2. Types of Loading
There are four basic types of loading (in order of complexity).
•Tension
•Compression
•Torsion
•Bending
Sometimes, two or more basic types of loading can act
simultaneously on a member of a structure or machine.
This is a compression testing machine.
The different members are under different types of
loading.
1. The specimen tested is under compression.
2. The two side bars (N) are under tension.
3. The screw is subjected to twist or torsion.
4. The crosshead is under bending.
3. Types of Loading
Dead Loads : The dead load are the external loads that are
relatively constant over time, including the weight of the structure
itself.
Live Loads: Loads that work over shorter durations, such as,
weight of human beings, furniture, impact loading etc.
Environmental Load (Wind Loads, Snow Loads,
Earthquake Loads etc.) :
When structures block the flow of wind, the wind’s kinetic energy
is converted into potential energy of pressure, which causes a
wind loading.
Earthquakes produce loadings on structure through its
interaction with the ground and its response characteristics.
Other Loads (Hydrostatic and soil pressure etc.): When
structures are used to retain water, soil, or granular materials, the
pressure developed by these loadings becomes an important
criterion for their design.
12. Concepts of Design
Main concept of design,
Load< resistance
There are mainly two types of design concepts:
1. Allowable Stress Method
This is also known as working stress method.
2. Load and Resistance Factor Design
This is also known as Limit State Design Method.
13. Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
Allowable stress
Structures/machines are designed for stress below yield stress
or their ultimate strength to increase safety.
How?
Stress due to loading <= factor of safety*yield
stress
14. Working Stress Design (WSD)
Each material has some ultimate strength. But it is unsafe to load
a material to its ultimate strength as there can be uncertainties
regarding:
• „The quality of manufacture(fabrication / erection /
workmanship, etc.)
• Load may be greater than anticipated
• „Material may be defective (existence of micro cracks fatigue
etc.)
• Other unforeseen situation (calculation errors, etc.)
•In this case, the design stress (specifying the
strength of the material) is reduced from the yield or
other specified maximum to get the “allowable stress”
.
•Based on yield stress (elastic material) (2/3rd of yield
stress) or other predetermined strain amount (for an
inelastic material—e.g. for concrete, the stress at a
15. Factor of Safety
Stress due to loading <= factor of safety*yield
stress
Factor of safety (FS),
, (for stresses)
, (for loads)
failure failure
actual actual
failure failure
actual actual
or
P V
or
P V
16. Load and Resistance Factor Design
This concept is based on the ultimate strength of materials.
Instead of reducing the material strength, factors are used for
accounting for uncertainty in the load and the material
resistance.
Factors are applied to increase load and to decreases
resistance,
Factored load ≤ factored strength
∑ (Loads × load factors) ≤ resistance × resistance factors
Load factors: e.g., 1.4xDL + 1.7xLL (for concrete design)
Resistance factors: 0.9xStrength of tension member
• More rational and complex approach.
• Started with concrete design, but now has been taken up by
steel and more recently for designing wood.
24. FOS2
Double shear in 4 bolts on each side.
Hence, 4*2*shear force on each bolt surface = P
Shear stress should be calculated using FS.
Then allowable shear stress should be multiplied with
area of bolt.