Author contributions are as follows. YTU, GS and PMG came
up with the idea. YTU and PMG developed and designed study.
YTU, MM, DG and PMG piloted the study and developed group
protocols for the measures. YTU, MM, JM, DG and EZ ran
participants. YTU, MM, JM, DG and EZ coded data. YTU, MM
and
PMG developed and/or ran data analyses. YTU and PMG wrote
the manuscript. All authors read and offered criticism of the
manuscript.
Acknowledgements
We thank Andy Wechsler, Jolie Nelson and Michael Urbach at
Pali Institute for welcoming our study at their outdoor camp.
We
also express our appreciation to the counselors who helped us
and to the campers who participated in the research, as well as
the school, the teachers, administrators, parents and students.
Thank you to research assistant Christine Clemmons for helping
with pilot testing and to Bridget Roy for helping run
participants

and code the CASP. All participants who contributed
substantially
to the study are listed in these acknowledgments.
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http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0747-5632(14)00322-7/h0005
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/12/09/children-texting-
technology-social-skills_n_1137570.html
http://www.huffingtonpost.com/2011/12/09/children-texting-
technology-social-skills_n_1137570.html
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/1467-9507.00093
http://www.commonsensemedia.org/research/zero-to-eight-
childrens-media-use-in-america-2013
http://dx.doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-7687.2010.01014.x

http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm
http://www.internetworldstats.com/stats.htm

http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027030
http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/a0027030
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/15/magazine/no-child-left-
untableted.html?_r=0
http://www.nytimes.com/2013/09/15/magazine/no-child-left-
untableted.html?_r=0
http://dx.doi.org/10.5817/CP2013-2-3
http://refhub.elsevier.com/S0747-5632(14)00322-7/h0210Five
days at outdoor education camp without screens improves
preteen skills with nonverbal emotion cues1 Introduction1.1
Face-to-face and mediated communication1.2 The video
deficit1.3 Reading nonverbal emotion cues: processes of
development and learning2 Research question and hypothesis:
the present study3 Method3.1 Design and Participants3.2
Measures3.3 Procedure3.3.1 Experimental group3.3.2 Control
group3.4 Analysis4 Results5 Discussion5.1 Limitations and
future research6 ConclusionsAcknowledgementsReferences
General guidelines for writing reaction papers

(Read this document fully! It’s 5 pages and contains important
information):
Reaction papers are thought papers where you critique an
article. As you read the assigned articles, point out 1) at least
one interesting fact that you learned from the introduction, 2)
study’s strengths, 3) the limitations of their research design (for
example, the way they defined or measured their variables, the
measures’ reliability/validity, their data collection technique
[e.g., self-report, lab visits, direct observation]), 4) implications
of their findings (so what do they findings mean in real world!.
In your implications section you must relate the study’s findings
to real life, and give it some context to make it relevant for lay
people), 5) future direction ideas (what would you want to test
next to build up on the findings of this research, and/or to
address its shortcomings).
These are some questions to have in mind as you read the
article:
· Did they account for confounding factors?
· What other factors could explain their findings?
· Were the findings substantial? Who will benefit from these?
· What were some of the considerations or little things that the
researchers took into account that strengthened their design?
· If you were to do subsequent investigations, what next steps
would you take?
· Also, if the article posed questions in your mind, mention the
questions and take a stab at giving answers too!
Show me that you’ve thought the article thorough. I evaluate
your reaction papers based on thedepth of your thoughts and
how sophisticated and well explained your arguments comments
are.
SUPER IMPORTANT NOTE regarding LIMITATIONS:
When pointing out the limitations, EXPLAIN how addressing
the limitation could mean getting different results. For example,
if the study’s participants are all socioeconomically advantaged

and you see this a limitation because it’s not nationally
representative, discuss how results of a mid/low SES sample
could be different. Simply saying that the results aren’t
“generalizable” IS NOT ENOUGH. You must justify your
argument for selecting a more diverse sample, otherwise there is
not enough evidence to suggest that the study’s findings are not
generalizable! Again, please realize that it is your explanations
and arguments that I evaluate, so don’t leave your comments
unexplained or unsupported.
SUPER IMPORTANT NOTE regarding STRENGHTS:
I have found that students are often confused as to what they
should consider a “strength” and what things are just “given
(must haves!)” in a work that is published in an academic
journal. Below are things that are NOT strengths, and rather
“given”, so please don’t include these as strengths of the
article! Violation of these can be considered a limitation:
· Random assignment
· Having conditions that differ on only one aspect
· Coders being blind to the study’s hypotheses
· Use of reliable and valid measures
· Citing relevant prior research
· High inter-rater reliability
· Having IRB approval
· Getting a baseline to compare post-intervention results with
To identify strengths, think about what steps the researchers
took into account for possible little things that could skew their
results. For instance, having “practice trials” before engaging
kids in a computer game, to account for differences in
familiarity with the game, device, etc. These are extra steps,
and thoughtful ones, that researchers take, and are considered
true strengths.
One more thing, in your reaction paper, refrain from statements
such as “the paper was great”, “I liked this finding”, “I thought
this finding was interesting”, without explaining why!! It’s okay
to like the study, but it’s important to reason why you found the
article interesting and important. Also, even if you really liked

the paper, you must still be able to able to play the role of a
sceptic and find few points to criticize the paper on. Your
comments must be deep and critical rather than superficial or
simply a reiteration of what was mentioned in the article.
Organization and Structure:
Start by summarizing the article in one very short paragraph
(NO more than 3-4 lines)! And then continue critiquing the
article. Reaction papers must be 2-3 pages. Note that most
students can’t write a thorough reaction paper in 2 pages, unless
they are true “concise writers”, so don’t stop at two pages,
unless you’ve touched on several key points about the article
(and don’t repeat the points you already mentioned, just to
cover a third page!). Be sure to cover the five main key parts
that were mentioned in the first paragraph, and know that your
focus should be on limitations.
Formatting:
· WORD DOC only! No PDFs please.
· Times New Roman font, 12 point, Double spaced, 1” margin
all sides.
· No cover page needed
· Citation of the assigned paper not needed. Any extra sources
must be cited
· APA style of writing
· Submit your paper on canvas by the due date
· I will accept reaction papers only if they’re submitted before
class time, AND if you are present in class to discuss your
paper. If you absolutely have to miss a class where we’re
discussing articles, you can make up the reaction paper by
choosing an article on the topic of the week and write a reaction
paper on the new article. Email me your reaction paper and the
article PDF. You may earn a maximum of 40 points (instead of
the typical 50 points) for this reaction paper. Only ONE
reaction paper can be made up this way. So if you miss more
than one article discussion day, I can’t give you the option to
make it up again.
· Note that on the week when you are the presenting group, you

will submit a single reaction paper collectively as a group. The
organizer should upload this reaction paper (under his/her
name) and the rest of group members don’t have to worry about
uploading anything.
REACTION PAPER GRADING RUBRIC
Performance category
Quality
Content (30 pts)
Organization(10 pts)
Grammar (10 pts); Correct choice of verb tenses, words,
avoidance of wordy phrases)
Exceeds expectations
Offers several high quality comments about the reading that
demonstrate a high level of understanding as well as
sophisticated analysis of the material. Embodies originality,
complexity, and depth, rather than just a presentation of the
obvious; shows evidence of effective inquiry and
argumentation. Clearly shows evidence of “Critical” thinking
Points: 25-30
Is stellar in construction, with compelling wording, smooth
transitions, and organizational clarity.
Points: 10
No errors whatsoever!
Points: 10
Meets expectations
Demonstrates a good level of understanding and raises many
points, but only one or none of the points demonstrate “deep”
analysis where KEY factors are discussed (i.e., sticks to
discussion of the obvious, like sample size and
generalizability). All or most of the points that are raised are
accurate
Points: 15-25
Language is generally appropriate to a professional audience

and organization is sound.
Points: 6-9
Between 1-4 grammatical or punctuation errors, or typos, but
they are minor and do not detract from the paper.
Points: 6-9
Needs improvement
Offers few comments, and they are superficial. Some comments
have accuracy issues (e.g., invalid criticisms, or discussion of a
limitation that was addressed in the paper by taking a specific
measure that resolved the issue completely).
Points: 5-15
Quality of writing may be inconsistent (i.e., quite good in some
sections of the paper and of lesser quality in other sections.
E.g., there are paragraphs containing critiquing points after
what seems to be a concluding paragraph); organization needs
improvement.
Points: 3-6
4-7 grammatical or punctuation errors, or typos.
Points: 3-6
Unsatisfactory
Sounds more like a summary than an analysis. Offers only one
or two comments which are on the superficial side.
Points: 0-5
Paper is incoherent, or unorganized with little agreement
between ideas.
Points: 0-3
More than 7 grammatical, punctuation errors or typos. Errors
impede understanding of content and require multiple readings
and guessing to figure out the message that’s being conveyed.
Points: 3-6

AG 401 Book/Video Discussion Rubric (Total Points 12)
Being scored on:
0 Unacceptable
1
Poor/Very Limited
2
OK/Good
3
Excellent
Criteria 1:
Word count and organization
100 words or less and/or single spaced.
Greater than 100 words without paragraphs and/or single
spaced.
Greater than 100 words with two or more paragraphs with a
minimum of one citations in each paragraph and/or single
spaced.
Greater than 100 words and at least three paragraphs with a
minimum of one citation in each paragraph AND double spaced.
Criteria 2:
Critical Thinking and use of ethical theory
No ethical theories applied
Minimal application of ethical theory
Good application of ethical theory
Detailed application of ethical theory
Criteria 3:
Number of ethical theory citations used in support. These
should add value and be meaningful.
No ethical theory citations (paraphrase or direct quotes). Pp,
video, topical and Open Web citations do not count.
2 or fewer ethical theory citations (paraphrase or direct quotes
from 2 or fewer sources). (NO Pp, video citations, topical or
Open Web). Sources are well-rounded, peer-reviewed ethical
theory sources (philosophical in nature). (Must be reputable:
CPP library or S-L textbook).

3 ethical theory citations (paraphrase or direct quotes from 3
different sources). (NO Pp, video citations, topical or Open
Web). Sources are well-rounded, peer-reviewed ethical theory
sources (philosophical in nature). (Must be reputable: CPP
library or S-L textbook).
3 or more ethical theory citations (paraphrase or direct quotes
from 3 different sources) used in support for all theories being
applied. (NO Pp, video citations, topical or Open Web). Sources
are well-rounded, peer-reviewed ethical theory sources
(philosophical in nature). (Must be reputable: CPP library or S-
L textbook).
Criteria 4:
APA citations and References section
Numerous improper APA citations and/or References errors.
Use APA book!
2 or more improper APA citations and/or References errors. Use
APA book!
1-2 improper APA citations and/or References errors. Use APA
book!
Proper APA citations and References section on sources used.
When you cite make sure and list the page number or paragraph
number. Use APA book!
Note:Extra points deducted for misspelling, poor grammar or
errors made repeatedly week after week after corrections and
feedback have already been given. Professor reserves the right
to deduct points, give warnings or zeros for submissions
slightly over 30% similarity (includes References section at
end). If you are having trouble with % similarity, paraphrase
MORE and direct quote less and include more original thought
to reduce. Zeros can and will be given for submissions that do
not follow the prompt or have % similarity exceeding the 30%
threshold.

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