439.английский язык практика ведения дискуссий

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Министерство образования и науки Российской Федерации
Ярославский государственный университет им. П. Г. Демидова
Кафедра иностранных языков естественно-научных факультетов
И. К. Бугрова
Английский язык:
практика ведения дискуссий
Практикум
Рекомендовано
Научно-методическим советом университета
для студентов, обучающихся по направлению
Прикладная математика и информатика
Ярославль
ЯРГУ
2012
Copyright ОАО «ЦКБ «БИБКОМ» & ООО «Aгентство Kнига-Cервис»

2
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Редакционно-издательским советом университета
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Рецензент
кафедра иностранных языков естественно-научных факультетов ЯрГУ
Б90
Бугрова, И. К. Английский язык: практика ведения дис-
куссий: практикум / И. К. Бугрова; Яросл. гос. ун-т им. П. Г. Де-
мидова. – Ярославль: ЯрГУ, 2012. – 68 с.
Практикум предназначен для сопровождения мультимедий-
ных ресурсов кафедры. Цель практикума – обучение аудирова-
нию и ведению дискуссий при максимально сниженной сложно-
сти материала. Объем практикума не позволил в полной мере
представить учебно-методический аппарат к отобранным для об-
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работы в классе.
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010400.62 Прикладная математика и информатика (дисциплина
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©ЯрГУ, 2012

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UNIT 1
Paul Zak: Trust, morality and oxytocin
URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/paul_zak_trust_morality_and_oxytocin.html
Is there anything unique about human beings? There is. We're the on-
ly creatures with fully developed moral sentiments. We're obsessed with
morality as social creatures. We need to know why people are doing what
they're doing. And I personally am obsessed with morality. It was all due
to this woman, Sister Mary Marastela, also known as my mom. As an al-
tar boy, I breathed in a lot of incense, and I learned to say phrases in Lat-
in, but I also had time to think about whether my mother's top-down mo-
rality applied to everybody. I saw that people who were religious and
non-religious were equally obsessed with morality. I thought, maybe
there's some earthly basis for moral decisions. But I wanted to go further
than to say our brains make us moral. I want to know if there's a chemi-
stry of morality. I want to know if there was a moral molecule.
Люди; чувства; постоянно думать; благодаря; вдыхать; ладан;
решения.
After 10 years of experiments, I found it. Would you like to see it? I
brought some with me. This little syringe contains the moral molecule.
It's called oxytocin. So oxytocin is a simple and ancient molecule found
only in mammals. In rodents, it was known to make mothers care for
their offspring, and in some creatures, allowed for toleration of burrow-
mates. But in humans, it was only known to facilitate birth and breast-
feeding in women, and is released by both sexes during sex.
Шприц; грызуны; забота; потомство; облегчение; роды;
кормление; выделять.
So I had this idea that oxytocin might be the moral molecule. I did
what most of us do – I tried it on some colleagues. One of them told me,
«Paul, that is the world's stupidest idea. It is,» he said, «only a female
molecule. It can't be that important.» But I countered, «Well men's
brains make this too. There must be a reason why.» But he was right, it
was a stupid idea. But it was testably stupid. In other words, I thought I
could design an experiment to see if oxytocin made people moral.
Идиотский; ответить.

4
Turns out it wasn't so easy. First of all, oxytocin is a shy mole-
cule. Baseline levels are near zero, without some stimulus to cause its
release. And when it's produced, it has a three-minute half-life, and
degrades rapidly at room temperature. So this experiment would have
to cause a surge of oxytocin, have to grab it fast and keep it cold. I
think I can do that. Now luckily, oxytocin is produced both in the
brain and in the blood, so I could do this experiment without learning
neurosurgery. Then I had to measure morality.
Оказывается; застенчивый; базовый; полжизни; быстро;
всплеск; собрать.
So taking on Morality with a capital M is a huge project. So I started
smaller. I studied one single virtue: trustworthiness. Why? I had shown in
the early 2000s that countries with a higher proportion of trustworthy
people are more prosperous. So in these countries, more economic trans-
actions occur and more wealth is created, alleviating poverty. So poor
countries are by and large low trust countries. So if I understood the che-
mistry of trustworthiness, I might help alleviate poverty.
Качество; надежность; процент; процветающий; происхо-
дить; богатство; снижать; бедность; бедные.
But I'm also a skeptic. I don't want to just ask people, «Are you
trustworthy?» So instead I use the Jerry Maguire approach to research.
If you're so virtuous, show me the money. So what we do in my lab is
we tempt people with virtue and vice by using money. Let me show
you how we do that. So we recruit some people for an experiment.
They all get $10 if they agree to show up. We give them lots of in-
struction, and we never ever deceive them. Then we match them in
pairs by computer. And in that pair, one person gets a message saying,
«Do you want to give up some of your $10 you earned for being here
and ship it to someone else in the lab?» The trick is you can't see
them, you can't talk to them. You only do it one time. Now whatever
you give up gets tripled in the other person's account. You're going to
make them a lot wealthier. And they get a message by computer say-
ing person one sent you this amount of money. Do you want to keep it
all, or do you want to send some amount back?
Подход; исследование; добродетельный; искушать, склонять;
грех; набирать; обманывать; хитрость.

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So think about this experiment for a minute. You're going to sit
on these hard chairs for an hour and a half. Some mad scientist is
going to jab your arm with a needle and take four tubes of blood. And
now you want me to give up this money and ship it to a stranger? So
this was the birth of vampire economics. Make a decision and give me
some blood.
Сумасшедший; игла; втыкать; пробирка.
So in fact, experimental economists had run this test around the
world, and for much higher stakes, and the consensus view was that
the measure from the first person to the second was a measure of trust,
and the transfer from the second person back to the first measured
trustworthiness. But in fact, economists were flummoxed on why the
second person would ever return any money. They assumed money is
good, why not keep it all?
Ставки; в замешательстве; думать.
That's not what we found. We found 90 percent of the first deci-
sion-makers sent money, and of those who received money, 95 per-
cent returned some of it. But why? Well, by measuring oxytocin we
found that the more money the second person received, the more their
brain produced oxytocin, and the more oxytocin on board, the more
money they returned. So we have a biology of trustworthiness.
Получать.
But wait. What's wrong with this experiment? Two things. One
is that nothing in the body happens in isolation. So we measured
nine other molecules that interact with oxytocin, but they didn't
have any effect. But the second is that I still only had this indirect
relationship between oxytocin and trustworthiness. I didn't know for
sure oxytocin caused trustworthiness. So to make the experiment, I
knew I'd have to go into the brain and manipulate oxytocin directly.
I used everything short of a drill to get oxytocin into my own brain.
And I found I could do it with a nasal inhaler. So along with col-
leagues in Zurich, we put 200 men on oxytocin or placebo, had that
same trust test with money, and we found that those on oxytocin not
only showed more trust, we can more than double the number of
people who sent all their money to a stranger – all without altering
mood or cognition.

6
Само по себе, в изоляции, отдельно; косвенный; связь; вызы-
вать; дрель, тренировка, упражнение, сверлить; носовой; на-
строение; понимание.
So oxytocin is the trust molecule, but is it the moral molecule?
Using the oxytocin inhaler, we ran more studies. We showed that oxy-
tocin infusion increases generosity in unilateral monetary transfers by
80 percent. We showed it increases donations to charity by 50 percent.
We've also investigated non-pharmacologic ways to raise oxytocin.
These include massage, dancing and praying. Yes, my mom was hap-
py about that last one. And whenever we raise oxytocin, people wil-
lingly open up their wallets and share money with strangers.
Исследования; повышать; щедрость; односторонний; по-
жертвование; благотворительность; повысить; изучать.
But why do they do this? What does it feel like when your brain is
flooded with oxytocin? To investigate this question, we ran an expe-
riment where we had people watch a video of a father and his four
year-old son, and his son has terminal brain cancer. After they watch-
ed the video, we had them rate their feelings and took blood before
and after to measure oxytocin. The change in oxytocin predicted their
feelings of empathy. So it's empathy that makes us connect to other
people. It's empathy that makes us help other people. It's empathy that
makes us moral.
От (поток, потоп); изучать; смотреть; рак; последняя стадия;
оценить; предсказывать; сочувствие.
Now this idea is not new. A then unknown philosopher named
Adam Smith wrote a book in 1759 called «The Theory of Moral Sen-
timents.» In this book, Smith argued that we are moral creatures, not
because of a top-down reason, but for a bottom-up reason. He said
we're social creatures, so we share the emotions of others. So if I do
something that hurts you, I feel that pain. So I tend to avoid that. If I
do something that makes you happy, I get to share your joy. So I tend
to do those things. Now this is the same Adam Smith who, 17 years
later, would write a little book called «The Wealth of Nations» – the
founding document of economics. But he was, in fact, a moral philo-
sopher, and he was right on why we're moral. I just found the mole-

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cule behind it. But knowing that molecule is valuable, because it tells
us how to turn up this behavior and what turns it off. In particular, it
tells us why we see immorality.
Утверждать; не потому, что это дано свыше, а потому, что
это исходит изнутри; делиться, разделять; причинять боль; осно-
вополагающий; обоснование; ценный; поведение; безнравствен-
ность.
So to investigate immorality, let me bring you back now to 1980.
I'm working at a gas station on the outskirts of Santa Barbara, Califor-
nia. You sit in a gas station all day, you see lots of morality and im-
morality, let me tell you. So one Sunday afternoon, a man walks into
my cashier's booth with this beautiful jewelry box. Opens it up and
there's a pearl necklace inside. And he said, «Hey, I was in the men's
room. I just found this. What do you think we should do with it?» «I
don't know, put it in the lost and found.» «Well this is very valuable.
We have to find the owner for this.» I said, «Yea.»
Окраина; вернуть; кассир; кабина; жемчужное; ожерелье.
So we're trying to decide what to do with this, and the phone
rings. And a man says very excitedly, «I was in your gas station a
while ago, and I bought this jewelry for my wife, and I can't find it.» I
said, «Pearl necklace?» «Yeah.» «Hey, a guy just found it.» «Oh,
you're saving my life. Here's my phone number. Tell that guy to wait
half an hour. I'll be there and I'll give him a $200 reward.» Great, so I
tell the guy, «Look, relax. Get yourself a fat reward. Life's good.» He
said, «I can't do it. I have this job interview in Galena in 15 minutes,
and I need this job, I've got to go.» Again he asked me, «What do you
think we should do?» I'm in high school. I have no idea. So I said, «I'll
hold it for you.» He said, «You know, you've been so nice, let's split
the reward.» I'll give you the jewelry, you give me a hundred dollars,
and when the guy comes ...
Взволнованно; вознаграждение.
You see it. I was conned. So this is a classic con called the pigeon
drop, and I was the pigeon. So the way many cons work is not that the
conman gets the victim to trust him, it's that he shows he trusts the vic-

8
tim. Now we know what happens. The victim's brain releases oxytocin,
and you're opening up your wallet or purse, giving away the money.
Обмануть; мошенник; жертва; кошелек.
So who are these people who manipulate our oxytocin systems?
We found, testing thousands of individuals, that five percent of the
population don't release oxytocin on stimulus. So if you trust them,
their brains don't release oxytocin. If there's money on the table, they
keep it all. So there's a technical word for these people in my lab. We
call them bastards. These are not people you want to have a beer with.
They have many of the attributes of psychopaths.
Вырабатывать, высвобождать.
Now there are other ways the system can be inhibited. One is
through improper nurturing. So we've studied sexually abused women,
and about half those don't release oxytocin on stimulus. You need
enough nurturing for this system to develop properly. Also, high stress
inhibits oxytocin. So we all know this, when we're really stressed out,
we're not acting our best.
Подавлять; неправильный; воспитание, отношения; насилие.
There's another way oxytocin is inhibited, which is interesting –
through the action of testosterone. So we, in experiments, have admi-
nistered testosterone to men. And instead of sharing money, they be-
come selfish. But interestingly, high testosterone males are also more
likely to use their own money to punish others for being selfish. Now
think about this. It means, within our own biology, we have the yin
and yang of morality. We have oxytocin that connects us to others,
makes us feel what they feel. And we have testosterone. And men
have 10 times the testosterone as women, so men do this more than
women – we have testosterone that makes us want to punish people
who behave immorally. We don't need God or government telling us
what to do. It's all inside of us.
Прописывать; эгоистичный; наказание.
So you may be wondering: these are beautiful laboratory experi-
ments, do they really apply to real life? Yeah, I've been worrying
about that too. So I've gone out of the lab to see if this really holds in

9
our daily lives. So last summer, I attended a wedding in Southern Eng-
land. 200 people in this beautiful Victorian mansion. I didn't know a
single person. And I drove up in my rented Vauxhall. And I took out a
centrifuge and dry ice and needles and tubes. And I took blood from
the bride and the groom and the wedding party and the family and the
friends before and immediately after the vows.
Повседневный; присутствовать; свадьба; особняк; арендо-
ванный; клятвы.
And guess what? Weddings cause a release of oxytocin, but they
do so in a very particular way. Who is the center of the wedding solar
system? The bride. She had the biggest increase in oxytocin. Who
loves the wedding almost as much as the bride? Her mother, that's
right. Her mother was number two. Then the groom's father, then the
groom, then the family, then the friends – arrayed around the bride
like planets around the Sun. So I think it tells us that we've designed
this ritual to connect us to this new couple, connect us emotionally.
Why? Because we need them to be successful at reproducing to perpe-
tuate the species.
Вызывать; невеста; выброс; жених; придумать; пара; увеко-
вечить; вид.
I also worried that my trust experiments with small amounts of
money didn't really capture how often we actually trust our lives to
strangers. So even though I have a fear of heights, I recently strapped
myself to another human being and stepped out of an airplane at
12,000 ft. I took my blood before and after, and I had a huge spike of
oxytocin. And there are so many ways we can connect to people. For
example, through social media. Many people are Tweeting right now.
So we investigated the role of social media and found the using social
media produced a solid double-digit increase in oxytocin.
Захватить; недавно; пристегнуть; выпрыгнуть; скачок; изу-
чать.
So I ran this experiment recently for the Korean Broadcasting
System. And they had the reporters and their producers participate.
And one of these guys, he must have been 22, he had 150 percent
spike in oxytocin. I mean, astounding; no one has this. So he was us-

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ing social media in private. When I wrote my report to the Koreans, I
said, «Look, I don't know what this guy was doing,» but my guess was
interacting with his mother or his girlfriend. They checked. He was in-
teracting on his girlfriend's Facebook page. There you go. That's con-
nection. So there's tons of ways that we can connect to other people,
and it seems to be universal.
Вещание; миллионы способов; потрясающе.
Two weeks ago, I just got back from Papua New Guinea where I
went up to the highlands – very isolated tribes of subsistence farmers
living as they have lived for millenia. There are 800 different languag-
es in the highlands. These are the most primitive people in the world.
And they indeed also release oxytocin.
Горы; племена; действительно.
So oxytocin connects us to other people. Oxytocin makes us feel
what other people feel. And it's so easy to cause people's brains to re-
lease oxytocin. I know how to do it, and my favorite way to do it is, in
fact, the easiest. Let me show it to you. Come here. Give me a hug.
(Laughter) There you go.
Заставить; обнять.
So my penchant for hugging other people has earned me the nick-
name Dr. Love. I'm happy to share a little more love in the world, it's
great, but here's your prescription from Dr. Love: eight hugs a day.
We have found that people who release more oxytocin are happier.
And they're happier because they have better relationships of all types.
Dr. Love says eight hugs a day. Eight hugs a day – you'll be happier
and the world will be a better place. Of course, if you don't like to
touch people, I can always shove this up your nose.
Склонность; объятиям; заработать; рецепт; отношения.

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Glossary of the Unit
human
being
человек trustwor-
thiness
надежность, креди-
тоспособность
sentiment чувство proportion пропорция, доля
to be
obsessed
быть одержи-
мым чем-либо
prosperous процветающий, ус-
пешный
to breathe
in
вдыхать occur происходить,
попадаться
incense ладан, фимиам wealth богатство
decision решение alleviate смягчать, облегчать
syringe шприц, опры-
скиватель
poverty бедность, нищета
rodent грызун tempt искушать, склонять
to care заботиться approach подход,
приближение
offspring потомок,
продукт
research исследование
to facili-
tate
облегчать, спо-
собствовать
virtuous добродетельный
breast-
feeding
грудное вскарм-
ливание
vice порок
to release освобождать,
выпускать
recruit набирать
nasal носовой to deceive обманывать
to counter парировать trick трюк, уловка
tribe племя penchant склонность, распо-
ложение, любовь
turn out оказаться mad сумасшедший
shy застенчивый,
пугливый
needle игла
baseline базовый уровень jab толкать, втыкать,
колоть
half-life полжизни tube пробирка, трубка
rapidly быстро stake ставка
surge всплеск to be
flummoxed
быть в замешатель-
стве

12
grab хватать to assume предполагать;
допускать
virtue добродетель,
качество,
достоинство
to receive получать
in isolation в изоляции donation пожертвование
indirect косвенный charity благотворитель-
ность
relation-
ship
отношения to raise поднимать
to cause вызывать, быть
причиной
to investi-
gate
исследовать
drill дрель, трениров-
ка, упражнение;
сверлить
flood поток, потоп
mood настроение cancer рак
cognition познание terminal конечный
to increase увеличивать to predict предсказывать
generosity великодушие,
благородство,
щедрость
empathy эмпатия
unilateral односторонний to argue спорить,
аргументировать
share делить; доля excitedly возбужденно
hurt обижать, болеть reward награда;
награждать
founding основополагаю-
щий
indeed в самом деле
immorali-
ty
безнравствен-
ность
con мошенничать
victim жертва rent арендовать
outskirts окраина purse кошелек
bride невеста release выпускать,
вырабатывать
earn зарабатывать vow клятва, обет
cashier кассир administer отправлять,
прописывать

13
booth будка, палатка,
кабина
selfish эгоистичный
pearl жемчуг punish наказывать
necklace ожерелье attend посещать
inhibit подавлять,
задерживать,
препятствовать,
сдерживать
wedding свадьба
improper неправильный,
неподходящий
mansion особняк
nurture питание,
воспитание
capture хватать; захват
abuse злоупотреблять recently недавно
hug обнимать strap ремень;
пристегнуться
groom жених prescrip-
tion
предписание,
рецепт
perpetuate увековечивать spike скачок, выброс
species вид broadcast вещать (в СМИ)
Ex. 1. Answer the questions:
1. What makes human beings different from other species?
2. What are people obsessed with? Why?
3. What task does the author set for himself?
4. What kind of function does oxytocin possess?
5. What is the life period of oxytocin?
6. What does trustworthiness correlate with?
7. Is it a fact that poor countries have low morality?
8. What is the author‟s idea about alleviating poverty?
9. What kind of approach does the author apply in his project?
10. What does experiment consist in
11. What does the author mean by vampire economics
12. What were the results of the experiment? Do you agree with
their interpretation
13. What are the other ways of increasing the level of oxytocin?
14. Which of them do you practice? Does it help?
15. What is the biology of trustworthiness

14
16. Is empathy inherent in the human nature? Give examples of
empathy in action.
17. What is your prescription for feeling fine?
Ex. 2. Translate from Russian into English:
1. Я заметил, что люди как религиозные, так и атеисты в рав-
ной мере объединены пристальным вниманием к вопросам морали.
2. Я решил разобраться с химической стороной вопроса, най-
ти молекулу, которая могла бы отвечать за вопросы морали.
3. В нашей лаборатории мы пытаемся проверить (спровоци-
ровать, искусить) людей как добродетелью, так и пороком.
4. Согласно нашей гипотезе, количество денег, передаваемое в
ответ на благотворительность, служило мерилом доверия человека.
5. По нашей гипотезе, чем больше окситоцина вырабатывает
мозг человека, тем большей суммой денег он готов поделиться.
6. Поскольку молекула окситоцина достаточно эфемерна,
эксперимент по измерению ее процентного содержания предпо-
лагал вызвать резкий всплеск окситоцина и извлечение ее для
дальнейших манипуляций.
7. Мы исследовали нефармакологические способы повыше-
ния уровня окситоцина.
8. Согласно гипотезе и многочисленным примерам, страны с
большим уровнем доверия являются гораздо более экономически
благополучными и даже процветающими.
9. Для того чтобы провести дальнейшие обобщения, мы про-
вели эксперимент с просмотром фильма об отце и сыне, у кото-
рого был рак.
10. Мошенники специально поднимают у жертв уровень дове-
рия, чтобы спровоцировать на нужный им эффект.
11. Как известно, именно эмпатия отличает людей от других
живых существ.
12. Эксперимент ценен тем, что мы смогли выяснить, что под-
нимает уровень доверия, а что может его отключить.
13. На свадьбе присутствующие испытывают положительные
эмоции, так как подсознательно желают преумножения человече-
ского рода (а значит, и себя).
14. Моя привычка выражать эмоции через дружеские объятия
закрепила за мной имя Доктор Любовь.

15
Ex. 3. Describe the mechanism oxytocin functions on in our or-
ganism Make use of reporting verbs.
1. The author claims (contends,
maintains, asserts, declares) that
chemical substances play a crucial
role in our social life.
Утверждать (отстаивать
свое мнение, утверждать,
заявлять
(высказывается однозначно и
твердо)
2. Lee states that problems arose
earlier than was previously
thought.
Утверждать
3. Levack observe, (notes, com-
ments, points out) that there are
contradictions in Novack‟s vision
of the issue.
Замечать, отмечать, ком-
ментировать, указывать,
обращать внимание
(отмечать, но не останавли-
ваться подробно)
4. Greenberg highlights (stresses,
emphasizes)
the importance of a liberal ap-
proach.
Подчеркивать, выдвигать на
первый план;
подчеркивать; акцентиро-
вать (придавать особое зна-
чение чему-либо)
5. Patel argues that government
should continue to fund research.
Аргументировать, вести по-
лемику, доказывать, спорить
6. Davidson casts doubt on pre-
vious research into the issue.
Ставить под сомнение
7. Furgeson pinpoints the key fea-
tures in question.
Заострять внимание, ак-
центировать
8. Kon suggests that all poets are
strongly influenced by their
childhood.
Наводить на мысль о том,
что…; предлагать (в каче-
стве гипотезы)
Have your say

16
Ex. 4. Try to analyze the line of reasoning of the lecturer. Does
it sound viable? Do you have any doubts? Share your vision of the
issue. Go step by step using the expressions below.
Let us take a close look at I know for a fact that
Let us go point by point We can hardly ignore the fact
that
At first glance Most strikingly
This is really a blot on the land-
scape (ложка дегтя в бочке
меда)
It does not quite wash
(не выдерживает критики;
не срабатывает0
Could I just pick up on that
point
There seems to be some confu-
sion over…
In a nutshell… Before we move on to particu-
lars…
Shall I go over that point again? To be concise but to the point…
All things considered… My wild guess is that…
Ex. 5. Render the article in English. Make use of all clichés you
have learnt.
Окситоцин ученые называют еще и гормоном-нейропере-
датчиком в головном мозге. Он играет одну из ведущих ролей в со-
циальном поведении человека. Одно из его «магических» воздейст-
вий – увеличение доверия. Но бельгийские ученые просят обра-
тить внимание, что он лишь усиливает уже имеющееся доверие.
Он не зарождает это чувство к тому партнеру, который изначально
не вызывает у нас доверительного чувства. Мужчин окситоцин де-
лает более благожелательными, позитивными.
Окситоцин также называют «гормоном объятий«. Стимуляция
синтеза окситоцина происходит и через нервные рецепторы кожи.
Его уровень значительно повышается при романтических отноше-
ниях. Интересно и то, что наибольшую активность он имеет у
представителей моногамных пар. Верные возлюбленные, по ре-
зультатам исследования, показали уровень окситоцина на треть
выше, чем те, кто позволял себе измену, свободные отношения.
Мифические свойства наркотиков как любовного эликсира
объясняются очень просто – они повышают уровень гормона ок-

17
ситоцина. Так создается иллюзия сексуального удовольствия. Но
ведь реальное удовольствие достижимо абсолютно здоровым спо-
собом – при естественном любовном влечении. Интересно и то,
что окситоцин способен вырабатываться даже при взгляде на фото
любимого человека. Звук любимого голоса также способен стиму-
лировать выработку окситоцина. Проведение времени вместе с
любимым человеком: путешествие, обсуждение прошедшего дня
за совместным ужином, совместный просмотр фильма – еще
больше повышает уровень окситоцина. Он повышается также и
когда нас что-то волнует, трогает, восхищает. Окситоцин еще на-
зывают гормоном привязанности. Он помогает наслаждению пе-
рейти в чувство общности, которое со временем может переро-
диться в глубокое чувство любви.
UNIT 2
On our place in the cosmos. David Deutsch
URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/david_deutsch_on_our_place_in_the_cosmos.html
Nowadays the idea of Spaceship Earth has a dramatic ring. And
the idea there is that outside the spaceship, the universe is implacably
hostile, and inside is all we have, all we depend on. And we only get
the one chance: if we mess up our spaceship, we've got nowhere else
to go. Now, the second thing that everyone already knows is that con-
trary to what was believed for most of human history, human beings
are not, in fact, the hub of existence. As Stephen Hawking famously
said, we're just a chemical scum on the surface of a typical planet
that's in orbit around a typical star, which is on the outskirts of a typi-
cal galaxy, and so on.
Неумолимо; враждебный; испортить; центр; пена; существо-
вание; окраина.
Now the first of those two things that everyone knows is kind of
saying that we're at a very un-typical place, uniquely suited and so on,
and the second one is saying that we're at a typical place. And espe-
cially if you regard these two as deep truths to live by and to inform
your life decisions, then they seem a little bit to conflict with each
other. But that doesn't prevent them from both being completely false.
Рассматривать; предотвращать; мешать.

18
So let's go out further, till we're outside the galaxy, and look back,
and yeah, there's the huge galaxy with spiral arms laid out in front of
us. And at this point we've come 100,000 light years from here. But
we're still nowhere near a typical place in the universe.
And yet from intergalactic space, it's so far away you wouldn't
even see it. It's also very cold out there – less than three degrees
above absolute zero. And it's very empty. The vacuum there is one
million times less dense than the highest vacuum that our best tech-
nology on Earth can currently create. So that's how different a typical
place is from this place. And that is how un-typical this place is.
Густой; плотный.
Now how do we know about an environment that's so far away,
and so different, and so alien, from anything we're used to? Well, the
Earth – our environment, in the form of us – is creating knowledge.
Well, what does that mean? Well, look out even further than we've
just been – I mean from here, with a telescope – and you'll see things
that look like stars. They're called «quasars.» Quasars originally meant
quasi-stellar object. Which means things that look a bit like stars. But
they're not stars. And we know what they are. Billions of years ago,
and billions of light years away, the material at the center of a galaxy
collapsed towards a super-massive black hole. And then intense mag-
netic fields directed some of the energy of that gravitational collapse.
And some of the matter, back out in the form of tremendous jets
which illuminated lobes with the brilliance of – I think of trillion suns.
Чужой, чуждый; привыкнуть; рухнуть; огромный; доля;
струя.
Now, the physics of the human brain could hardly be more unlike
the physics of such a jet. We couldn't survive for an instant in it. Lan-
guage breaks down when trying to describe what it would be like in
one of those jets. It would be a bit like experiencing a supernova ex-
plosion, but at point-blank range and for millions of years at a time.
And yet, that jet happened in precisely such a way that billions of
years later, on the other side of the universe, some bit of chemical
scum could accurately describe, and model, and predict, and explain,
above all – there's your reference – what was happening there, in re-
ality. The one physical system, the brain, contains an accurate work-

19
ing model of the other – the quasar. Not just a superficial image of it,
though it contains that as well, but an explanatory model, embodying
the same mathematical relationships and the same causal structure.
Едва, почти не; диапазон, размах; предсказывать; воплощать.
So we are a chemical scum that is different. This chemical scum
has universality. Its structure contains, with ever-increasing precision,
the structure of everything. This place, and not other places in the un-
iverse, is a hub which contains within itself the structural and causal
essence of the whole of the rest of physical reality. And so, far from
being insignificant, the fact that the laws of physics allow this, or even
mandate that this can happen, is one of the most important things
about the physical world.
Точность; поручать, передавать.
Now how does the solar system – and our environment, in the
form of us – acquire this special relationship with the rest of the un-
iverse? Well, one thing that's true about Stephen Hawking's remark – I
mean, it is true, but it's the wrong emphasis. One thing that's true
about it is that it doesn't do it with any special physics. There's no spe-
cial dispensation, no miracles involved. It does it simply with three
things that we have here in abundance. One of them is matter, because
the growth of knowledge is a form of information processing. Infor-
mation processing is computation, computation requires a computer –
there's no known way of making a computer without matter. We also
need energy to make the computer, and most important, to make the
media in effect onto which we record the knowledge that we discover.
Приобретать; распределение.
Our location is saturated with evidence, and also with matter and
energy. Out in intergalactic space, those three prerequisites for the
open-ended creation of knowledge are at their lowest possible supply.
As I said, it's empty; it's cold; and it's dark out there. Or is it? Now ac-
tually, that's just another parochial misconception. Because imagine a
cube out there in intergalactic space, the same size as our home, the
solar system. Now that cube is very empty by human standards, but
that still means that it contains over a million tons of matter. And a
million tons is enough to make, say, a self-contained space station, on

20
which there's a colony of scientists that are devoted to creating an
open-ended stream of knowledge, and so on.
Насыщать; предпосылка; узкий, ограниченный; преданный.
Now, it's way beyond present technology to even gather the hy-
drogen from intergalactic space and form it into other elements and so
on. But the thing is, in a comprehensible universe, if something isn't
forbidden by the laws of physics, then what could possibly prevent us
from doing it, other than knowing how? In other words, it's a matter of
knowledge, not resources. And the same – well, if we could do that
we'd automatically have an energy supply, because the transmutation
would be a fusion reactor – and evidence?
Превращение; слияние, сращивание, сплав.
So in fact, intergalactic space does contain all the prerequisites for
the open-ended creation of knowledge. Any such cube, anywhere in
the universe, could become the same kind of hub that we are, if the
knowledge of how to do so were present there. So we're not in a uni-
quely hospitable place. If intergalactic space is capable of creating an
open-ended stream of explanations, then so is almost every other envi-
ronment. So is the Earth. So is a polluted Earth. And the limiting fac-
tor, there and here, is not resources, because they're plentiful, but
knowledge, which is scarce.
Гостеприимный; способный; изобильный; редкий.
Now this cosmic knowledge-based view may – and I think ought
to – make us feel very special. But it should also make us feel vulner-
able, because it means that without the specific knowledge that's
needed to survive the ongoing challenges of the universe, we won't
survive them. All it takes is for a supernova to go off a few light years
away, and we'll all be dead!
Уязвимый.
But it depends not on chance, but on whether we create the rele-
vant knowledge in time. The danger is not at all unprecedented. Spe-
cies go extinct all the time. Civilizations end. The overwhelming ma-
jority of all species and all civilizations that have ever existed are now
history. And if we want to be the exception to that, then logically our

21
only hope is to make use of the one feature that distinguishes our spe-
cies, and our civilization, from all the others – namely, our special re-
lationship with the laws of physics, our ability to create new explana-
tions, new knowledge – to be a hub of existence.
Вымирающий; подавляющий.
So let me now apply this to a current controversy, not because I
want to advocate any particular solution, but just to illustrate the kind
of thing I mean. And the controversy is global warming. Now, I'm a
physicist, but I'm not the right kind of physicist. In regard to global
warming, I'm just a layman. And the rational thing for a layman to do
is to take seriously the prevailing scientific theory. And according to
that theory, it's already too late to avoid a disaster. Because if it's true
that our best option at the moment is to prevent CO2 emissions with
something like the Kyoto Protocol, with its constraints on economic
activity and its enormous cost of hundreds of billions of dollars or
whatever it is, then that is already a disaster by any reasonable meas-
ure. And the actions that are advocated are not even purported to solve
the problem, merely to postpone it by a little. So it's already too late to
avoid it, and it probably has been too late to avoid it ever since before
anyone realized the danger.
Преобладающий; ограничения; катастрофа; предназначать;
откладывать.
Now the lesson of that seems clear to me, and I don't know why it
isn't informing public debate. It is that we can't always know. When
we know of an impending disaster, and how to solve it at a cost less
than the cost of the disaster itself, then there's not going to be much
argument, really. But no precautions, and no precautionary principle,
can avoid problems that we do not yet foresee. Hence, we need a
stance of problem-fixing, not just problem-avoidance.
Надвигающийся; меры предосторожности; позиция; (от глаг.)
избегать.
If medical science stopped seeking cures and concentrated on
prevention only, then it would achieve very little of either. The world
is buzzing at the moment with plans to force reductions in gas emis-
sions at all costs. It ought to be buzzing with plans to reduce the tem-

22
perature, and with plans to live at the higher temperature – and not at
all costs, but efficiently and cheaply. And some such plans exist,
things like swarms of mirrors in space to deflect the sunlight away,
and encouraging aquatic organisms to eat more carbon dioxide. At the
moment, these things are fringe research. They're not central to the
human effort to face this problem, or problems in general. And with
problems that we are not aware of yet, the ability to put right – not the
sheer good luck of avoiding indefinitely – is our only hope, not just of
solving problems, but of survival. So take two stone tablets, and carve
on them. On one of them, carve: «Problems are soluble.» And on the
other one carve: «Problems are inevitable.»
Сокращение; множество; заставить, менять направление;
подталкивать, способствовать; вырезать; периферийный; неиз-
бежный.
sustain поддерживать scum пена
survival спасение,
выживание
outskirts окраина
implacably неумолимо regard рассматривать
mess up испортить dense густой,
плотный
hostile враждебный hospitable гостеприим-
ный
hub центр to be capable
of
способный
existence существование plentiful изобильный
prevent предотвращать,
мешать
extinct вымирающий
scarce редкий overwhelming подавляющий
vulnerable уязвимый constraints ограничения
alien чужой, чуждый disaster катастрофа
to be used to привыкнуть purport предназначать
collapsе рухнуть impending надвигаю-
щийся
tremendous огромный precautions меры предос-
торожности

23
fusion слияние,
сращивание
stance позиция
hardly едва avoidance от глаг. избе-
гать
range диапазон,
размах
cure лекарство
predict предсказывать reduction сокращение
embody воплощать swarms множество
precision точность deflect заставить,
менять на-
правление
mandate поручать,
передавать
fringe периферий-
ный
acquire приобретать encourageе подталкивать,
способство-
вать
dispensation распределение carve вырезать
in abundance в изобилии inevitable неизбежный
saturated насыщать devoted преданный
prerequisites предпосылка postpone откладывать
parochial узкий,
ограниченный
transmutation превращение
 Ex. 1. Answer the questions:
1. What does the author mean by saying that our planet is uni-
quely suited for our evolution and survival?
2. How does the author describe the space outside spaceship
Earth and inside it?
3. What or who is called by the lecturer the hub of existence?
4. Do you agree that inside our spaceship we have all we need?
5. What does David mean by „messing up‟ our spaceship?
6. Why is the term ‟hub of existence‟ voiced by the lecturer?
7. How do you understand Hawking‟s metaphor of „chemical
scum‟?
8. Are we in a typical or untypical place in the Universe? What
are your personal sensations?

24
9.What is meant by Spaseship Earth?
10. Do you agree that mankind is the hub of existence?
11. Would you agree to the term – “chemical scum” for naming
mankind?
12. So is Earth a typical or untypical place in the universe?
13. Docs light or darkness prevail in the universe?
14. What kind of vacuum is out there?
15. What kind of objects are quasars?
16. What kind of similarity is there between the brain and the
quasar?
17. How do we acquire a special relationship with the rest of the
universe?
18. In that way is our location in space favourable for develop-
ing a specific relationship with the rest of the universe?
19. What kind of metaphor docs the lecturer give to specify our
reality?
20. What can prevent us from building a model of our planet en-
vironment?
21. What is the role of knowledge for exploring space a improv-
ing better conditions for people in the lecturer is opinion?
22. What docs survival of mankind depend on?
23. Do all species survive?
24. What kind of phenomenon is global warning? Positive or
negative (in D. Deutsch‟s opinion)
25. What is D. Deutsch‟s view on the measure being taken at the
moment for minimizing global warning?
26. What kind of stance does the lecturer insist on?
27. Is the lecturer optimistic or pessimistic on the issue of the fu-
ture of our planet?
Ex. 2. Translate from Russian into English:
1. Удивительно, но наша солнечная система и окружающая
среда очень точно настроены так, чтобы сохранить жизнь на на-
шей планете и дать ей эволюционировать.
2. Космический корабль под названием Земля парит в про-
странстве, которое само по себе неумолимо враждебно ко всему
живому.

25
3. Если верить Стивену Хокингу, люди – всего лишь химиче-
ская пена на поверхности типичной планеты, вращающейся во-
круг обычной звезды на окраине Вселенной.
4. Вполне может быть так, что обе точки зрения правильные.
(It may well happen so that …)
5. Язык не в состоянии описать то, что происходило в момент
взрыва.
6. Однако все это произошло так, что миллионы лет спустя на
другом конце Вселенной появился орган (человеческий мозг), кото-
рый сумел смоделировать этот взрыв и восстановить ход событий.
7. По сути дела, наше пространство насыщено веществом и
энергией. Создание системы, в которой может проживать чело-
век, – вопрос времени и уровня развития научной мысли.
8. Наша планета является центром Вселенной в том смысле,
что в ней отразились возможности, теоретически присутствую-
щие в космосе для создания жизни.
9. В природе виды животных вымирают постоянно.
10. Я не сведущ в проблеме глобального потепления
11. Если какая-то идея не противоречит законам физики, то
помешать ее воплощению может только низкий уровень развития
научной мысли и больше ничего.
12. Следует признать тот факт, что, для того чтобы противо-
стоять постоянно возникающим угрозам со стороны космоса, нам
необходимо совершенствовать систему знаний, а без этого ни
планете, ни нам выжить не удастся.
13. Поскольку на сегодня мы можем приостановить процесс
потепления только сокращая выброс СО2 (подписав Киотское со-
глашение со всеми вытекающими из него ограничениями), то
фактически мы живем в условиях надвигающейся катастрофы.
14. Проблема в знаниях, а не в ресурсах. Ресурсы огромны.
15. В данный момент эти исследования не являются основными.
16. По земным стандартам полый куб в безвоздушном про-
странстве пуст, но на самом деле в нем присутствует несколько
сотен тонн вещества (материи), которое можно использовать,
чтобы создать самодостаточную научную станцию для прожива-
ния группы ученых, занимающихся разработкой системы знаний.

26
Composition and essay writing
In a composition, students are expected to set out the facts as they
are, the primary objective being their accurate and impartial presentation.
In an essay the task is to give an individual interpretation of facts
Thus the interpretation of a subject will differ depending on whether
you are required to write a composition or an essay.
The reflective and argumentative essays
In text-books on written English, a distinction is often drawn be-
tween the reflective and the argumentative essay. The first is primarily
an exercise in contemplation upon any given subject, the second – an
exercise testing your ability to discuss a problem, to argue for or against
a proposition. In the first you rely more on your imagination and power
of observation, in the second – on general knowledge.
The essay below demonstrates the principles of writing a basic
essay. The thesis statement is in bold, the topic sentences are in italics,
and each main point is underlined. When you write your own essay, of
course, you will not need to mark these parts of the essay unless your
teacher has asked you to do so. They are marked here just so that you
can more easily identify them.
 «A dog is man’s best friend». That common saying may con-
tain some truth, but dogs are not the only animal friend whose com-
panionship people enjoy. For many people, a cat is their best friend.
Despite what dog lovers may believe, cats make excellent house pets
as they are good companions, they are civilized members of the
household, and they are easy to care for.
In the first place, people enjoy the companionship of cats. Many
cats are affectionate. They will snuggle up and ask to be petted, or
scratched under the chin. Who can resist a purring cat? If they’re not
feeling affectionate, cats are generally quite playful. They love to
chase balls and feathers, or just about anything dangling from a
string. They especially enjoy playing when their owners are
participating in the game. Contrary to popular opinion, cats can be
Essay writing
Use This Sample Basic Essay as a Model

27
trained. Using rewards and punishments, just like with a dog, a cat
can be trained to avoid unwanted behavior or perform tricks. Cats
will even fetch!
In the second place, cats are civilized members of the household.
Unlike dogs, cats do not bark or make other loud noises. Most cats
don’t even meow very often. They generally lead a quiet existence.
Cats also don’t often have «accidents». Mother cats train their kittens
to use the litter box, and most cats will use it without fail from that
time on. Even stray cats usually understand the concept when shown
the box and will use it regularly. Cats do have claws, and owners
mus: make provision for this. A tall scratching post in a favorite cat
area of the house will often keep the cat content to leave the furniture
alone. As a last resort, of course, cats can be declawed.
Lastly, one of the most attractive features of cats as housepets is
their ease of care. Cats do not have to be walked. They get plenty of
exercise in the house as they play, and they do their business in the
litter box. Cleaning a litter box is a quick, painless procedure. Cats
also take care of their own grooming. Bathing a cat is almost never
necessary because under ordinary circumstances cats clean them-
selves. Cats are more particular about personal cleanliness than
people are. In addition, cats can be left home alone for a few hours
without fear. Unlike some pets, most cats will not destroy the
furnishings when left alone. They are content to go about their usual
activities until their owners return.
Cats are low maintenance, civilized companions. People who
have small living quarters or less time for pet care should appreciate
these characteristics of cats. However, many people who have plenty
of space and time still opt to have a cat because they love the cat per-
sonality. In many ways, cats are the ideal housepet.
Ex. 3. Speak on the following:
1. How do you visualize Spaceship Earth?
….. is not new. Basically,… appeared
Have your say

28
2. Which aspects of keeping up our planet in a proper condition
do you personally emphasize?
My stance on…… is …..
I make it a point to …….. I never fail to……. It’s a matter of
discipline…….
I make sure that … It should be standard practice to ……….
3. Which other aspects of universal value does the lecturer raise?
There’s nothing wrong in saying ……………..
However,………… It’s an open question whether
……………………..
Ex. 4. Use the clichés to express your stance on the theme of the
unit:
It can be confidently said that … … The time is not far off when
… …I have every ground for assuming that … I am afraid nobody
has the slightest idea concerning … …One cannot help wondering
what … … It’s too astonishing for words … …I am stuck for the
right word… We might hazard a guess that … …It wouldn’t de too
much of a stretch to say that … …
Read the texts and write either a reflective or argumentative
essay:
1. AN ARTIFICIAL SPUTNIK OF THE EARTH?
The origin of the Moon is one of the most complicated problems
of cosmogony. So far there have been basically three hypotheses un-
der discussion.
HYPOTHESIS I. The Moon was once a part of the Earth and
broke away from it.
This has now been refuted by the evidence.
HYPOTHESIS II. The Moon was formed independently from the
same cloud of dust and gas as the Earth, and immediately became the
Earth's natural satellite.
But then why is there such a big difference between the specific
gravity of the Moon (3.33 grammes per cubic centimetre) and that of
the Earth (5.5 gr.)? Furthermore, according to the latest information
(analysis of samples brought back by the U.S. Apollo astronauts) lunar
rock is not of the same composition as the Earth's.

29
HYPOTHESIS III. The Moon came into being separately, and,
moreover, far from the Earth (perhaps even outside the Solar system).
This would mean that the moon would not have to be fashioned
from the same «clay» as our own planet. Sailing through the Universe,
the Moon came into Earth's proximity, and by a complex interplay of
forces of gravity was brought within a geocentric orbit, very close to
circular. But a catch of this kind is virtually impossible.
Глина; близость; выгода, препятствие, подвох, захват, улов.
In fact, scientists studying the origin of the Universe today have
no acceptable theory to explain how the Earth-Moon system came into
being.
OUR HYPOTHESIS: The Moon is an artificial Earth satellite put
into orbit around the Earth by some intelligent beings unknown to
ourselves.
We refuse to engage in speculation about who exactly staged this
unique experiment, which only a highly developed civilization was
capable of.
2. A NOAH'S ARK?
If you are going to launch an artificial sputnik, then it is advisable
to make it hollow. At the same time it would be naive to imagine that
anyone capable of such a tremendous space project would be satisfied
simply with some kind of giant empty trunk hurled into a near-Earth
trajectory.
It is more likely that what we have here is a very ancient space-
ship, the interior of which was filled with fuel for the engines, mate-
rials and appliances for repair work, navigation, instruments, observa-
tion equipment and all manner of machinery... in other words, every-
thing necessary to enable this «caravelle of the Universe» to serve as a
kind of Noah's Ark of intelligence, perhaps even as the home of a
whole civilization envisaging a prolonged (thousands of millions of
years) existence and long wanderings through space (thousands of
millions of miles).
Каравелла; предвидеть; бродить.
Naturally, the hull of such a spaceship must be super-tough in or-
der to stand up to the blows of meteorites and sharp fluctuations be-
tween extreme heat and extreme cold. Probably the shell is a double-

30
layered affair – the basis a dense armouring of about 20 miles in
thickness, and outside it some kind of more loosely packed covering
(a thinner layer – averaging about three miles). In certain areas –
where the lunar «seas» and «craters» are, the upper layer is quite thin,
in some cases, non-existent.
Since the Moon's diameter is 2,162 miles, then looked at from our
point of view it is a thin-walled sphere. And, understandably, not an
empty one. There could be all kinds of materials and equipment on its
inner surface. But the greatest proportion of the lunar mass is concen-
trated in the central part of the sphere, in its core, which has a diame-
ter of 2,062 miles.
Thus the distance between the kernel and the shell of this nut is in
the region of 30 miles. This space was doubtless filled with gases re-
quired for breathing, and for technological and other purposes.
Корпус, скорлупа, оболочка; жесткий; ядро; арматура, броня,
каркас.
With such an internal structure the Moon could have an average
specific gravity if 3.3 grammes per cubic centimetre, which differs
considerably from that of Earth (5.5 grammes per cubic centimetre).
3. A BATTLESHIP THEY COULDN'T TORPEDO?
The most numerous and interesting of the formations on the lunar
surface are the craters. In diameter they vary considerably. Some are less
that a yard across, while others are more than 120 miles (the biggest has a
diameter of 148 miles). How does the Moon come to be so pockmarked?
There are two hypothesis – volcanic and meteoric. Most scientists
vote for the latter.
Kirill Stanyukovich, a Soviet physicist, has written a whole series
of works since 1937 in which he expounds the idea that the craters are
the result of bombardment of the Moon for millions of years. And he
really means bombardment, for even the smallest celestial body, when
it is involved in one of those fastest head-on collisions so common in
the cosmos behaves itself like a warhead charged with dynamite, or
even an atomic warhead at times. Instant combustion takes place on
impact, turning it into a dense cloud of incandescent gas, into plasma,
and there is a very definite explosion.
Объяснять; раскаленный.

31
The surprising thing is that however big the meteorites may have
been which have fallen on the Moon (some have been more than 60
miles in diameter), and however fast they must have been travelling (in
some cases the combined speed was as much as 38 miles per second),
the craters they have left behind are for some odd reason all about the
same depth, 1.2–2 miles, although they vary tremendously in diameter.
For such a big hole, it is too shallow. Furthermore, the bottom of
the crater is convex, following the curve of the lunar surface. If you
were to stand in the middle of the crater you would not even be able to
see the soaring edge – it would be beyond the horizon. A hollow that
is more like a hill is a rather strange affair, perhaps.
Выпуклый; вздымающийся, взлетающий.
Not really, if one assumes that when the meteorite strikes the out-
er covering of the moon, this plays the role of a buffer and the foreign
body finds itself up against an impenetrable spherical barrier. Only
slightly denting the 20-mile layer of armour plating, the explosion
flings bits of its «coating» far and wide.
Непроницаемый.
Ex. 5. Use the clichés to express your stance:
I am inclined to think that … … I pin my hopes on … …
Though the author tends to … I tend to … The author’s assumption
seems a bit dodgy … though …
Ex. 6. Read the text. Be ready to speak on the issues. Give your
comments.
A SPACESHIP COME TO GRIEF?
Now let us consider the chemical peculiarities of the lunar rock.
Upon analysis, American scientists have found chromium, titanium and
zirconium in it. These are all metals with refractory, mechanically strong
and anti-corrosive properties. A combination of them all would have in-
evitable resistance to heat and the ability to stand up to means of aggres-
sion, and could be used on Earth for linings for electrical furnaces.
Неизбежный.
Have your sayHave your say

32
If a material had to be devised to protect a giant artificial satellite
from the unfavorable effects of temperature, from cosmic radiation
and meteorite bombardment, the experts would probably have hit on
precisely these metals. In that case it is not clear why lunar rock is
such an extraordinarily poor heat conductor – a factor which so
amazed the astronauts? Wasn't that what the designers of the super-
sputnik of the Earth were after?
From the engineers point of view, this spaceship of ages long past
which we call the Moon is superbly constructed. There may be a good
reason for its extreme longevity. It is even possible that it predates our
own planet. At any rate, some pieces of lunar rock have proved older
than the oldest on Earth, although it is true, this applies to the age of the
materials and not of the structure for which they were used. And from
the number of craters on its surface, the Moon itself is no chicken.
Долголетие; более раннего происхождения.
It is, of course, difficult to say when it began to shine in the sky
above the Earth, but on the basis of some preliminary estimates one
might hazard a guess that it was around two thousand million years ago.
We do not, of course, imagine that the moon is still inhabited, and
probably many of its automatic devices have stopped working, too.
The stabilisers have ceased functioning and the poles have shifted.
Even though the moon keeps that same side turned towards us, for
some time it has been unsteady on its own axis, on occasion showing
us part of its reverse side which were once invisible to observers on
the Earth – for example, the Selenites themselves if they made expedi-
tions here.
Обитаема; перестать.
What is the Moon today? Is it a colossal necropolis, a «city of the
dead,» where some form of life became extinct? Is it a kind cosmic
Flying Dutchman? A craft abandoned by its crew and controlled au-
tomatically? We do not know and we shall probably not.
Вымерший.

33
UNIT 3
Sebastian Seung: I am my connectome
URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/sebastian_seung.html
We live in a remarkable time, the age of genomics. Your genome
is the entire sequence of your DNA. Your sequence and mine are
slightly different. That's why we look different. I've got brown eyes;
you might have blue or gray. But it's not just skin-deep. The headlines
tell us that genes can give us scary diseases, maybe even shape our
personality, or give us mental disorders. Our genes seem to have awe-
some power over our destinies. And yet, I would like to think that I
am more than my genes. What do you, guys, think? Are you more
than your genes? Sebastian Seung: What am I? I am my connectome.
Удивительный; вся; последовательность; немного; заголовки;
страшные; болезни; формировать; умственные расстройства; по-
хоже; колоссальное; судьбы.
Well, so far only one connectome is known, that of this tiny
worm. Its modest nervous system consists of just 300 neurons. And in
the 1970s and '80s, a team of scientists mapped all 7,000 connections
between the neurons. In this diagram, every node is a neuron, and
every line is a connection. This is the connectome of the worm C. ele-
gans. Your connectome is far more complex than this because your
brain contains 100 billion neurons and 10,000 times as many connec-
tions. Your connectome contains one million times more connections
than your genome has letters. That's a lot of information.
Червячок; скромный; нанести на карту; нематода (червь); по-
меститься; содержать.
What's in that information? We don't know for sure, but there are
theories. Since the 19th century, neuroscientists have speculated that
maybe your memories – the information that makes you, you – maybe
your memories are stored in the connections between your brain's neu-
rons. And perhaps other aspects of your personal identity – maybe
your personality and your intellect – maybe they're also encoded in the
connections between your neurons. And so now you can see why I
proposed this hypothesis: I am my connectome. I didn't ask you to

34
chant it because it's true; I just want you to remember it. And in fact,
we don't know if this hypothesis is correct, because we have never had
technologies powerful enough to test it. Finding that worm connec-
tome took over a dozen years of tedious labor. And to find the connec-
tomes of brains more like our own, we need more sophisticated tech-
nologies, that are automated, that will speed up the process of finding
connectomes. And in the next few minutes, I'll tell you about some of
these technologies, which are currently under development in my lab
and the labs of my collaborators.
Размышлять, обдумывать; хранить; закодированы; заявить,
дюжина, масса; утомительный; продвинутый; в настоящее время;
разработка, развитие; коллеги, единомышленники.
Now you've probably seen pictures of neurons before. You can
recognize them instantly by their fantastic shapes. They extend long
and delicate branches, and in short, they look like trees. But this is
just a single neuron. In order to find connectomes, we have to see all
the neurons at the same time. So let's meet Bobby Kasthuri, who
works in the laboratory of Jeff Lichtman at Harvard University.
Bobby is holding fantastically thin slices of a mouse brain. And
we're zooming in by a factor of 100,000 times to obtain the resolu-
tion, so that we can see the branches of neurons all at the same time.
Except, you still may not really recognize them, and that's because
we have to work in three dimensions.
Возможно; узнать; тотчас; формы; тянуть; ажурный, хруп-
кий; ветви; держать; срезы; получить, достать, раздобыть; разре-
шение; кроме.
If we take many images of many slices of the brain and stack them
up, we get a three-dimensional image. And still, you may not see the
branches. So we start at the top, and we color in the cross-section of one
branch in red, and we do that for the next slice and for the next slice.
And we keep on doing that, slice after slice. If we continue through the
entire stack, we can reconstruct the three-dimensional shape of a small
fragment of a branch of a neuron. And we can do that for another neuron
in green. And you can see that the green neuron touches the red neuron
at two locations, and these are what are called synapses.
Сложить вместе; все же; сверху; поперечный срез; восста-
новить.

35
Let's zoom in on one synapse, and keep your eyes on the inte-
rior of the green neuron. You should see small circles – these are
called vesicles. They contain a molecule know as a neurotransmit-
ter. And so when the green neuron wants to communicate, it wants
to send a message to the red neuron, it spits out neurotransmitter. At
the synapse, the two neurons are said to be connected like two
friends talking on the telephone.
Внутренняя часть; везикулы; содержать; нейромедиаторы;
передать информацию; выплюнуть.
So you see how to find a synapse. How can we find an entire
connectome? Well, we take this three-dimensional stack of images
and treat it as a gigantic three-dimensional coloring book. We color
every neuron in a different color, and then we look through all of the
images, find the synapses and note the colors of the two neurons in-
volved in each synapse. If we can do that throughout all the images,
we could find a connectome.
Весь; запоминать, отмечать.
Now, at this point, you've learned the basics of neurons and
synapses. And so I think we're ready to tackle one of the most im-
portant questions in neuroscience: how are the brains of men and
women different? According to this self-help book, guys brains are
like waffles; they keep their lives compartmentalized in boxes.
Girls' brains are like spaghetti; everything in their life is connected
to everything else. It doesn't matter whether you're a guy or girl,
everyone's brains are like spaghetti. Just as one strand of spaghetti
contacts many other strands on your plate, one neuron touches many
other neurons through their entangled branches. One neuron can be
connected to so many other neurons, because there can be synapses
at these points of contact. By now, you might have sort of lost pers-
pective on how large this cube of brain tissue actually is.
Браться за решение; согласно; офисный шкаф; очень тонкие
спагетти; соединяться; тарелка; спутанный; ткань.
And so let's do a series of comparisons to show you. I assure you,
this is very tiny. It's just six microns on a side. So, here's how it stacks
up against an entire neuron. And you can tell that, really, only the

36
smallest fragments of branches are contained inside this cube. And a
neuron, well, that's smaller than brain.
Сравнения; уверять; маленький.
In the 17th century, the mathematician and philosopher, Blaise
Pascal, wrote of his dread of the infinite, his feeling of insignificance
at contemplating the vast reaches of outer space.
Страх; малозначительность; задумываться о чем-то; огром-
ный; внешний.
And yet, I persist in this quixotic endeavor. And indeed, these
days I harbor new hopes. Someday, a fleet of microscopes will capture
every neuron and every synapse in a vast database of images. And
some day, artificially intelligent supercomputers will analyze the im-
ages without human assistance to summarize them in a connectome. It
will take the work of generations to succeed. At the present time, my
collaborators and I, what we're aiming for is much more modest – just
to find partial connectomes of tiny chunks brain. For now, let me try
to convince you of the plausibility of this hypothesis, that it's actually
worth taking seriously.
Все же; настаивать, донкихотское; попытка, дело, предпри-
ятие; в самом деле; затаить, вынашивать; захватить; база данных;
участие; объединить; увенчать успехом; ставить цель; скромный;
частичный; убедить; правдоподобие.
As you grow during childhood and age during adulthood, your
personal identity changes slowly. Likewise, every connectome
changes over time. What kinds of changes happen? Well, neurons,
like trees, can grow new branches, and they can lose old ones. Syn-
apses can be created, and they can be eliminated. And synapses can
grow larger, and they can grow smaller. Second question: what causes
these changes? To some extent, they are programmed by your genes.
But that's not the whole story, because there are signals, electrical sig-
nals, that travel along the branches of neurons and chemical signals
that jump across from branch to branch. These signals are called neur-
al activity. And there's a lot of evidence that neural activity is encod-
ing our thoughts, feelings and perceptions, our mental experiences.
And there's a lot of evidence that neural activity can cause your con-

37
nections to change. And if you put those two facts together, it means
that your experiences can change your connectome. And that's why
every connectome is unique, even those of genetically identical twins.
The connectome is where nature meets nurture.
Взрослость; уничтожать; степень; свидетельство; мысли.
What's in this picture? A cool and refreshing stream of water, you
say. What else is in this picture? Do not forget that groove in the Earth
called the stream bed. Without it, the water would not know in which
direction to flow. And with the stream, I would like to propose a meta-
phor for the relationship between neural activity and connectivity.
Neural activity is constantly changing. It's like the water of the stream;
it never sits still. The connections of the brain's neural network deter-
mines the pathways along which neural activity flows. And so the con-
nectome is like bed of the stream; but the metaphor is richer than that,
because it's true that the stream bed guides the flow of the water, but
over long timescales, the water also reshapes the bed of the stream.
Освежающий; поток; канавка; направление; течь; предло-
жить; постоянно; проводящие пути; направлять; течение (долго)
периода времени; изменять форму.
So let's return from the heights of metaphor and return to science.
Suppose our technologies for finding connectomes actually work.
How will we go about testing the hypothesis «I am my connectome?»
Well, I propose a direct test. Let us attempt to read out memories from
connectomes. Consider the memory of long temporal sequences of
movements, like a pianist playing a Beethoven sonata. According to a
theory that dates back to the 19th century, such memories are stored as
chains of synaptic connections inside your brain. Because, if the first
neurons in the chain are activated, through their synapses they send
messages to the second neurons, which are activated, and so on down
the line, like a chain of falling dominoes.
Предположим; предлагать; прямой; предпринять попытку;
считать; рассматривать; последовательность; хранить; цепочки.
So one way of trying to test the theory is to look for such chains
inside connectomes. But it won't be easy, because they're not going to
look like this. They're going to be scrambled up. So we'll have to use

38
our computers to try to unscramble the chain. And if we can do that,
the sequence of the neurons we recover from that unscrambling will
be a prediction of the pattern of neural activity that is replayed in the
brain during memory recall.
Перемешаны; восстанавливать; прогноз; образец; переигры-
вать.
What a mess – have you ever tried to wire up a system as com-
plex as this? I hope not. But if you have, you know it's very easy to
make a mistake. The branches of neurons are like the wires of the
brain. It's a big number. I estimate, millions of miles, all packed in
your skull. And if you appreciate that number, you can easily see there
is huge potential for mis-wiring of the brain. And indeed, the popular
press loves headlines like, «Anorexic brains are wired differently,» or
«Autistic brains are wired differently.» These are plausible claims, but
in truth, we can't see the brain's wiring clearly enough to tell if these
are really true.
Возиться, беспорядок, путаница; провода, подключать; дога-
дываться; длина; намек; оценка; череп; ценить, оценить; действи-
тельно; заголовки; правдоподобный; утверждения.
Sometimes the best way to test a hypothesis is to consider its most
extreme implication. Philosophers know this game very well. If you
believe that I am my connectome, I think you must also accept the
idea that death is the destruction of your connectome. I mention this
because there are prophets today who claim that technology will fun-
damentally alter the human condition and perhaps even transform the
human species. One of their most cherished dreams is to cheat death
by that practice known as cryonics. If you pay 100,000 dollars, you
can arrange to have your body frozen after death and stored in liquid
nitrogen in one of these tanks in an Arizona warehouse, awaiting a fu-
ture civilization that is advanced to resurrect you.
Следствие; разрушение; провидцы; утверждать; лелеемая;
деятельность; крионика; организовать; развитая; оживить.
Should we ridicule the modern seekers of immortality, calling
them fools? I propose that we attempt to find a connectome of a fro-
zen brain. We know that damage to the brain occurs after death and

39
during freezing. The question is: has that damage erased the connec-
tome? If it has, there is no way that any future civilization will be able
to recover the memories of these frozen brains. Resurrection might
succeed for the body, but not for the mind.
Высмеивать; бессмертие; глупцы; хихикать; могилы; предла-
гаю; попытаться; происходить, случаться заморозка; стереть; вос-
становить; воскрешение; произойти удачно.
remarkable удивительный mental
disorders
умственные
расстройства
entire весь seem похоже
sequence последователь-
ность
awesome колоссальное
slightly немного; слегка destinies судьбы
headlinе заголовок statement заявление;
утверждение
scary страшный cheering возгласы
одобрения
diseases болезни to be willing готовы
shape формировать;
форма
tiny worm червячок
modest скромный elegans нематода
(червь)
to map нанести
на карту
fit поместиться
contain содержать speculate размышлять,
обдумывать
stored хранить tedious утомительный
encoded закодирован-
ный
sophisticated продвинутый
propose заявить; пред-
ложить
currently в настоящее
время
dozen дюжина, масса development разработка,
развитие
collaborators коллеги, еди-
номышленники
probably возможно

40
recognize узнать; при-
знать
branches ветви
instantly тотчас hold держать
shape форма slices срезы
extend тянуть, расши-
рять
obtain получить, дос-
тать, раздо-
быть
delicate ажурный,
хрупкий
resolution разрешение
except кроме stack сложить вме-
сте
still все же; еще cross-section поперечный
срез
top сверху reconstruct восстановить
Interior внутренняя
часть
neurotrans-
mitter
нейромедиа-
торы
vesicles везикулы communicate передать ин-
формацию
contain содержать spit выплюнуть
entire весь note запоминать,
отмечать
tackle браться
за решение
contact соединяться
according to согласно plate тарелка
compartmen-
talized
офисный
(шкаф)
entangled спутанный
capellini очень тонкие
спагетти
tissue ткань
comparisons сравнения hopeless безнадежно
assure уверять naked невооружен-
ный
tiny маленький;
крошечный
hidden скрытый
give up оставить, бро-
сить
reveal открыть,
поведать

41
dread страх, ужас,
трепет, стра-
шиться, испы-
тывать благо-
говейный страх
(трепет)
curiosity любопытство
insignific-
ance
малозначитель-
ность
despair печаль,
отчаяние
contemplate задумываться о
чем-то
awesome восхититель-
ный в своей
сложности
vast огромный dare посметь
outer внешний summarize объединить
yet все же; еще не succeed увенчать ус-
пехом
quixotic донкихотский aim ставить цель
endeavor попытка, дело,
предприятие
modest скромный
indeed в самом де-
ле
partial частичный
harbor затаить, вына-
шивать
convince убедить
capture захватить plausibility правдоподо-
бие
database база данных adulthood взрослость
eliminate уничтожать mere простой
extent степень empowering вдохновляю-
щий
evidence свидетельство guide направлять
refreshing освежающий timescals шкала време-
ни; масштаб
времени
stream поток reshape изменять
форму
groove канавка ascend подняться
direction направление heights высоты
flow течь; поток remind напомнить

42
propose предложить perceptions ощущения,
восприятие
constantly постоянно suppose предположим;
полагать;
предлагать
pathways проводящие
пути; дороги;
тропинки
consider считать,
рассматривать
propose предлагать sequencе последова-
тельность
direct прямой store хранить
attempt предпринять
попытку
chain цепь
scramblе взболтать pattern образец; схема
recover восстанавли-
вать
replay переигрывать
prediction прогноз appreciate ценить,
оценить
mess возиться, бес-
порядок, пута-
ница
indeed действительно
wires провода,
подключать
headlines заголовки
guess догадываться;
полагать
plausible правдоподоб-
ный
length длина claims утверждения
hint намек disorders заболевания
estimate оценка practice деятельность
skull череп cryonics крионика
Implication следствие arrange организовать
destruction разрушение advanced развитая
prophets провидцы resurrect оживить
claim утверждать;
требовать
immortality бессмертие
cherish лелеять chuckle хихикать
ridicule высмеивать propose предлагать
fools глупцы damage повреждение

43
graves могилы freezing заморозка
attempt попытаться recover восстановить
occur происходить,
случаться
succeed произойти
удачно;
преуспеть
erase стереть quest искать; поиск
resurrection воскрешение evolve эволюциони-
ровать
describe описывать ancestor предок
propel побуждать amazing удивительный
ape-like обезьянопо-
добный
opportunity возможность
distinguish отличать; раз-
личать
deconstruct разбирать
 Ex. 1. Answer the questions:
1. What is a gene?
2. How mighty are genes?
3. Do you agree that our genes have awesome power over our
destiny?
4.What is the composition of a tiny worm‟s nervous system?
5. What is actually stored in the connections between neurons?
6. What are entangled branches of neurons for?
7. Do you think that your personal identity is stored in the con-
nections between neurons?
8. Do connectomes change with time? What kind of changes take
place?
9. What do connectomes look like? In what way do they differ
from neurons?
10. What is the nature of signals that go through connectomes?
11. What kind of metaphor does the lecturer use to describe the
processes taking place in the connectome?
12. How do empowering ideas affect neurons and connections be-
tween them?
13. What do female and male brains look like
14. Are memories stored as chains of synaptic connections?
Speak on the examples that the lecturer gives.

44
15. What does the lecturer call the most striking technological
challenge of our time?
16. What is stored in the form of a chain of synaptic connections?
17. Can we read memories through dissecting connectomes?
18. What is meant by miswiring of the brain?
19. What was the purpose of cryonics?
20. How can the stream of consciousness function in terms of
neurons and signals?
21. Is the connectome intact in case of freezing the body?
Ex. 2. Does the lecturer sound convincing? Make up a number
of statements using the following expressions
to argue logically – приводить логичные аргументы во время
спора
to argue soundly – обоснованно аргументировать
to argue against smth. – приводить доводы против (чего-л.)
to argue for / in favour of smth. – приводить доводы в пользу
(чего-л.)
to argue for the new law – приводить доводы в пользу нового
закона
Ex. 3. Write an essay on the possible ways of improving the sys-
tem of connection between your neurons.
UNIT 4
Brian Greene on String Theory
URL:http://www.ted.com/talks/lang/en/brian_greene_on_string_theory.html
In the year 1919, a virtually unknown German mathematician
named Theodor Kaluza suggested a very bold and, in some ways, a
very bizarre idea. He proposed that our universe might actually have
more than the three dimensions than we are all aware of. That is in
addition to left, right, back, forth and up, down, Kaluza proposed that
there might be additional dimensions of space that for some reason we
don't yet see. Now, when someone makes a bold and bizarre
Have your say

45
idea, sometimes that's all it is – bold and bizarre, but it has nothing to
do with the world around us. This particular idea, however –
although we don't yet know whether it's right or wrong, and at the end
I'll discuss experiments which, in the next few years, may tell us
whether it's right or wrong – this idea has had a major impact on
physics in the last century and continues to inform a lot of cutting-
edge research.
Предположить, предложить; смелы; осознавать, отдавать се-
бе отчет в чем-то; странный; предлагать; значительный, основ-
ной, главный; толчок, влияние; иметь отношение к / не иметь от-
ношения к чему-либо; современный.
Einstein realized that Newton had left something out of the
story, because even Newton had written that although he understood
how to calculate the effect of gravity, he'd been unable to figure out
how it really works. How is it that the Sun, 93 million miles
away, somehow it affects the motion of the earth? How does the Sun
reach out across empty inert space and exert influence? And that is a
task to which Einstein set himself – to figure out how gravity works.
Понимать; неспособный; описать (понять), выяснить; среда;
передавать.
Einstein said space is nice and flat, if there's no matter
present. But if there is matter in the environment, such as the Sun, it
causes the fabric of space to warp, to curve. And that communicates
the force of gravity. Even the earth warps space around it. Now look
at the moon. The moon is kept in orbit, according to these
ideas, because it rolls along a valley in the curved environment that
the sun and the moon and the earth can all create by virtue of their
presence. We go to a full-frame view of this. The earth itself is kept in
orbit because it rolls along a valley in the environment that's curved
because of the sun's presence.
Причина; жѐлоб, долина; благодаря; согласно; материя; ис-
кривлять; деформировать.
Now, this idea was tested in 1919 through astronomical observa-
tions. It really works. It describes the data. And this gained Einstein
prominence around the world. And that is what got Kaluza think-

439.английский язык практика ведения дискуссий

439.английский язык практика ведения дискуссий

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