Cotton spinners pocket book 1

Cotton Spinners Pocket Book
Useful Data, Graphics, Charts and Calculations 1
COTTON SPINNERS POCKET BOOK
INTRODUCTION
It was in 1963- that my first Book-Cotton Spinners
Hand Book was published by the Well Known
Publisher- M/S Taraporewala & Sons and appeared in
Indian Market. With in a year all the copies were sold
out. Times of London included my name in their year
book for this unique work.
At that time Textile Books were very rare and there
were only 2-books- Cotton Spinners Pocket Book and
Spinning Technology by Taggard.
These two books were mainly catering to Students of
Textile Technology and not much helpful to Shop
Floor Technicians particularly to Supervisors and new
Entrants to Mills after their study.
My book to a certain extent tried to fill up the void in
this area.

Down from machinery settings to Labor management
- the book presented to Users various aspects of
Spinning Mill working.
As I grew in Mills environment and rose to top
positions, my experience also grew and I have not
forgotten my valuable Readers and Fellow
Technicians. I brought out useful books like-
Polyester Blends-Spinning, Weaving, Dyeing and
Finishing; Textile Mill Data Book, Cotton
Spinners Hand Book- revised edition; Textile
Mechanics, Man Made Fiber Spinning, Open End
Spinning and Cotton Spinners Pocket Book.
In establishing and running many Overseas Textile
Mills I gained very valuable experience and I shared
the same with you in the above books.
Many Mill People were and are urging me to bring
another edition of the Pocket Book bringing the latest
Technology so that they can use it as a reference book
and I was keeping this in mind.

I visited during this period many places and attended
ITMA-exhibitions and visits to USA and collected
valuable data. You can find all these in this book.
I thank all the Contributors to this effort known and
unknown and I have tried the sources under reference
but if by slip I failed to mention any one I sincerely
apologize to him.
I hope you will find this book useful to you in your
study at the College level and also at the Shop floor
level. I wish you success in your Career.
R.Jagannathan.

CONTENTS
1. India and Cotton 5
2. Historical development & trade-India 7
3 COTTON AND GINNING 9
4. Few Qualities that stands high for
Cotton. 13
5. BT stands for the micro-organism
Bacillus thuringiensis 16
6. COTTON STATISTICS 20
7. Globalization and its effect 24
8. Labor Costs for Select Countries 25
9. Emergence of processing and
Finishing centers: 26
10. Graphs: world Cotton production 27
India-growth-Fabric production. 28
11. Share of household income. 29
12. Trends in cotton-area, yield 30
Cotton Production by States-India. 31
14. Major Cotton Varieties-India. 32
15. Share of Cotton Production by Staples. 33
16. CAPACITY 34
17. Market share in Garments. 36
18. Exports of cloth by global players. 36
19. Trends in Spinning. 37.
20. Cotton Ginning. 40

21. Mechanical Picker. 43
22. Cotton Gin. 45
23 Inventor of Cotton Gin. 46
24. Modern Ginning Factory. 49
25. Improving preparation of raw cotton 55
26. Setting between two knives 56
27. Conclusions 58
PART-2
28 Spinning Machinery-
Then and Now 59
29. The Great Indian Diaspora 61
30. Evolution of Spinning Machinery: 62
31 Appearance Of Old Mills 63
32. Industrial Revolution 64
33. Mule 65
34. The Story in India: 66
35. The Early Entrepreneurs of Bombay 68
36. ENGLAND & AMERICAN TEXTILE
INDUSTRY. 69.
37. INDIAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY 72
38. Developments in Spinning 74
39. Rotor Spinning 78
40. Fasciated Yarns 80

41. SHANGHAI- Ring Spinning 83
42. SYNERGY IN SALES & MARKETING- 84
43. Status of the Textile Machinery Industry 87
44. Latest Spinning Machines: 89
45. Statistics:
Growth of Textile Industry 95
46. Reiter Machines: 97
47. Draw Frame. 94
48. Comber. 98
49. Comfort Spinning Machine. 100
50. Individual Spindle monitoring. 101
51. Growth of Indian Textile Mills. 103
52. Nehru Speech at ATIRA. 107
53. India’s Competitive position. 109
54. Papers from Seminar. 114
55. Organized Textile Mill Industry. 116
56. Latest Textile Machinery. 120
57. Process Control in Spinning. 129
58. Classing of Cotton. 131
59. Basic Fiber Characteristics. 135
60. Points for Purchasing Cotton. 152
61. Quality Evaluation. 153
62. Engineering Yarn-New Millennium. 182
63. Micro Spinning Technology. 190
64. Cotton-Yarn Quality Relation. 200
65. Bale Management. 204

66. Technological Points-Blow Room. 208
67. --------------Do--------Carding. 216
68. --------------do------Draw Frame 243
69. --------------do------Comber 248
70. --------------do-------Roving 256
71. --------------do-------Ring Frame 263
72. Out Going Yarn Quality 308
73. Yarn Conditioning. 319
74. Combed Yarn Quality 325
75. Useful Calculations 350.
76. Useful Technical Datas. 355
77. Useful Datas for Spinners. 360
78. Maintenance Schedule.
366
79. References. 367
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COTTON SPINNERS POCKET
1. India and Cotton
The earliest written reference: India A republic in the Asian
subcontinent in southern Asia; second most populous country in
the world; achieved independence from the United Kingdom.
Cotton has been grown in India for more than three thousand
years, and it is referred to in the Rig-Veda, written in 1500 BC.
A thousand years later the great Greek historian: Herodotus
wrote -The ancient Greek known as the father of history; - his
accounts of the wars between the Greeks and Persians are the
first known examples of historical writing (425-485 BC)
Herodotus wrote about Indian cotton: "There are trees which
grow wild there, the fruit of which is a wool exceeding in beauty
and goodness that of sheep. The Indians make their clothes of
this tree wool."
The textile tradition in India is always subjected to a number of
factors like Geography, climate, social customs, availability of
the raw material etc. A variety of raw materials like silk, cotton,
wool, jute are used in India for creating fabric.

Indian Textile is famous basically for its uniqueness and style.
Fabrics from diverse raw materials form-to-life up teen numbers
of wear catering to the needs of man. The most famous among
them is Appliqué. Appliqué is a decorative work in which one
piece of cloth is sewn or fixed onto another or the activity of
decorating a cloth using glass pieces metals or wood. This is one
of the most traditional handicraft art form from Orissa.
India has a long history of textile production, as we know from
religious texts, archaeological sites, and cave paintings. For
almost three thousand years the people of India have cultivated,
spun, and woven cotton and silk into fine garments. Indeed,
many scholars point to India as the birthplace of cotton
cultivation. Later, India also became known for its fine and sheer
silks. Throughout history, and up until today, textiles have been
one of the mainstays of India's economy, and they play a
significant role in almost every aspect of life.
Brightly colored and bearing inscriptions, pilgrimage cloths are
sold as souvenirs to pilgrims at religious sites or worn by Hindu
holy men called saddhus. The inscriptions are religious in nature
hailing God, Shiva, Rama, or Krishna. Among the most common
motifs are footprints that represent the presence of God or where
God has walked. They also represent the pilgrim
And his/her journey.

The First Textile Mill in India was built by a Parsee. They are
the early Entrepreneurs. The Parsees are intimately connected
with the history of Bombay. The cotton boom was largely
fuelled by Parse entrepreneurs. The oldest newspaper in
Bombay, "Bombay Samachar", was run by Pareses. Congress
stalwarts like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah Mehta and Din
Shaw Wacha were Parses. One of India's biggest industrial
houses was founded by a Parse, Jamsetji Tata.
The first Indian cotton mill, "The Bombay Spinning Mill", was
founded in 1854 in Bombay by Cowasji Nanabhai Davar – to
offset the unfavorable balance of trade with England. India was
exporting raw cotton to England and importing textiles from the
Lancashire mills at an escalating cost.
Historical development & trade-India
Due to the ravages of weather, climate very few textiles survive
in India from earlier than 18th and 19th century. The kalamkarri
hangings (painted cotton cloth) are a unique art exclusively-
Indian. The beauty of kalamkari lay in the quality of the dye
from the plant called chay (tap root). Used with alum mordant, it
produced glowing red; with iron, a sod brownish black, with a
mixture of alum, iron, a range of violet and browns. The caste
system (now abolished) is the key to the consistency in craft
traditions.

The family was a closely integrated community, whether
weavers, dyers, painters or printers. They married within their
own caste; the children followed the family traditions, helping
simple tasks from very young age. The manual dexterity and
knowledge of local materials were inborn and then in turn
passed on to new generation. The Indian saris and shawls of silk
brocaded. With silver and gold were marvels of exoticism, the
Dacca muslin-occupying special place. Of pure white cotton,
appearing a fine cobweb, with dainty floral sprigs brocaded in
thicker soft white cotton-a marvel that human hands could have
woven.

2. COTTON AND GINNING
Indian Cotton
Cotton is a natural fiber and makes up just under half of all the
fiber sold in the world. Cotton grows on a plant that is a member
of the Hibiscus family. Different stages of Cotton Boll at the
plant level will look like this:

In nature, cotton is a perennial shrub that reaches a height of
3.5m. Commercially it is grown annually and only reaches a
height of 1.2m. Cotton plants prefer hot summers with low
humidity and long hours of sunshine. The cotton plant has a
deep root that can go as deep as 1.5m.
There was a time that we did not attach much importance to
cotton in the wake of Synthetic Fiber development like Polyester
and Viscose. But Global Climatic Changes have brought back
Cotton to occupy the Primary Place in the wake of development
of Cotton Jeans.
Few Qualities that stands high for Cotton.
1. Cotton is hypoallergenic - meaning it will not irritate sensitive
skin or cause allergies. It is also good for asthmatics.
2. Cotton is very soft - it is particularly referred for underwear
and under garments that get close to the skin.
3. The ends of cotton fibers are spun very tightly into the yarn so
that the fabric doesn't irritate skin or cause static electricity.
4. Cotton can be easily blended with other fibers such as
synthetics like Polyester or Viscose Fiber.
5. Cotton is a good conductor of heat. In other words, it draws
heat away from your skin to keep you cool, making it
comfortable to wear.

6. Cotton absorbs moisture easily and can take up to one fifth of
its weight in water before it actually feels damp.
Cotton boll ready for picking
The word 'cotton'comes from the Arabic work 'kutun'– which
describes fine textile. Skilled crafts people of India were the first
to produce fine quality cotton fabric. India was the world's
leading maker and exporter of cotton fabrics from about 1500
BC until the end of the 15th century AD.
Bolls reach full size about 25 days after the petals fall. After a
further 35-55 days the bolls burst open and expose the seed
cotton. Seed cotton is the seed and lint (fiber). When most of the
bolls are open, the crop is ready to pick. The growing season
from when the seed sprouts out of the ground to harvest is about
180 days. Cotton grows about coffee bean size and contains
edible oil (18%-20%) and a high protein meal. The cotton fibers,
called lint, are about 25mm long and are attached to the seed.
Single cotton plant can produce up to 75 fruiting points.

Cotton is a remarkable plant as nearly every part of it can be
used. Lint is made into cotton fabric. Linters (very short fibers
which cling to the seed) are a by-product of ginning and are used
to produce paper, film, twine, rugs and mattresses. The seeds are
kept for future growing, and for stock feed, or processed into
cotton seed oil. The residue is made into high protein cottonseed
meal, which is used to feed poultry and livestock.
Cotton is a soft fiber that grows around the seeds of the cotton
plant, a shrub native to the tropical and subtropical regions of
both the Old World and the New World. The fiber is most often
spun into thread and used to make a soft, breathable textile. The
cotton plant is a tropical and subtropical shrub of the Genus
Gossypium (Family Malvaceae). ... A willow shrub A shrub or
bush is a horticultural rather than strictly botanical category of
woody plant, distinguished from a tree by its multiple stems and
lower height, usually less than 6 m tall. ...
Cotton fiber properties show differences according to their
region of cultivation, which are caused by the use of various
kinds of cottonseeds as well as differing climate conditions.
Cotton is a white or yellow-white vegetable fiber grown
anciently in both the Old and New Worlds. The fibers come
from a plant, related to the hollyhock that ranges in height from
2 feet to 20 feet, depending upon the variety. Cotton plants 15 to

20 feet tall are called tree cottons. The plant requires a warm
climate with about six months of summer weather for full
development. It blossoms and produces bolls or pods of cotton
fibers.
Boll Development
Classification of cotton according to length of staple is probably
more logical than a geographical classification, as the length of
staple and fineness of fiber are criteria in judging the quality of
cotton.
Cotton is classified, not only according to length and strength of
fiber, but also according to the condition of the cotton on a basis
called middling. Middling cotton is creamy white, with no
evidence of dirt or gin-cuts (fibers matted and cut) and with only
a few pieces of leaf and immature seeds. Middling-fair, the best,
has a perfect, lustrous, silky, clean fiber, whereas good-ordinary
contains leaf particles, sticks, hulls, dirt, sand, gin-cuts, and
spots.

To indicate the degree of whiteness of the cotton, six distinct
color groups are used: extra-white, white, spotted, tinged, yellow
stained, and gray. Although the grades given above are
significant to the manufacturer, a difference of 1/8 of an inch in
the length of fibers is generally much more important than the
difference between one grade and the next. Untreated cotton has
no pronounced luster.
The diameter of the cotton fiber ranges from .0005 to .009 of an
inch. Egyptian fibers have the smallest diameters and so can be
spun into the finest yarns. A single cotton fiber will sustain a
dead weight of from 2 to 8 grams. Such a fiber is not very
strong, but the finished cotton cloth can be made very strong if
tightly twisted.
The chief constituent of cotton is cellulose (87 to 90 per cent).
Cellulose is a solid, inert substance that is a part of plants. The
fact that it is the chief component of cotton fibers and is an inert
substance explains cotton's lifeless feel. Water (5 to 8 per cent)
and natural impurities (4 to 6 per cent) are the other components
of a cotton fiber. Cotton takes dyes that are fast to washing and
to sunlight. For a vegetable fiber, cotton has a fair affinity for
dye. Vegetable fibers do not take dye as readily as do animal
fibers.

If cotton is continuously exposed to sunlight, it loses strength.
This fact is particularly true of curtains, which may appear in
perfect condition when hanging at the windows but when taken
down may fall apart in spots where sunlight has reached them.
Cotton is subject to rotting caused by mildew, which is a
parasitic fungus. Heat and dampness further the growth of
mildew.
I have dealt at length some facet of Cotton both biologically and
chemically. At the fag end of 2000 an important mile stone was
reached in India by the introduction of Bt Cotton in the
agricultural sector. Another experiment that succeeded in
America- was cultivation of colored cotton which was also
introduced in India.
BT stands for the micro-organism Bacillus thuringiensis.
This gives the cotton plant the capacity to produce its own

protein which is toxic to Specific pests like bollworms. Some 70
per cent of all chemical
Pesticides used in India are just on cotton.
India has the maximum area under cotton in the world followed
by the US and China. However, our productivity is the lowest.
Over half the cotton area in the US is under transgenic, that is
plants into which genes
From unrelated species have been introduced to give them
desirable Characteristics.
In India, field experiments with BT cotton first started in 1996-
97 and were continued in 1997-98 and 1998-99. Large-scale
research field trials and seed production took place in 2000-01.
Although it has the world's largest acreage of 8.9 million
hectares under cotton, India is only the third largest global
cotton producer, with about 2.86 million tonnes of cotton lint a
year. The average productivity of cotton lint at 320 kilograms
per hectare is amongst the lowest in the world. The productivity
ranges from 200 kg per hectare to 600 kg for
Hybrid varieties. Since many of the land holdings are
characterized by small-scale and resource-poor farming, a
sudden and high increase in productivity using present methods
is unlikely.

Cotton is essentially grown in the kharif, the rainy season and
treated as a perennial crop. Nearly 70 per cent of the crop is
cultivated under rain fed conditions in the central and southern
regions of the country: Gujarat, Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh,
Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka.
The sowing dates in Southern India differ according to the
specific regions. Only in the northern regions of the country,
mainly the states of Punjab, Haryana and Rajasthan, is cotton
predominantly irrigated. Here, the plantings are homogenous
and the emphasis is on planting high yield varieties.
About 162 species of insects are known to devour cotton at
various stages of growth, of which 15 are considered to be key
pests. Among these are jessed (Amarasca bigutulla), aphids
(Aphis gossipy), white fly (Bemesia tabaci), spotted bollworm
(Earias vitella), pink bollworm (Pectiniphora gossypiella) and
American bollworm (Helicoverpa armigera). Important diseases
are bacterial blight, fusarium wilt, Alternaria leaf spot and grey
mildew.
Together these pests and diseases result in an estimated loss of
50 to 60 per cent of the potential yield. This is similar to losses
in other countries In India, an estimated US$ 620 million
(Rupees 28 billion) of pesticides is used in agriculture, with US$
344 million (Rs 16 billion) worth on cotton. Bollworm control

alone takes a heavy toll, costing the farmers an annual US$ 235
million (Rs 11 billion), and accounting for more than a third of
current pesticides sales in India.
If the crop fails because of weather conditions and/or pest
resistance, a rising number of farmers have been known to
consume the same chemicals to end their lives and escape the
humiliation that comes with mounting debts. According to the
official records, more than 500 cotton farmers in Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Punjab committed suicide
in 1998.
The only successful approach to engineering crops for insect
tolerance has been the addition of BT toxin, a family of toxins
originally derived from soil bacteria. The BT toxin contained by
the BT crops is no different from other chemical pesticides, but
causes much less damage to the environment.
The cotton industry relies heavily on chemicals such as
fertilizers and insecticides, although some farmers are moving
towards an organic model of production, and chemical-free
organic cotton products are now available. Historically, one of
the most economically destructive pests in cotton production has
been the boll weevil.

With initial opposition and resistance BT...Cotton has come to
stay in India- since it has created a remarkable change by
increasing the yield per acre.
India has been a major player in the world trade of textiles and
apparel and is undergoing a transformation to be more
competitive in the face of change. India has held a strong
position in cotton production and processing but has not been
able to exploit the full trade potential owing to a poor quality
perception of Indian cotton. The reason for this has been poor
cotton picking and extraction processes which led impurities to
be mixed with raw cotton. There has been a deliberate
government-led effort to improve cotton yield and quality
through education and to change the quality perception.
COTTON STATISTICS
WORLD COTTON SUPPLY AND DISTRIBUTION
Million Ton million bales
M
Yr end 04 05 06 04 05 06
produ 20 26 23 95 120 107
Consu 21 23 23 97 106 109
Export 7 7 8 33 33 37
stocks 8 10 10 36 48 47

1. World cotton production is skyrocketing to 26.1 million tons
in 2004/05 (up 26 percent), outpacing world consumption (up 9
percent) by an estimated 2.9 million tons, and the highest gap in
twenty seasons.
2. World production is forecast to decline to 23.4 million tons in
2005/06, down 2.7 million tons (10 percent) from the record this
season, but still the second largest crop on record.
3. World consumption is projected to climb to a record 23.7
million tons in 2005/06, up half a million tons (2 percent).
4. China (Mainland) is the main beneficiary of the abolition of
quotas on textile and apparel trade among WTO members since
January 1, 2005. Safeguard petitions to limit the growth of
imports from China
(Mainland) to developed countries are multiplying in numerous
textile categories, as allowed until 2008 under WTO rules. An
appreciation of the Yuan, if it occurs, would benefit China’s
competitors on the export markets, without stemming the flows
into import markets.
5. The Cot look A Index is expected to average 68 cents per
pound in 2005/06. The projected 15-cent jump from the average

anticipated for the current season is essentially the result of
projected skyrocketing net imports by China (Mainland).
6. Profits realized from BT cotton (Rs 31,880/ha) were
substantially higher than non-Bt cotton - (Rs 17,790/ ha)
indicating a difference of Rs 14,090/ha.
7. The relatively higher productivity of cotton in Punjab,
Haryana, Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan "seem to support the fact
that coverage of irrigation is important for increasing the
productivity of cotton in any
State."
8. India had enhanced its presence in US Markets in the face of
competition from China and Pakistan. India’s strengths in raw
material availability, low labor costs, supply chain management,
stability in policies had helped it stand in good stead, and it had
been
able to create a positive sentiment amongst leading importers.
The recent decision by China to impose export tariffs on 74
categories of textile products would also work in favor of India.
9. India: Cotton production up with adoption of latest technology
& fine irrigation sources. Latest variety of seeds, good sources
of irrigation and other aspects are the key factors in the
production rise. The production of cotton was 4.95 quintals of
per hectare in 2001-02 that has climbed 13.92 quintals per

hectare in 2004-05. But still we can improve- A really good field
of cotton ready for picking will yield.
A really good field of cotton ready for picking will yield about
1000 kg of cotton fiber per hectare. Yields vary, but the present
world average of only 400 kg per hectare could be improved.
Crops could be increased without using any more land in
developing countries if agricultural knowledge could be applied
and supplies of pesticide and fertilizer made available to the
Farmers there.
Even in the more advanced countries, the improvements in seed
varieties and farming techniques give better yields per hectare
almost every year. The present world production of cotton is
about 13 million metric tonnes which is grown on about 32
million hectares.
I am giving below the global cultivation period, harvesting,
varieties and staple length of cotton and micronaire.
No country planting harv Staple micro
1 Af Apr-ma dec 26-28 4.0
2 arg Sp-oc Fb-ju 24-28 3.9-4.
3 Aus Sp-oc Fb-m 24-29 3.9-4.5
4 Brazil Oct Mar 25-28 3.9-4.1
5 Camar Jun dec 25-28 3.9-4.3
6 China Aprl Nov 22-28 3.5-4.5

7 Egypt Mar Nov 31-40 3.2-4.6
8 India Aprl Nov 16-38 2.9-7.8
9 Pakist Aprl Nov 12-36 3.1-6
10 Africa Nov May 25-28 3.8-4.1
11 Sudan June Apr 27-30 3.8-4.1
12 Russia May Nov 28-30 3.5-5
13. USA May Dec 25-40 3.8-4.7
Globalization and its effect
With effect from 2005 WTO decisions have come into force.
The Textile Industry is the one that is poised for major changes.
Some of the biggest beneficiaries of globalization of the supply
chain have been the emerging economies whose pace of
development has been accelerated by this movement. These
economies have traits that dovetail well with the concepts of a
global supply chain.
Low labor cost: Emerging economies are characterized by low
labor costs as compared with the developed world. In fact, for
labor-intensive industries such as apparel and steel they offer an
incomparable competitive advantage.
Richness of natural resources: Most of the emerging
economies are well endowed with a plethora of natural
resources. This aptly positioned them as partners of choice for
the developed world. Countries in Europe, which earlier

imported cotton yarn from India and China, decided to shift
more manufacturing responsibilities to these nations. Thus, the
processing of the yarn to fabric and then to apparel became a
stronghold of China and India.
Labor Costs for Select Countries
Country Labor Wage (in US$ per hour)
USA 11.09
Mexico 2.77
Brazil 2.25
China 0.9
India 0.9
Korea 6.9
Indonesia 0.5
Pakistan 1.0
(Source: World trade Organization (WT0)
Of late the labor cost in India has risen to 2.0 and it is feared that
India may not be competitive compared to other developing
countries.
India has been a major player in the world trade of textiles and
apparel and is undergoing a transformation to be more
competitive in the face of change. India has held a strong

position in cotton production and processing but has not been
able to exploit the full trade potential owing to a poor quality
perception of Indian cotton. The reason for this has been poor
cotton picking and extraction processes which led impurities to
be mixed with raw cotton. There has been a deliberate
government-led effort to improve cotton yield and quality
through education and to change the quality perception.
Technology Upgrades:
The stringent quality demands on the Indian apparel industry by
the developed world have ensured that the industry does away
with archaic technology in terms of ring spinners, shuttle looms
and manual sewing machines. The adoption of the latest
technologies such as open-end spinning, air jet looms and
CAD/CAM has ensured that the industry is able to deliver on the
complex requirements of its clients worldwide.
Change in quality perception:
The Western world has started to perceive India as a producer of
quality apparel. Compliance with global quality norms such as
ISO 9000 and non-azoic dye usage have enabled Indian
manufacturers to push up the premium.
Emergence of processing and finishing centers:
Finishing is a very critical step of the apparel supply chain as it governs
not only the touch and feel of the fabric but the silhouette and drape of

the sewn apparel as well. It is a technology-intensive industry as
processing requires controlled treatment of the fabric under specific
ambient conditions. Traditionally, the high amount of investment
required for setting up a processing unit has been a deterrent for the
growth of this industry in the emerging economies. With the recent
structural changes in the apparel supply chain, there has been the
emergence of specialist processing centers.

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CAPACITY
The Indian Textile Industry has witnessed a phenomenal growth
during the last four decade. The spindleage increased from 11
million in 1951 to over 35.41 million and rotors from 45
thousand in 1989 to 395
Thousand as on 31.12.2000. The loomage however, declined
from 1.50 lakh in March 1994 to 1.23 lakh in Dec., 2000(P) in
the organized sector. The growth in capacity in spinning and
weaving sectors of the industry since 1994.

COTTON GINNING
Cotton Field

Cotton kapas
Ginning is as important as other Spinning Machines. In India
Ginning Factories is treated as separate entity. Hence much
attention is not paid to modernization of Ginning Factories.
Realizing the importance of Ginning to the Spinning Mill SIMA
is concentrating of improving this section.
Competitiveness has forced us to pay attention to every aspect of
Cotton Technology- starting from selecting good seeds, planting,
cultivating to harvesting and ginning.

In India Hand Picking is still the major method though in some
parts mechanical Pickers are used. This is due to Small
Holdings. Efforts should be made to improve this side so that
modernization of Picking will be possible.
Once the cotton has been picked, it is squashed into modules, so
it can then be taken to a cotton gin for processing. A gin is a
machine that separates cotton fiber from seeds and cleans the
cotton fiber, takes out the seeds, leaves and dirt.
When the cotton lint is processed in the gin, three products result
- cottonseed, lint and waste. The gin machine combs the cotton
fibers, like you comb your hair.
Each cotton boll contains around 30 seeds. The seeds are very
valuable and are used to make a variety of products such as: Oil,
Plastics, Explosives, Animal feed, Cosmetics such as lipstick,
Margarine, Insecticides. They may also be used as seeds to plant
again for the next cotton crop.
After separation from the seeds and waste, the lint is squashed
into large blocks called bales. The bales of lint are sent to
spinning mills in India and overseas. Waste: When the seed and
lint have been removed all that is left is waste - leaves, sticks,
dirt etc.

Cotton fiber waste has been used to clean up oil spills. in the sea,
as it soaks up the oil well but the natural waxes that it contains
help to keep the fiber afloat. It is used as manure in India.
Mechanical Picker below:
Kapas in ginning factory

The left over sticks and leaves can be used as compost, and put
back into the soil. This material is called 'cotton trash'after it has
been ginned the cotton then needs to be sorted into different
grades or classes, depending on its quality. The better the quality
of the cotton fiber, the more money people will pay for it.
There are as much as 20 grades to class cotton, and it takes many
years of training for people to learn how to do this job properly.
America is the Pioneer in inventing the Ginning Machine. The
well-known personality in Textile Industry- Eli Whitney is an
American.
Cotton Ginning before Eli Whitney:
Devices for separating cotton fiber from seed have existed since
antiquity. This process is considerably easier to perform for
smooth seed long-staple cotton varieties, which dominated total
cotton production prior to the popularization of Whitney's
machine. In 1788, Joseph Eve patented an improved machine for
this purpose, using a method that is now referred to as "roller"
ginning.

It used wire teeth hammered into a rotating wooden cylinder to
snare the cotton fibers and pull them through a grate. The slots
in this grate were too narrow for the cotton seed to pass, so that
the fibers were pulled away from the seed.
The primary barrier that the new cotton gin faced was that it
sacrificed fiber quality for quantity, and so met with some
resistance from English buyers of cotton fiber.
Due to its short staple and damage caused by Whitney-style
gins, the upland cotton varieties consistently sold for half the
price received by long-staple cotton prior to the Civil War.
Because undamaged fiber was so crucial to the high price
received by sea-island cotton, it continued to

With the invention of Whitney Gin, Ginning Factories emerged
as an intermediary to Spinning Mill. But the biggest impact of
custom ginning was that it focused the attention of innovators on
how to maximize the efficiency of the entire process of ginning,
rather than just the cotton gin itself. In the mid-1880s, Robert
Munger of Texas developed "system" ginning, as seed cotton
was fed continuously to multiple gin stands, from which the
fiber went directly into pressing equipment for baling. This
eventually ended once and for all the era of plantation gins and
small cotton gin makers.

After the invention of the cotton gin, the yield of raw cotton
doubled each decade after 1800. Demand was fueled by other
inventions of the Industrial Revolution, such as the machines to
spin and weave it and the steamboat to transport it. By mid
century America was growing three-quarters of the world's
supply of cotton, most of it shipped to England or New England
where it was manufactured into cloth.
The Cotton Gin
Cotton Gins are a critical part of the process of getting a field
grown crop into the marketplace. Seed cotton is turned into two
major by-products and two minor by-products when processed
by the cotton gin. Delivered to the gin in either trailers or in
large bales known as modules, the seed cotton is fed into the gin
plant by suction and then metered out at a rate suitable to the
gin's capacity and the condition of the seed cotton (trashy, clean,
wet, or dry).
Clean, dry seed cotton can be processed at the highest
capacities, thus lessening overstocked conditions in the waiting-
to-be-ginned line. Almost all gins use gas fired dryers to dry
seed cotton to around 7% moisture. This is optimum for most
ginning systems. After drying and some threshing type
processing to remove larger trash, seed cotton is fed into the "gin
stand" where "cottonseed" is removed from the lint. The lint,

which has been removed from the seed by means of flat Circular
saw blades, is fed into cleaning machines which remove
"motes".
Motes are sold as low -grade cotton fiber mainly because of their
short fibers and off-color appearance. The cleaned lint is then
fed into the baling press where approximately 150- 200 Kgs
cotton bales are formed for shipment to clothing mills (textile
mills). The final product of ginned seed cotton is gin trash. It
consists mainly of
Cotton plant parts which have been removed in the cleaning
machinery.
Cotton gin trash is usually piled on the gin property where it is
allowed to compost. It makes great mulch for landscaping and
garden use. Lint makes up approximately 35% of the cotton.
Once the lint has been separated it is compacted into bales and
transported either to spinning mills.
At the end of this process the clean lint is pressed into 227kg
bales and samples are taken from each bale at this stage for the
purpose of classing the cotton. In general terms cotton classing
is the way in which cotton fiber is sorted into different quality-
based grades- the higher the class, the better the quality of the
cotton fiber and the higher the price. There are three

determinants of classing - color (bright or dull, white or grey),
trash content (amount of stalk, leaf or dirt)
The process of turning cotton lint into fabric involves several
distinct manufacturing operations. Cotton of similar grade but
from different bales is blended together into batches of uniform
quality. After the cotton lint has been spun into yarn it is then
woven or knitted into fabric. Once cotton has been woven or
knitted into fabric it has probably not been affected by water (all
of the processes so far undertaken have been 'dry').
Fabric finishing can make the fiber look and feel better. It is the
final step in the manufacturing process.
Modern Ginning Factory

Another View
Auto Feeding

Feeding to Ginning Machines
Ginning:
From the field, seed cotton moves to nearby gins for separation
of lint and seed. The Cotton first goes through dryers to reduce
moisture content and then through cleaning equipment to
remove foreign matter. These operations facilitate processing
and improve fiber quality. The cotton is then air conveyed to gin
stands where revolving circular saws pull the lint through
closely spaced ribs that prevent the seed from passing through.
The lint is removed from the saw teeth by air blasts or rotating
brushes, and then compressed into bales weighing approximately
500 pounds. Cotton is then moved to a warehouse for storage
until it is shipped to a textile mill for use. A typical gin will
process about 12 bales per hour, while some of today’s more
modern gins may process as many as 60 bales an hour.

Experiments in India to improve the Ginning Process:
In India Roller Gin is used and Saw Ginning is negligible. This
is due to low micronaire cottons and weak fibers. At present in
Indian roller ginning industry, the speed and settings of various
processes including gin machines are kept same for all types of
picked cottons. Recent studies conducted by
ATIRA reveal that existing gin parameters rupture the fibers and
increase the neps significantly of Indian hybrid cottons having
low micronaire level. Optimization work at ginning in India has
not been done particularly for the low micronaire and fine
cottons at all. ATIRA has also studied the effect of picking
timings on the cotton characteristics by collecting and testing a
number of kapas (seed-cotton) samples of 1st and 4th picked
timings from various regions of India.
Results indicate the following:
a) Fiber length of 4th picked cottons is reduced by about 8 to 15
per cent with the significant increase of short fiber content.
b) Micronaire, maturity and neps of all the 4th picked cottons get
deteriorated substantially.
c) The levels of trash, micro-dust and fiber fragments in the 4th
picked cottons are very high compared to the 1st picked cottons.

d) Quality of yarns produced from 4th picked cottons gets
deteriorated significantly in terms of evenness, imperfections
and tenacity. Identification of effect of existing ginning force on
characteristics of 1st and
4th picked cottons
Seed-cotton (kapas) of different varieties of 1st and 4th picked
cottons was ginned by hand and by machine in order to establish
the level of quality deterioration improvement by the existing
roller ginning machine.
Results summarized
a) In case of 4th picked cottons the extent of fiber breaking by
the machine ginning is higher than that for the 1st picked
cottons. The level of short fiber content increases significantly
with machine ginning.
b) Original level of neps in 4th picked cotton is not higher than
that of the 1st picked cottons. Machine ginning does not increase
the neps in the case of 1st picked cottons, while the neps of 4th
picked cottons are increased by the same machine ginning in
most of the cases.

It seems that the 4th picked low micronaire fibers cannot bear
the existing ginning force and hence the fibers get ruptured as
well as entangled. This indicates that there is a good scope of
preserving the characteristics of later picking cottons by
optimizing the parameters of ginning processes.
c) Comparison between hand and machine ginned cottons shows
that the level of trash and fiber fragments increases significantly
with machine ginning. Moreover, the machine ginning yields
poor yarn quality n terms of evenness, imperfections, and single
thread strength and elongation. In case of 4th picked cotton,
more deterioration in quality of yarn spun from the machine
ginned lint is observed as compared to the case of 1st picked
cotton.
ATIRA approach to improve quality of low micronaire cottons
ATIRA has been carrying out various R&D activities in the area
of ginning to improve the quality of Indian cottons as well as
performance of the roller ginning industry since 1992.
ATIRA has identified a number of deficiencies present in seed
cotton/ginned lint, their effects and also developed a series of
cleaning and automatic cotton conveying systems suitable for
roller ginneries to improve the quality of Indian cottons. Past
work done at ATIRA indicated that the Indian hybrid seed

cotton contains immature bolls in which most of fibers are of
low micronaire and weak. Moreover, it has been
Observed that the seed cotton picked after the month of
December contains less moisture content (around 5 per cent as
against 7.5 per cent) due to dry/hot climate in India. Hence,
efforts were made to preserve the quality of 3rd and subsequent
picked cottons by improving the preparation of raw cotton prior
to ginning.
Improving preparation of raw cotton
Improving moisture content in low micronaire kapas material
Since low level of moisture was observed in the low micronaire
kapas materials, it was increased in the different stations of
kapas of Sankar variety
From 4 to 8 per cent by using appropriate humidification system.
The important fiber characteristics like micronaire and bundle
strength get improved with the increase of moisture content in
the cotton. As a result, fiber breakage and generation of neps
could be reduced at ginning. Increasing micronaire level by
removing immature bolls from kapas material The immature
bolls from ATIRA pre-ginning cleaner and the level of
micronaire of normal, good and immature kapas bolls was
checked.
Results show that the level of micronaire increases in cotton
when the immature bolls are removed prior to ginning. When the

immature bolls are removed from the normal kapas material, the
overall level of micronaire is improved in the good kapas
material since the micronaire level of immature bolls is very
low.
Optimization of parameters of roller gin machine to improve
characteristics of low micronaire cottons
1. Setting between two knives
2. Fixed knife pressure on leather roller
3. Opening gap of two knives
4. over lap setting
5. Speed combination of beater and leather roller
6. Position of fixed knife with respect to leather roller
7. Leather roller material
Setting between two knives
A number of experiments were conducted using different cotton
varieties to assess the effect of setting between knives on the
characteristics of low micronaire Indian cottons. The gap was
varied from 1 mm to 2 mm. In most of the ginneries this gap is
not maintained properly and it is not kept more than 1mm.
Results show that wider setting between knives (2mm) results in
better quality in all the types of cottons particularly in terms
reduction in impact force on the fibers with increase in setting
between knives. Fixed knife pressure on leather roller

The pressure of fixed knife on the leather roller is required for
ginning action and it is affected by changing the position of
weight on the rod of the roller gin machine. Shifting of the
weight towards the gin machine increases the pressure between
fixed knife and leather roller and vice versa.
Experiments were conducted using different cottons to compare
the cotton characteristics obtained by lower v/s higher pressure.
Results indicate that a low level of pressure on the leather roller
preserves the quality of low micronaire in terms of length and
neps.
Opening gap between two knives.
The opening gap between two knives decides the feeding rate of
kapas material to the gin machine. Production rate of the
machine increases with conducted using two different opening
gaps between the knives i.e. 1.7 cm and 2.0 cm. The generation
of neps is reduced significantly with the use of 2.0 cam opening
gap at the ginning. This improvement may be due to reduction in
ginning force per fiber as the feeding rate of the kapas material
increases with the higher opening gap between the knives.
Overlap setting.
As per literature, overlap of moving knife over the fixed knife
should be one third of the staple length of the fibers.

Experiments were conducted to assess the effect of moving knife
overlap on the characteristics of low micronaire different
cottons.
Results indicate that the low overlap setting reduces the
generation of neps. In case of lower overlap setting, rubbing
action between low micronaire fibers and knives reduces and
hence the generation of neps is decreased during ginning action.
Speed combination of beater and leather roller the ginning force
is affected by the speed of beater and leather roller.
Experiments were therefore conducted by changing the speed
combination at gin machine is order to assess its effect on the
characteristics of different stations of low micronaire Sankar
cotton. The existing speeds in the ginning industry are 950 rpm
and 95 rpm of the beater and leather roller respectively.
Efforts were made to change these speed and reduced the
existing leather roller speed i.e. 1050 instead of 950 rpm of
beater speed and 80 instead of 95 rpm of leather roller. The
modified speed combination reduces the
Generation of neps due to increase of production rate of gin
machine. More and more quantity of kapas material enters into
the machine.
Conclusions

1. Quality of 3rd and subsequently picked Indian hybrid cottons
is much inferior than that of 1st and 2nd picked cottons
particularly in terms of micronaire, length, neps, cooler,
maturity, trash, etc.
2. Existing roller gin parameters not only rupture the fibers of
low micronaire 3rd and subsequently picked cottons but also
generate neps to a significant level.
3. Ginning is one of the best process to preserve the quality of
low micronaire cottons. Roller gin parameters optimized by
ATIRA not only preserve the quality of low micronaire cottons
but also increase the production rate of the gin machine.
4. Micronaire level of later picking cottons can be increased by
improving preparation of raw material prior to ginning.
5. Optimized gin parameters improve the quality of low
micronaire cottons particularly in terms of length and/or neps.
6. Suggested gin parameters/methods are practically successful
and those can be implemented in the ginning units.
(The authors are with ATIRA, Ahmedabad)

(The Author thanks ATIRA for these useful experiments in
improving the quality of Ginning.)
3. Spinning Machinery- Then and Now
The present generation and the future generation may or might
not have seen how our Fore Fathers have struggled to built up
the Modern Day Mills. Even the buildings have been demolished
to pave way for the Modern Mills. In order to apprise them the
history of Textile Mills and Machinery I have taken pains to

collect old photographs from various websites and present them
to our Readers.
Fortunately I have worked in Mills where power was from
Steam Engines and the machinery was from England- Platt Bros
and T & S, Saco Lowell and Whitin Machinery from America. I
have also planned and erected latest Mills in Malaysia and Sri
Lanka with latest Laxmi-Reiter and Reiter Machinery.
Many of us who travel to Mumbai- can still see the old
structures of Textile Mills. Even today at Coimbatore stand as
monument some old Mills-now taken over by NTC-like
Kaleeswar and Somasundara Mills.
Old Mills were almost multi-story buildings accommodating
both Spinning and Weaving Machines – but Dye house
separately. Huge Boiler Houses were built separately for Steam
and Power Generation.
The Great Indian Diaspora
What attracted in the newspaper cutting is the mention of the
first Textile Mills established at Bombay in 1874- by a Parsi. :

Evolution of Spinning Machinery:
Evolution of Spinning Machinery is closely linked to the
Industrial Revolution and the credit goes to the Textile Industry
for being Pioneer in this process.

Appearance Of Old Mills
To understand the present progress of Textile Industry and its
machinery development we must go back to the history.
Cotton was spun and woven into cloth by hand until England, in
the late 1700s, developed textile machinery that was to
revolutionize cotton manufacturing and provide the impetus for
the Industrial Revolution.
In 1760s James Hargreaves invented the Spinning Jenny and
Richard Ark Wright improved with his development of the
Waterwheel Spinning Frame.
Requiring no special skills to operate, the new machinery
quickly replaced the hand operated spinning wheel and vastly

improved the quality and supply of thread. Textile mills, with
cottages for imported workers, sprang up, and suddenly the
factory system with the first successful system of mass
production was created.
Water Wheel
The above Picture and the succeeding pictures are the inventions
of James Hargreaves and Ark Wright.
Industrial Revolution Ignited:
The advances in cotton textile manufacturing required coal for
fuel and iron for the new machinery; the increase in coal and
iron mining & required improvements in transportation; and the
transportation requirements in turn brought about the
development of railroads and steamships. By the end of the
eighteenth century, the various specializations had intermeshed,
with the achievements of one contributing to the success of the

other, and suddenly the world's first industrial revolution was
underway.
Mule
The cotton textile industry in America was launched by Samuel
Slater in 1790 at Pawtucket, Rhode Island. Slater, an English
textile mechanic with detailed knowledge of Richard Ark right’s
revolutionary water-powered spinning machine, migrated to
America and reconstructed two of the famous machines from
memory to establish a 72-spindle mill--the first successful water-
powered spinning mill in America. With the employment of
young children from seven to twelve years of age to operate the
machines, the mill was a great success. Building on that success,
Slater with his partner, Moses Brown, began the construction of
additional mills in Rhode Island, Massachusetts, and
Connecticut

Mule
Spinning Jenny
The Story in India:

Excerpts from Speech of Mr. Jay Krishna Harivallabhdas,
president of the Ahmedabad Mill owners’ Association at
the Inauguration of Centenary Exhibition
“This centenary is a tribute to many pioneers who toiled to make
this occasion possible…. The industry in the nineteenth century
was purely a spinning industry but later transformed itself into
composite units with up to- date manufacturing and processing
divisions. Today we can manufacture dyed, mercerized, printed
and fully shrunk fabrics and we can state with satisfaction that in
point of equipment and production of cloth several mills in
Ahmedabad do compare favorably with any of the best cotton
mills in the world.
“…Lancashire imports used to play a very important part in
meeting the consumer needs of the country… It was fortunate
that the Tariff Commissions appointed from time to time to
protect this industry were alive to the need for the growth of the
industry in India and we established ourselves in these qualities
as equal to any other advanced countries …
Instead of remaining an importing country of cotton textiles
India is now today exporting substantial quantities of cloth since
the outbreak of the Second World War.

The Early Entrepreneurs of Bombay
The Parsis are intimately connected with the history of Bombay.
The cotton boom was largely fuelled by Parsi entrepreneurs. The
oldest newspaper in Bombay, "Bombay Samachar", was run by
Parsis. Congress stalwarts like Dadabhai Naoroji, Pherozeshah
Mehta and Dinshaw Wacha were Parsis.
One of India's biggest industrial houses was founded by a Parsi,
Jamsetji Tata. Even the physical shape of Bombay was
determined by donations to build causeways, roads and
buildings by members of the Jeejeebhoy and Ready money
families. The first record of a Parsi, Dorabji Nanabhai, settling
in Bombay dates from 1640. After 1661, when Bombay passed
to the British, there was a concerted effort to bring artisans and
traders to settle in the new town. A large part of the Parsi
migrants to Bombay in these years was constituted of weavers
and other artisans.
In 1673, the British handed over a piece of land in Malabar Hill
to the Parsi community for the establishment of their first
Dakhma, Tower of Silence.

The first Indian cotton mill, "The Bombay Spinning Mill", was founded
in 1854 in Bombay by Cowasji Nanabhai Davar – to offset the
unfavorable balance of trade with England. India was exporting raw
cotton to England and importing textiles from the Lancashire mills at an
escalating cost. Opposition from the Lancashire mill owners was
eventually offset by the support of the British manufacturers of textile
machinery. By 1870 there were 13 mills in Bombay At the end of 1895
there were 70 mills; growing to 83 in 1915. After World War II, under
strong competition from Japan, the number of mills declined. In 1953
there remained only 53 mills in the city.
ENGLAND & AMERICAN TEXTILE
INDUSTRY
Ark right and Haregreaves:
After the invention of Ark right and Haregreaves there were
steady improvements in Spinning Machinery:
About 1767, with some friends, he began to build a machine to
spin cotton. They rented a room in a secluded teacher's house
behind some gooseberry bushes, but they were so secretive that
the neighbors were suspicious and accused them of sorcery, and
two old women complained that the humming noises they heard
at night must be the devil tuning his bagpipes.
So Richard Ark Wright moved over the hills to Nottingham, and
designed a big machine to be driven by five or six horses, but

before he even got it working he took a momentous step. He
borrowed money and built a huge ``manufactory,''to house
dozens of machines and hundreds of people
Several spinning machines were designed at about this time, but
most of them tried to do the stretching and the spinning together.
The problem is that the moment you start twisting the roving
you lock the fibers together.
Ark Wright’s idea was to stretch first and then twist. The roving
passed from a bobbin between a pair of rollers, and then a
couple of inches later between another pair that was rotating at
twice the speed. The result was to stretch the roving to twice its
original length. A third pair of rollers repeated the process. Ark
Wright’s original machine had four sets of rollers. Later ones
had three. They increased the length of the cotton yarn by a
factor of four.
A conventional spinning wheel needs one skilled operator to
spin one thread. The spinning jenny could spin say a dozen
threads, but needed a highly skilled operator. Ark Wright’s
water frame needed no skill, and spun 128 threads at a time. Ark
Wright was well on the way to mass-production.
He built his first mill when he was nearing 40, in 1771. In the
next 20 years he built mills all over Derbyshire, Lancashire, and

Scotland, and they were not only cotton spinners but money
spinners too, for when he died on 3 August 1792 he left half a
million, equivalent today to perhaps 200 million pounds.
This is the story of Ark Wright and the start of Factory System
of the present day Spinning Mills.
Roving Machine- 1883

Revolving Flat Carding- 1887
Ring Spinning-1923
INDIAN TEXTILE INDUSTRY
England Platt Bros and T&S machines were also similar models
as shown above. Since India was under British occupation

Indian Mills invariably equipped with the above machines. But
one Entrepreneur established one Textile Machines with
complete American machines at Nanjangud near Mysore.
But many Mills in late 1960s went in for Whitin Machineries
like Blow Room, Combers and Draw Frames. 1960s also saw
the introduction of latest Twisters like Alma-Germany in India.
1956- also the introduction of Japanese machines in Indian
Mills. Toyoda and Howa machines were very popular. Many
new Mills were equipped with entirely Japanese Machines from
Blow Room to Twisting Machines. There were changes in the
architecture of Mill Building also.
Two People- Karumuthu Thiagaraja Chetty and G.K. Devarajulu
Naidu and G.K. Sundaram were responsible for bringing latest
machines from Japan and Switzerland in 1960s. Later GKD as
he is still affectionately called established the famous Laxmi-
Reiter Machine Works at Coimbatore.
The contribution to the Textile Industry by both these people is
itself a history. I have met them several times and took advice in
Technical Matters. They were very generous and kind and
willingly came forward to help and develop Technical Personnel
to man the Textile Mills.

Developments in Spinning
An overview of yarn formation technologies
During the 1970s, there appeared to be a myriad of spinning
systems, such as twist less spinning, self-twist spinning,
fasciated yarns, composite yarns, wrap-spun yarns, pot spinning,
continuously felted yarns; and the many possible variants in
open-end spinning such as rotor, electrostatic, friction spinning,
and vortex spinning (the original “Polish” system). At the same
time, there were continued developments in ring spinning, with
ventures into rotating ring and traveler systems, individual
spindle drives, high draft
Systems, modified travelers, double roving spinning, and hybrid
systems.
A look at today’s industry reveals that while some systems have
established a successful but small niche — wrap spinning for
fancy yarns, and friction spinning for specialty industrial
markets — very few systems have survived. Indeed, this is also
true of the manufacturers of these machines.
There are number of spinning positions for the major
technologies, together with their share of the spun yarn market.
It is evident that, when judged from the perspective of the
number of installed spindles, ring spinning is still the most

dominant spinning system — there are about three times more
spindles than installed rotors. If judgment is based on the
quantity of yarn produced, it is clear that even though there is
only one-third as many positions of rotors installed, rotor
spinning produces three times more yarn than ring spinning.
Ring Spinning
The technology behind ring spinning has remained largely
unchanged for many years, but there have been significant
refinements. Changes, which on their own offered only slight
advantages, provided the following synergies when combined:
• The introduction of longer frames reduced the relative costs of
automatic doffing.
• The combination of spinning frame and winding (link winders)
further enhanced the adoption of automation.
• The introduction of automatic doffing meant that doffing time
was reduced and thus package (and ring) size was less critical.
• The introduction of splicing on the winder meant that yarn
joins became less obtrusive — again offering the potential of
smaller package.
• Smaller rings meant that for a limiting traveler velocity (40
meters per second [m/s]), higher rotational speeds (and hence
twisting rates) could be achieved.

These combinations meant that the potential maximum speed of
ring spinning was raised from about 15,000 to 25,000
revolutions per minute. There also have been several other
proposed developments that have met with mixed success.
Drafting systems: While double apron drafting dominates, the
system can be tweaked to enable higher drafts. Recent
exhibitions have featured machines operating at potential drafts
of 70 to 100. The use of high drafts has significant impact on the
economics of the total system.
Individual spindle drives:
Several manufacturers demonstrated this possibility in the
1980s. While the concept offered advantages with respect to
lower energy requirements, less noise and better control of
speed, it suffered higher initial costs and bigger spindle gauge.
Ring Design
Several approaches to reducing the limitations of traditional
rings and travelers have been proposed.
Orbit ring: This development from Reiter was aimed at
increasing heat dissipation from the traveler.
Ceramic rings (Ceratwine system): The combination of a
ceramic ring and ceramic-coated traveler offered the promise of
significantly better wear resistance, which translates into long

traveler life. More consistent yarn quality and shorter break-in
time are other claimed benefits.
Rotating rings: This idea was tried by several ring frame
manufacturers in the 1970s. Other ventures into this area
included systems such as Cerifil,
Magnetic Spinning and Super Traveler Spinning. The
problem with these types of devices is, while they appear to
operate at lower spinning tensions, and thus potentially offer
lower end breakage rates, they suffer the drawbacks of short
duration and high-magnitude tension peaks because of the inertia
of the twisting element, which is significantly higher than a
traveler.
Spindle identification
(Schlafhorst, Barco):
The tracking of spindles from the ring frame has great potential
for process quality control. This enables the identification of
those spindles on the ring frame that are responsible for
producing defective yarns, as assessed on the winding frame. It
is believed
This type of system will result in improvements not only in yarn
quality, but also in efficiency, by more readily indicating faulty
positions on the spinning frame.
Longer machines: Improvements in the drives used on spinning
frames have enabled the number of spindles per machine to be
further increased up to 1,488 (Zinser). This has a positive impact

on the cost per spindle. Additionally, as indicated above, longer
machines favor the use of automation, particularly link-winding.
Compact spinning: Systems that use additional drafting
components and pneumatics to create yarns that are less hairy
and stronger are available from several machinery makers. The
many claims made for these systems are usually mutually
exclusive in that one can either have a stronger yarn or spin at
higher production speeds with lower twist. Moreover, there is a
significant increase in the cost of these machines, and the yarn
thereby produced, when compared to traditional spinning
frames.
While the use of compact spinning machines is claimed to have
made significant inroads in Europe, the system has not been
well-received in the United States. It is evident that several other
machinery makers will venture into this market, such as Marzoli
and Cognetex, and this added competition may result in reduced
machinery costs.
Rotor Spinning
Rotor or open-end spinning is now a mature technology, and
since the 1960s, it has seen a five-fold increase in twisting

speeds. During the early stages of development, debates
concerned such questions as:
• Were self-pumping or evacuated systems better?
• Was roller drafting feed superior to a beater opener?
• Was spin through better than feed and withdrawal from the
same face of the rotor?
• Were twin disc bearings the best solution for higher speeds?
These issues were seemingly resolved, and most modern rotor
machines are very similar in layout with relatively subtle
differences between machines from the major manufacturers.
These differences are typically associated with the aerodynamics
of the transfer tube, rotor design and navel design.
While it is still possible to obtain low-tech rotor spinning
frames, present state-of-the-art machines have significant
integrated automation such as doffing, piecing, cleaning and
process/product monitoring. Additionally, the machine can be
part of a material handling system from sliver through to
packaged yarn.
It is generally accepted that, while rotor yarns are different from
ring-spun yarns, they tend to offer advantages in processing
through weaving and knitting. This difference is a result of
structural differences introduced during yarn formation.

This structure — which is responsible for the lower strength of
rotor yarns, but improved hairiness and yarn abrasion — is an
inherent feature of the system. While it is possible to control the
formation of wrapper fibers by optimizing rotor and navel
designs, it is impossible to eliminate them. Unfortunately, while
smaller rotors are required for higher
Processing speeds, this also negatively impacts wrapper fibers,
and thus higher speeds often carry the penalty of a reduction in
yarn quality. Developments in rotor spinning include the use of
longer machines.
Additionally, there is interest in potentially using rotor
technology to produce core yarns and using additional
components to create effect yarns.
Fasciated Yarns
While initially there were several potential manufacturers of
machines for this technology, the market has been dominated by
Murata, with its jet spinning and vortex spinning systems.
Murata Jet Spinning (MJS) gained a small, but significant, share in the
polyester/cotton yarn market. The advantage of the system was that it
offered high-speed production of finer-count yarns and thus did not
directly compete with rotor spinning. Since its commercial launch as

MJS, several variants have been introduced, including Murata Twin
Spin (MTS) and Roller Jet Spinning (RJS). Different jets also were
offered to accommodate different yarn styles.
These offerings were to extend the use of jet spinning, with particular
respect to fiber type and yarn count. Jet spinning has the major
disadvantage of not being able to produce acceptable 100-percent cotton
yarns. Furthermore, MJS is restricted to finer counts because yarn
tenacity reduces as the yarn becomes coarser.
For optimum processing, there also are higher quality requirements on
the feed sliver with extra drawing or combing operations. Despite these
limitations, and the necessity to optimize finishing in order to promote
an acceptable hand, jet spinning is a viable system in the United States
because of high productivity — 250 meters per minute (m/min) for the
MJS 802H —and adequate yarn and fabric quality. As a bonus,
the core sheath structure of the yarn tends to minimize hairiness,
which in turn reduces pilling propensity, often a major problem
with polyester-rich blends.
Murata Vortex Spinning
Murata Vortex Spinning (MVS) is best judged as a development
of jet spinning specifically created to overcome the limitations
of fiber type. The major marketing feature of MVS was that it
was capable of spinning uncombed cotton slivers into acceptable
yarns at speeds that were significantly higher than with any other
system. The yarn structure is different from jet-spun yarn with

many more wrapper fibers, and in parts the vortex yarn
resembles a two-fold yarn. There were concerns that there is
excessive fiber loss using this spinning machine. But, even
though the fiber
Loss may be about 8 percent, most of this is short fiber, which
would not contribute to yarn quality.
I am presenting to you in the succeeding pages the latest
machines to compare with the early development of Textile
Machines. Also some features of Spinning Machines exhibited
At ITMA. It will be very helpful to the Students of Textile
Technology and also the present day Textile Mills.
MARZOLI C601 CARDING MACHINE
Marzoli is presently marketing the C601 card which is reported
to process around 120 kilograms of fiber per hour, utilizes a 350-
millimeter (mm) single licker-in rather than the multiple roller
configuration used by others. There are nine pre-carding and six
post-carding elements for additional and efficient cleaning. A
mid-term auto leveling system, based around the feed roll, and a
short term auto leveler that utilizes a 3/3 drafting system at the
delivery of the card, is used by Marzoli.
For splicing core spun elastic short staple yarns, Mesdan has
designed a splicer kit especially for Schlafhorst Autoconer 238
and 338 machines for excellent results and perfect control of the

Lycra yarn inside the joint . The application of this kit upgrades
the splicing performance of Schlafhorst original splicer thanks
to: · higher splicing efficiency leading to an increased
productivity of Schlafhorst Autoconer. · A superior quality of
the joint in terms of appearance, resistance and CV%. · Presence
of Lycra filaments in the joint. · The employ of water is not
required.
SHANGHAI – Erfangji Ring Spinning Frame: EJM 168
Shanghai Erfangji Co., Limited is one of the leading spinning
companies in China which has already established its name
among the spinners in Pakistan. The EJM 168 Ring spinning
frame is quite versatile with a maximum number of 516 spindles
to a minimum of 96 spindles with spindle speeds up to 12,000 to
20,000 r/min. Spinners usually prefer 12 sets ring spinning
frame EJM 168 (516 spindles/frame) with drafting system by
SKF Germany.
The main features are given as under:
With three-roller, double-apron draft, the yarn quality reaches
the international advanced level. · New headstock driving system
for easy maintenance, with rational and reliable lubrication
system.
JINGWEI

Ring Spinning MACHNE Jingwei Textile Machinery Co.Ltd has
been committed to establishing and maintaining its Quality
Assurance System with international practice. F- 1518 Ring
spinning machine can be equipped with automatic doffer at
customer's option in addition to the overhead cleaner and
spandex core spun yarn spinning devices. The machine can be
linked with auto-winder to become Ring-Coner. The main
advantages of F-1518 Ring spinning machine include: · Ease of
operation with the compact head-end driving system, lubricated
With two modes at customer's option. One is automatic
quantitative oil dripping device and the other is automatic oil-
bath lubrication device. ·
The programmable controller controls the spinning process.
When inverter is chosen, the speed curve can be set according to
different requirements of Spinning. · The newly designed lappet
and balloon ring are beneficial to control the spinning tension.
The yarn quality can reach the high level of international
standard. Textra - roving bobbin transport system for spinning
mills.
SYNERGY IN SALES & MARKETING
Sohler-Neuenhauser and Neuenhauser Maschinenbau are
independently working companies, using a same network of
agencies world-wide for their textile machinery products. Latest

innovation at ITMA 2003 included Central Vacuum system for
spinning and weaving mills with a pump capacity up to 30 KW
and easy retrofit in existing factories.
· Uniclean Traveling cleaner for spinning mills with a fan
capacity: 2, 2 KW with low energy consumption.
· Texpro 2 is a traveling cleaner for spinning mills with a belt
drive system With stationary motor.
· Textra is roving bobbin transport system for spinning mills.
· Auto Flow Spider Doffer, which is an automatic doffing unit
for man-made fiber Packages, e.g. at any type of BCF Extrusion
Winders to pick up packages and forward those to an automatic
overhead transport system in spinning plants.
XORELLA
Lab Conditioning Technology the Mini-Contexor type unit is
completely pre-assembled and ready for immediate use. All
components are mounted and pre wired and only needs utility
connections, such as water, Electricity and air pressure. A fully
automatic and programmable process control with
microcomputer guarantees 100% reproducibility on large
contexor systems. Other features include:
· Inside diameter: 700 mm.
· Usable length: 1200mm.

· Operating pressure: -1/+ 4 bar.
· Operating temp: 50°C - 150°C.
· Vacuum up to 50 m/bar.
· Vessel material: stainless steel (1.4541 or 321 L) with 70 mm
thick insulation.
The VC5 Comber enables a maximum of 360 nips/minute at
actual operating levels due to its redesigned nipper tracks. A
reduction in places to be adjusted has enhanced ease of
maintenance. Main specifications
• No. of combing heads: 8
• Feed lap: 260-300 mm x maximum 650 mm diameter
• Combing speed: maximum 360 nips/min
• Combing: Hi-comb cylinder (standard)
India is investing heavily in short-staple spinning machines and
will continue to be a leading exporter of yarn; China has
invested in long staple and o-e spinning systems mainly for its
domestic consumption. It is also importing yarn and has invested
heavily in weaving and knitting machines which will make it the
leader in fabrics and clothing manufacture. Bangladesh and
Pakistan have also shown a spurt in fabric manufacturing.
Status of the Textile Machinery Industry

Approximately 120 companies manufacture the complete range
of Textile machinery. Gross receipts for the Industry in 1997
were Nearly USD 700 million. The industry employs about
150,000 Workers directly and an equal number indirectly. The
demand for
Textile machinery is mainly from end user in the cotton textiles,
manmade fibers and wool units’ textile sectors. The industries
Major problems are:
1. Inadequate design and engineering capability.
2. The high cost of raw material and components.
3. The high cost of finance.
4. Demand constraints.
5. Competition from foreign countries as a result of the lowering
of import duties on textile machinery.
6. The high quality of imported textile equipment.
The textile machinery industry sector experienced between 7 and
8 Percent nominal growth in 1997. Imported textile equipment
include: Auto cone winders; Open-ended spinning units; single-
cylinder knitting machines; CAD Systems; continuous fusing
machines; air-jet looms; and texturizing machines. The major
exporters of textile machinery To India include: Japan;
Switzerland; Germany; Korea; the UK; The U.S, and Italy.

A number of textile projects were established in India between
1993 and 1995 that incorporated used imported equipment.
These Projects were undertaken by the following companies:
Samtex Fashions Ltd.; Hanil Era Textiles Ltd.; and Tai-
Chonbong Industries Ltd. Based on the success of these projects,
there is Good demand for used textile machinery that has been
Reconditioned and supplied on a turnkey basis. It is suggested
that U.S. companies use this strategy to expand its market share.
Latest Spinning Machines:
Blending Unit

Blendomat
Opening Unit

Flow Chart-Vario Cleaner

Blow Room & Carding-Trutzschler
Draw Frame

Latest Ring Frame
Modern Combers
View of Modern Mills

A few statistics about the growth of Textile Industry will be
helpful at this place.

Figures in metric Tons

Almost all old Mills vanished and in their places new Mills have
sprang up with the latest machines and technology- a good
beginning with the Globalization of Textiles.
We have seen the developments at the Machinery Sector from
the day of Ark Wright.
Some of the outstanding taking place in recent times is
summarized below: A newly developed high-production card
will be unveiled at ITMA 2003. This card is the result of well-
planned, far-sighted and continuous development and will
consequently extend the series of successful Truetzschler cards,
the company said. Truetzschler also will show its well
positioned high-performance draw frame HSR 1000. The new
high-production card comes as a result of a continuous
development and will consequently extend the series of
successful Truetzschler high-production cards.

In addition to high-production cards, Truetzschler has in recent
years been able to successfully position the high-performance
draw frame HSR 1000 in the market. These draw frames are
characterized by superb control, low maintenance and easy
operation, Truetzschler said.
The draw frames are equipped with servo motors. The machine
control DRAFTCOMMANDER is developed and manufactured
by Truetzschler, ensuring high-operating security, the
manufacturer said.
The company also has revised many of its machines in the blow
room. A distinguishing feature of its new blow room line is
process contraction, which has been realized thanks to a compact
cleaning line.
Reiter Machines:
Card C 60 with integrated RSB or SB draw frame module
Interactive computer aided training system CATS for draw
frame RSB-D 35 ComforSpin(r) machine K 44 Mill Monitoring
System SPIDER web and the new Individual Spindle
Monitoring System (ISM) Fully automated rotor spinning
machine R 40.

New semi-automatic rotor spinning machine BT 923 with a
complete new spin box C 120
Rotor spinning machine BT 904 for rotor core yarn ROTONA(r)
Cabling and twisting machine CD/DT 360 Parts and conversions
for a large number of products MINI - CONTEXXOR(r), the
new laboratory steamer from Xorella Reiter Spun Yarn Systems.
Card C 60 with integrated RSB or SB draw frame module
Interactive computer aided training system CATS for draw
frame RSB-D 35
ComforSpin(r) machine K 44 Mill Monitoring System SPIDER
web and the new Individual Spindle Monitoring System (ISM)
fully automated rotor spinning machine R 40
New semi-automatic rotor spinning machine BT 923 with a
complete new spin box C 120
Rotor spinning machine BT 904 for rotor core yarn ROTONA(r)
Cabling and twisting machine CD/DT 360
Parts and conversions for a large number of products MINI -
CONTEXXOR(r), the new laboratory steamer from Xorella
Reiter Spun Yarn Systems

Draw frame RSB-D 35
The Reiter draw frame RSB-D 35 is the worldwide market
leader in autoleveller draw frames and significantly improves the
quality standard of a spinning mill with minimum capital costs.
The quality and the considerably improved running conditions in
downstream processing result in shortest return on investment.
The interactive computer aided training system, CATS, supports
the customer in training their operators to achieve best results
with Reiter draw frames.
Comber E 65 / E 75
With the new combers E 65 / E 75 Reiter has extended its lead in
combing regarding productivity as well as quality. With real
production rates of 450 nips per minute up to 68 kg/h can be
produced with the combing model E 75, 66 kg/h with the E 65.
With a redesigned drafting unit the yarn quality results -
especially CV values - have been further improved. Up to three
per cent raw material savings can be achieved compared to other
combers. The unique mill proven combing automation ROB lap
and SERVO lap is also available for E 75. On display at ITME
there will be outstanding combing technology parts, which
mainly influence the low noil percentage of Reiter combing
machines.
ComforSpin(r) machine K 44

With its ComforSpin(r) process, which has been in use
worldwide for more than six years, Reiter is a technological
pioneer and undisputed market leader in the field of compact
spinning. Several hundred units of the second generation of
ComforSpin(r) machines are already in operation. The flexibility
of the ComforSpin(r) machine K 44 is manifested not only in the
COM4(r) yarn count but also in processing various types of
fibers and their blends, and in specialty yarns.
Various engineering parts, each of which has been finely
adapted or its intended purpose (suction inserts with various
forms of slots, perforated drums with smooth or fluted surfaces
and adapted air guide elements), guarantee optimal compacting
conditions. Moreover, the 100 per cent fiber control in the
compacting zone of the K 44 allows accurate introduction of an
elastic or hard filament core for core yarns. The K 44 is now
available with 1’200 spindles. Thus it is the longest compact
spinning machine on the market. Furthermore K 44 is offered
with FLEXI start - the stepwise machine start-up and stop.
Individual Spindle Monitoring / SPIDER web
The new Individual Spindle Monitoring (ISM) helps to achieve higher
yarn quality on ring spinning machines, because sipper spindles are
signaled and ring-spun yarns of insufficient twist can be systematically
sorted out. Accurate evaluation of the end-break frequency for each
spindle brings problem spindles to light and so leads to rapid

elimination of errors and thus to improved yarn quality. SPIDER web is
Reiter’s information and data collection system. It has been designed
specifically for all Reiter machines from carding to ring and rotor
spinning. ISM combined with SPIDER web offers detailed reports for
optimizing the maintenance and speed setting of
The ring spinning machines.
The high productivity of Reiter’s R 40 fully automated rotor spinning
machine offers best yarn quality with the latest SC-R spinning box. The
optimized spinning geometry allows lowest yarn twist, highest spinning
stability and maximum productivity. Best machine efficiency is
guaranteed by up to four robots. The advanced Aerobatic technology
stands for reliability and very short cycle times for piecing and package
changes. The R 40 has an extremely high productivity potential with up
to 360 rotors, a rotor speed of up to 150’000 rpm and a delivery speed
of up to 310 m/min. The Reiter Basetex line
The focus of the Reiter BT product line is to offer reliable, economical
semiautomatic or manual solutions for achieving highest quality in
spinning. In conjunction with low wages, the exceptional price-
performance ratio of Reiter BT machines is leading to shortest return-
of-investment times and economical yarn production. Rotor spinning
machine BT 904 for Rotona(r) rotor core yarn
The newest yarn innovation of Reiter is a new type of elastic rotor core
yarn named Rotona(r). A model of the rotor spinning machine BT 904
for the production of Rotona(r) will be shown. Rotona(r) yarns can be
spun in the range of Ne 5-30 in combination with elastic counts from
22-156 dtex. They offer numerous benefits in downstream processing
due to the bobbin size of up to 4 kg. The yarn structure with untwisted

core leads to maximum elasticity and recovery in the fabric. The
production capacity is up to seven times higher compared to ring core
yarn production and provides for a fast return on investment. The
flexibility of the machine is increased with two independent side drives
and the possibility to produce elastic Rotona(r) slub yarn.
Semi-automatic rotor spinning machine BT 923
On display is a model of the new semi-automatic rotor spinning
machine BT 923 with the new spin box C 120 and up to 320
spinning units. The newly designed C 120 spin box with a pitch
of 230 mm has an airflow-system for rotors without holes. The
new box design provides improved spinning
Stability and top yarn quality values with speeds up to 110’000
rpm. Top piecing quality is guaranteed with the semi-automatic
AMIspin(r) piecing system and Qtop(r), which removes
damaged fibers before piecing. The operating height is lowered
and results in ergonomic and easy handling. The flexibility of
the machine is increased with two independent side drives and
two conveyor belts.

More than 100-years of Textile INDUSTRY IN India made
me to recollect the famous speech of Jawaharlal Nehru at the
centenary celebration at Ahmedabad on April 4th, 1961 ( I
attended this function )
Excerpts from Prime Minister, Mr. Jawaharlal Nehru’s Address
at the Inauguration Function: “…A hundred years of the textile
industry in Ahmedabad; I begin to think much more not of the
hundred years that have passed but what an exhibition might be
like a hundred years later, or even fifty years later. …It is an
exciting prospect to think of the changes that might come or are
likely to come. One thing may well be said that these fifty years
are going to bring very important and vital changes in the whole
world but more specially regarding the textile industry, and what
people wear.
“… Now, undoubtedly, this world is becoming governed more
and more by the scientist and his step brother, the technologist,
because the world begins to depend more and more on the
developments of technology. In fact, a description of modern
society in its fullest growth, as perhaps in the United States of
America, is that it is a technologically mature society; we are all
an immature society technologically; that of course, will come
anyhow. (Referring to changes brought about because of the
technological changes and scientific discoveries) …

Therefore, I say, it is up to you not to wait for something that
might happen in some laboratory in America or England or
elsewhere but to apply your minds to the possible changes that
might come, indeed, to think out those changes yourselves… “It
is good to know what other countries have done because we can
learn from them, but the fact of the matter is that the problem
has to be viewed definitely in the context of India. … Therefore,
the theories which affect people’s minds now, the ideologies
which are worth studying and which have great importance, we
ignore them at our peril, but we must always remember that
there are hundred years to all and while we should profit by their
study, we should also be remembering this fact and not accept
them for today’s solutions, but only as a background of
knowledge from which we can derive our intimate study of the
present.
… India’s conditions are different from America’s. We cannot
apply the same remedies because the disease may different.
America, England, etc., are highly developed
Industrially and technologically, India is not. Our country is in
the process of development therefore our problems will be
different. “… Therefore, we have to be a little more wide-awake,
and accept nothing as correct today even though it may have
been correct a hundred years ago. We have to think in terms of
problems of today.

INDIA’S COMPETITIVE POSITION
Compared to US, CHINA, JAPAN, and HONG KONG where
we stand?
Here are some facts:

This survey was taken about 5-years before. Since then the
health of the Textile Industry has improved and our Exports
have touched remarkable improvement. Still some factors
mentioned above are relevant.

Some Well-known Persons expressed their views at a Seminar
held recently. Extracts from them:-

Latest Textile Machinery
This Capsule is mainly intended to show our readers, students of
Textile Technology and the present day Entrepreneurs as how
our Fore Fathers toiled to establish the Textile Industries. From
then on we have moved to a
New era. The Succeeding Pages will show the latest Machines in
Spinning Mills.
Ring Frame-1968

Latest Ring Frame
New Roving Doffer

Auto Winding
Auto Leveller Drawing

Chute Feed Cards
Toyota Comber

Electro Jet Roving Frame
Auto Roving Creel

Auto Roving Doffing- Indian Mills
Reiter Blow Room

Rotor Spinning
Roto Magnetic Drafting

Techno Innovation-Cone Winder
Trutzschler Card

Uster Classimat
Two for One Twister

Blow Room Trutzschler
Ring Frame- Trutzschler
Ring Frame-Reiter

Ring Frame Drafting Zone-Reiter
Schlaforst Open End Model- SE-9

COTTON SPINNERS
POCKET BOOK
PROCESS CONTROL
IN SPIINNING

During 1950s -60s Process Control was mostly done with few
Testing Equipments like Wrap Reel, Wrap Block, Lea Tester,
Twist Tester and Balance – mostly to test the count and Strength
of Yarn. Later Evenness Testers were introduced. The concept
of Testing changed completely now. Process Control has been
discussed and Atira, Sitra have brought out many publications.
No longer have we confined to mere testing of yarn quality
alone.
We go deep into selection of cotton for particular end use,
mixing of various lots of bales –whose characteristics regarding
the length, fineness, trash contents etc are tagged on the bales
themselves, bale blending, maintaining the size to the tolerant
limits fixed for each process. This capsule projects the latest
information on this subject. The Process Control is implemented
to the entire gamut of Production. Apart from controlling the
Process, proper training of Labor and middle level management
and higher level management personnel also included.
Globalization has also brought the Chief Executives also to
undergo periodic training to be effective.
Process Control starts from Ginning. It was not so few years
before. But to sustain the strict quality confinement, modern
mills have taken over the Ginning Factories, modernized them

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