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Differential Amplifier: An Introduction
1.
2. Introduction of Amplifier
• An amplifier, electronic amplifier or (informally) amp is an
electronic device that can increase the power of a signal.
• It does this by taking energy from a power supply and
controlling the output to match the input signal shape but
with a larger amplitude. In this sense, an amplifier
modulates the output of the power supply to make the
output signal stronger than the input signal. An amplifier is
effectively the opposite of an attenuator, while an amplifier
provides gain, an attenuator provides loss.
• An amplifier can either be a separate piece of equipment or
an electrical circuit within another device
3. Introduction
• The differential amplifier can measure as well as
amplify small signals that are buried in much larger
signals.
• There are two input terminals, labeled (−) input, and
(+) input.
4. HISTORY
• Differential amplifiers are usually implemented with
a basic two-transistor circuit called a long-tailed pair
or differential pair. This circuit was originally
implemented using a pair of vacuum tubes. The
circuit works the same way for all three-terminal
devices with current gain. The long-tail resistor
circuit bias points are largely determined by Ohm's
Law and less so by active component characteristics.
5. • The long-tailed pair was developed from earlier
knowledge of push-pull circuit techniques and
measurement bridges. An early circuit which closely
resembles a long-tailed pair was published by British
neurologist Bryan Matthews in 1934,and it seems
likely that this was intended to be a true long-tailed
pair but was published with a drawing error. The
earliest definite long-tailed pair circuit appears in a
patent submitted by Alan Blumlein in 1936.By the end
of the 1930s the topology was well established and
had been described by various authors including
Frank Offner (1937), Schmitt (1937)and Jan Friedrich
Toennies (1938) and it was particularly used for
detection and measurement of physiological
impulses.
6. • The long-tailed pair was very successfully used in
early British computing, most notably the Pilot ACE
model and descendants, Maurice Wilkes' EDSAC, and
probably others designed by people who worked
with Blumlein or his peers. The long-tailed pair has
many attributes as a switch: largely immune to tube
(transistor) variations (of great importance when
machines contained 1,000 or more tubes), high gain,
gain stability, high input impedance, medium/low
output impedance, good clipper (with not-too-long
tail), non-inverting (EDSAC contained no inverters!)
and large output voltage swings.
7. • One disadvantage is that the output voltage
swing (typically ±10–20 V) was imposed upon
a high DC voltage (200 V or so), requiring care
in signal coupling, usually some form of wide-
band DC coupling. Many computers of this
time tried to avoid this problem by using only
AC-coupled pulse logic, which made them very
large and overly complex (ENIAC: 18,000
tubes for a 20 digit calculator) or unreliable.
DC-coupled circuitry became the norm after
the first generation of vacuum tube
computers.
8. Superposition
• If E1 is replaced by a short circuit, E2 sees an
inverting amplifier with a gain of −m.
– Therefore, the output voltage due to E2 is −
mE2.
− mE2
9. • Now let E2 be short-circuited:
– E1 divides between R and mR to apply a voltage of
E1m/ (1+ m) at the op amp’s (+) input.
• This divided voltage sees a no inverting amplifier
with a gain of (m + 1).
– The output voltage due to E1 is the divided
voltage:
• E1m/(1 + m) times the noninverting amplifier
gain, (1 + m), which yields mE1.
10. • Therefore, E1 is amplified at the output by the multiplier m
to mE1. When both E1 and E2 are present at the (+) and (−)
inputs, respectively.
Vo is mE1 − mE2.
• The output voltage of the differential amplifier, Vo, is
proportional to the difference in voltage applied to the (+)
and (−) inputs.
• Multiplier m is called the differential gain and is set by the
resistor ratios.
• When E1 = E2 the output voltage is 0.
– To put it another way, when a common (same) voltage is
applied to the input terminals, Vo = 0
11. Differential Amplifier
• The gain of the amplifier below can be
determined using the Superposition Principle.
'
'
─
+
2.2 kΩ
4.7 kΩ
22 kΩ
RS
Ri
Rf
VOUT
RD
12. • The output of the non-inverting amplifier
is:
'
'
─
+
2.2 kΩ
22 kΩ
RTh
Ri
Rf
VOUT
DS
D
RR
R
V
+
2
+=
i
f
OUT
R
R
VV 122 α
+=
i
f
OUT
R
R
VV 122 α
13. • The total output is the sum:
• To balance the circuit, we set the coefficients
to add to zero.
−+
+=+
i
f
i
f
OUTOUT
R
R
V
R
R
VVV 1212 αα
i
f
i
f
R
R
R
R
=+αα
15. ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( ) ( )
( )1212
12
1
2
2
12
VV
R
R
V
RR
RR
V
R
R
V
RR
R
RR
R
V
R
R
R
R
V
RRR
R
RRR
RR
V
R
R
V
R
R
RR
R
RR
R
VV
i
f
fi
fi
i
f
fi
f
fi
i
i
f
i
f
fii
f
fii
fi
i
f
i
f
fi
f
fi
f
OUT
−
=
−
+
+
=
−+
+
+
+
=
−+
+
+
+
=
−+
+
+
+
=
16. • So the balanced condition yields
– and the differential gain Ad is
( )12 VV
R
R
V
i
f
OUT −
=
=
i
f
D
R
R
A
17. • Common-mode rejection of 60 cycle power line
interference in medical instrumentation which measures
difference potentials on the body is a fundamental
problem.
– Power-line interference may exceed the level of the
signal being measured.
– This bad news is often cancelled by the fact that the
interfacing signal appears equally intense at both input
terminals of the diff amp, and is therefore called a
common-mode signal.
– The common-mode rejection ratio CMRR is defined as
the magnitude of the ratio of the differential voltage
gain Ad to the common-mode voltage gain Ac.
VVwhen
groundedisVwhen
12
2
=
=
OUT
OUT
V
V
CMRR
18. • In practice the CMRR is measured in the following
steps:
1. Ground V2, and apply a voltage V1 to the upper terminal.
2. Measure the resulting VOUT.
3. Lift V2 from ground and short the two input leads, then
apply the same value of V1.
4. Measure the resulting VOUT.
5. To compute CMRR, divide the results of step 2 by the
result of step 4, and take the magnitude.
6. The CMRR is a voltage ratio, and therefore in decibel
units we may define CMRRdb as
CMRRCMRRdb log20=
22. Common-Mode Voltage
• The simplest way to apply equal voltages is to wire inputs
together and connect them to the voltage source.
23. • For such a connection, the input voltage is called the
common-mode input voltage, ECM.
• Now Vo will be 0 if the resistor ratios are equal (mR to
R for the inverting amplifier gain equals mR to R of
the voltage-divider network.)
24. • The potentiometer is trimmed until Vo is reduced to a
negligible value.
– This causes the common-mode voltage gain, Vo/ECM to
approach 0.
– It is this characteristic of a differential amplifier that
allows a small signal voltage to be picked out of a larger
noise voltage.
• It may be possible to arrange the circuit so that the larger
undesired signal is the common-mode input voltage and
the small signal is the differential input voltage.
– Then the differential amplifier’s output voltage will
contain only an amplified version of the differential
input voltage.