Ijciet 10 02_048

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International Journal of Civil Engineering and Technology (IJCIET)
Volume 10, Issue 02, February 2019, pp.473-484, Article ID: IJCIET_10_02_048
Available online at http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=10&IType=02
ISSN Print: 0976-6308 and ISSN Online: 0976-6316
© IAEME Publication Scopus Indexed
SMART ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES AND
BUILDING ARCHITECTURE: AN OVERVIEW
R. L. Sharma
Professor, Department of Civil Engineering, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara,
Punjab, India.
Amar Singh
Associate Professor, Department of Computer Applications, Lovely Professional University,
Phagwara, Punjab, India.
ABSTRACT
The buildings that aren’t “connected” are the same they were decades ago and
have retained fundamentally the same purpose i.e. to provide shelter, temperature
control, and safety at the same efficiency level. Globally the built environments account
for significant energy use and equivalent production of carbon dioxide (CO2) and
carbon footprint. Growing concerns about safety, comfort, global warming, and
climate change are leading to technological evolution, that will make the buildings
smart, more comfortable, and nearly zero energy buildings. The building architectures
are obviously smarter today than they were a few years ago and will continue to do so
as the people become more energy aware and efficiency focused. Smart architectures
and smart technologies are effective means to make buildings more comfortable, secure
and reduce greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprint. Smart metering, smart
grid, energy storage, and smart energy management system are some of the
technologies that find their use in smart architectures along with ubiquitous digital
technologies. These evolving technologies being relatively new can indeed make the
buildings smart, intelligent, energy efficient and environmentally sustainable which
will attract higher rentals and more resale values in the near future. For commercial
real estate, the savings can be impressive. A reduction in energy use is equivalent to an
increase in building’s asset value and net operating income. This paper provides a
contemporary look at the potential of smart architectures and evolving smart energy
technologies to reduce energy consumption and carbon footprint in built environments.
The scope of this paper is limited to the brief overview of these technologies and their
applications.
Keywords: Smart Building Architecture, Smart Energy Technologies, Smart Meter,
Smart Grid, Energy Storage, Smart Energy Management Systems, Energy Efficiency.

R.L Sharma and Amar Singh
Cite this article: R. L. Sharma and Amar Singh, Smart Energy Technologies and
Building Architecture: An Overview International Journal of Civil Engineering and
Technology(IJCIET)10(2)pp;473-484
http://www.iaeme.com/ijciet/issues.asp?JType=IJCIET&VType=10&IType=02
1. INTRODUCTION
For centuries, mankind has been made to find shelter between walls and under a roof. Despite
all the technological innovations in design and construction, the buildings have retained
fundamentally the same purpose i.e. to provide the shelter, temperature control and safety at
the same efficiency level [1]. But today, buildings are indeed more than a roof and four walls.
Growing concerns about safety, comfort, global warming, and climate change are leading to
technological evolution that combines ambient intelligence and home automation to make the
buildings a better living and breathing space. The buildings are now more optimized, secure,
comfortable, and - even their impact on the environment stands to change for the better.
The built environments globally account for a staggering 48% of energy consumption and
45% of CO2 emissions within the region [2]. The cities contribute approximately for two-thirds
of global energy use and an equal amount of CO2 emissions in both developed and developing
countries [3]. In cold countries, space heating together with warm water supply consumes on
an average 65% of the end-use energy, mostly derived from fossil fuels [4]. By 2050, this share
could double or triple if adequate steps are not taken. There is hardly any country that can claim
to have not suffered the disastrous impact of climate change in the past few years in the form
of monstrous floods, droughts and rising sea levels. And what is scary is that the situation is
getting worse by the day. The Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) in its report
titled “Global Warming of 1.5 Degrees”, released in October 2018 has warned that the Earth
will face devastating consequences of the climate change if the world fails to keep global
warming within 1.5 degrees Celsius of pre-industrial levels. The global population is expected
to reach 10 billion over the next 30 years [5]. And to accommodate this population, millions of
apartments/houses may be added in the near future, particularly in the developing countries
like India and China. This, in turn, will increase the energy demand for cooling and heating
and other forms of energy commonly used in buildings.
To address the key issue of reduction in energy consumption and carbon footprint in the
built environments require cutting-edge technologies, and “outside the box”, thinking. Rather
than accelerating the supply to meet the growing energy needs, demand-side management has
to be focused to reduce consumption. A reduction in energy consumption is equivalent to an
increase in net operating income and building asset value [6]. A wide variety of approaches
and energy efficiency measures (EEMs) have been reported in the literature. These approached
can be broadly categorized as (i) constructing or transforming the existing buildings to smart
and intelligent architectures and (ii) efficiency improvements through energy technologies and
other measures. Building planners and designers all look for such technologies to make
buildings safe, comfortable, energy efficient and sustainable that will attract higher rentals and
more resale values. This paper examines some of the evolving technologies that can
significantly contribute to the reduction in energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions
in the built environments.
This paper is structured as follows: Section 2 outlines the smart energy technologies;
section 3 describes a smart building architecture and the last section offers the concluding
remarks.
2. SMART ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES

Smart Energy Technologies and Building Architecture: An Overview
Smart energy technologies offer a holistic approach to reduce energy consumption and
environmental footprint in building life cycle [7]. These technologies include smart metering,
smart grids, energy storage, smart energy management systems, and modern communication
technologies. Thermal retrofits, deep building-envelope improvements, heating, ventilation
and air-conditioning (HVAC) upgrade or equipment replacement are the other EEMs for
existing building architectures [8], [9]. Some of these technologies and their contribution to
energy saving are discussed below:
2.1. Smart Metering
Smart metering infrastructure (SMI) is an integrated system of smart meters, data management
systems, and communication networks [10], offering a wide range of services such as gathering
and transfer of energy usage information in near real-time, demand forecasting, managing
energy consumption, and costs, billing, identify and isolate outages, detect tampering, connect,
and even disconnect services. The smart meter, shown in Figure 1(a), is the core component of
SMI which records aggregate energy usage over short intervals and send data to the energy
company using radio frequency communication for processing and storing [11]. The grid
(energy provider) make the energy usage data available to the end users via a web portal or in-
home displays (IHD). The schematic diagram of SMI is shown in Figure 1(b).
Smart meter technology supports customer inquiries and identifies power outages. IHD
feedback in real-time raises consumer’s awareness and even spur changes in their behavior.
The users become active managers of their energy resources and costs. Research by Smart
Energy [12] shows that 86% of users change their behavior to make energy savings once the
smart meter is installed in their premises. A multitude of empirical studies has been conducted
to quantify the extent of the reduction in energy consumption by various smart feedback
methods [13], [14]. These studies indicate that the reduction ranges from 3% to 20%.
Daily/weekly feedback when combined with goal settings even result in higher energy savings
[15]
Figure 1(a) Smart Meter and Smart Metering Infrastructure Smart meter at a residence

Figure 1(b) Simplified schematic diagram of smart metering infrastructure
SMI has been exploited extensively to develop techniques for energy demand forecasting
in buildings [16]. However, artificial intelligence techniques and artificial neural network
(ANN) models have received greater attention in recent years [17]. These techniques utilize
sensor-based or machine learning approach for energy load forecasting. The sensor-based
approach has been exploited in the framework of the Green@Hospital project where the
outdoor and indoor temperatures were predicted for 8 hours ahead [18]. The prediction is then
used for optimal control of the hospitals HVAC units leading to a reduction in energy
consumption by 62.1 kWh/m2
and overall energy efficiency improvement of 36%, on yearly
basis.
Over the past few years, the use of smart metering technologies is rapidly growing and has
become more prevalent in existing households and businesses. Already being rolled out in
many countries, the smart metering is a big step to save energy and reduce costs. The use of
ICT such as Web-of-Things (WoT) and the Internet of Things (IoT) is further helping in
evolving the smart metering concept. The IoT has already taken advantage of smart metering
technology and sensor-based approaches to collect data by creating a network of interconnected
devices which, in turn, is used for load forecasting, and load management in buildings [19].
2.2. Smart Grid
The term smart grid refers to electric power infrastructure (generation, transmission, and
distribution) which is self-healing, resilient, and provide quality power to consumers on a
sustainable, secure, and cost-effective manner. It is a dynamic infrastructure that comprises of
SMI, controls, automated monitoring and analytical tools, intelligent systems and appliances,
advanced energy storage, communication network, operational applications, etc. All these
components work with the grid and respond digitally to users quickly changing energy demand.
The concept of the smart grid is continuously evolving and is characterized by greater
intelligence, reliability, robustness, efficiency, and minimum losses. Self-healing capability
enables it to perceive faults and make the necessary adjustments to restore itself back to normal
without any human intervention. The greater resiliency and reliability is largely achieved
through network design and work in real time not only in case of blackouts but also during
exigencies such as fires, tornados, and earthquakes [20]. Microgrid based topologies provide
the necessary flexibility that can supply power independently of each other without affecting
the whole system. Such a sub grid, for instance, ensured power supply to a university hospital

after the Fukushima earthquake. Intelligent appliances within the system are capable of sensing
and consume power as per users pre-set preferences. Smart power generation through
renewable energy sources is used to optimize energy production and maintain critical system
parameters such as voltage, frequency and power factor automatically. Grid-scale energy
storage is used to supplement the demand within the region during peak or power outages.
The demand response (DR) mechanism has emerged as a viable mechanism of influencing
user behavior. It has been shown that when a grid is connected to a smart home, 10–30% of the
energy can be saved via a DR mechanism alone [21]. The growing power of communication
technologies and the declining cost of computing is helping in embedding more intelligence
into the grid and shaping the energy landscape and energy consumption patterns. High-speed
communication technologies make the grid a dynamic and interactive infrastructure for real-
time information and energy exchange. In future, the network technology is going to play a
bigger consolidation roll making the grid robust and secure. Dynamic pricing schemes, offered
by the utilities, prevent system overloading during peak periods and motivate the customer to
reduce energy consumption. Research has shown that when consumers know exactly how
much energy is consumed; they are likely to take appropriate measures to reduce energy use
[22]. A wide range of publicly-funded projects, across the EU, are designed to engage
consumers in this vision [23]. These smart grid projects are likely to boost innovations, reduce
transmission losses and energy costs, and create more jobs. Ontario launched “Smart Grid
Fund” in 2011 to support innovation in Ontario's energy sector. Results indicated that the
investment has helped in improving grid efficiency, delivery of electricity, reducing costs and
created over 100 high-tech clean jobs across the province.
2.3. Energy Storage
With the concept of smart homes gaining a foothold, new possibilities of saving energy are
emerging with the use of efficient and intelligent energy storage systems. Storing large volumes
of electric power locally is critical for rapid deployment of intermittent energy sources and
optimizing the balance between power supply and demand. The use of local energy storages
ensures the buildings to realize the concept of nearly zero energy buildings and reliability of
power during potential disruptions, and sessional variations in supply and demand. Improved
energy storage systems do not take large space and help individuals gain greater control over
their energy costs. The next generation energy storages will be built around optimizing energy
consumption and maximizing the value for customers. Such systems will be capable of
rescheduling air conditioning or heating appliances or turn them down when electricity
prices are high or even charge an electric vehicle when energy prices are low.
At present, Lithium Ion (Li-ion) battery is the only dominant storage device for both
domestic and electric utilities. Recent years however have seen new and efficient energy
storage systems that offer uninterrupted power supply over a wide range of temperature
variations. For example, a battery that utilizes liquid/molten salts as electrolyte and electrodes
as well has been produced by MIT [24] and may soon replace Li-ion batteries in the near future.
With significant technological improvements, it is now possible to build low-cost energy
storage systems of smaller sizes offering high efficiency and minimal environmental impact.
The US electric vehicle maker Tesla offers a low-priced battery solution, called “Tesla
Powerwall 2” for domestic use. The product (Figure 2) comprising of a 13.5 kWh lithium-ion
battery pack, liquid thermal control system, an integrated inverter, and software envisages a
world where people have solar panels that provide more energy than their house needs [25].
The LG Electronics has also entered the fast-growing residential energy storage business
offering smart energy storage solutions (Figure 3) for smart homes [26].

2.4. Smart Energy Management System
Smart Energy Management System (SEMS) is a state-of-the-art computer-aided tool to
monitor, control and optimize energy operations in buildings and electric utilities [27]. These
systems are becoming increasingly popular as they provide higher security, comfort, and
energy conservation through intelligent energy management [28]. A typical energy SEMS for
buildings includes a Home Area Network (HAN), Energy Management System (EMS), In-
Home Display (IHD), and embedded sensors all connected by a network [29]. Much like local
area network, HAN integrates the electric devices and facilitates device-to-device
communication. Both wireless and wired networks have been developed for this purpose [30].
Low-powered (battery-operated) networks, ZigBee and Z-Wave represent the popular choice
as they consume a fraction of the power required by wifi networks. The EMS offers an
intelligent platform to collect energy consumption profile of connected appliances; compute
the cost of energy consumed and process the data to optimize and control the operations. To
allow users to track energy use, useful information such as daily or monthly energy
consumption, dynamic pricing, the status of appliances, etc. are displayed through IHD.
Automation companies are currently developing their own systems to allows the consumer to
monitor, control and optimize their energy usage at the personal level. Apple has already
launched a product known as Home Kit for home automation. The device connects Apple
certified home products and allows the users to control them with their voice or via Siri [31].
Figure 2 A Tesla home battery installed in a house in Wales. Adapted from Gareth Phillips for the
Guardian
Figure 3 LG’s energy storage systems and expandable battery pack

A number of energy management systems are now available in the market. However, their
deployment is closely tied up with systems’ cost and energy savings. The research conducted
by Louis et al. [32] points out that management system components to consume energy and
contribute to negative environmental impacts. In fact, the application of SEMS needs to be
considered carefully. Larger households stand a better chance of saving energy as compared to
smaller ones where the size of household is too small. The observations made by Louis et al.,
may lead to further improvements, but will not reduce or stop the deployment of these systems
in the near future. Cylon Active Energy [33], offers a cloud-based real-time energy
management solution which can be adapted for any type of building big or small. The system
provides a real-time (every 15 min) information of the energy usage which significantly
reduces clients' overall energy consumption and cut costs up to 25%. Similarly, the control
system offered by Siemens SyncoTM is simple and can be conveniently used for small and
medium-size multipurpose building architectures, such as shops, offices, and apartments [34].
The study conducted by Louis et.al. [35], further shows that home automation can contribute
to the reduction in energy consumption by 12% in an average Finnish household. Ageing
power infrastructure has led US [36] to deploy SEMS on a large scale. Despite longer payback
periods, smaller upfront costs and long lifespan are pushing their rapid deployment.
3. SMART BUILDING ARCHITECTURES
Most countries in the world have a good stock of old and historic buildings which are highly
energy intensive and adhere to outdated standards. A study conducted by the Building
Performance Institute Europe (BPIE) shows that a staggering 97% of European buildings are
energy-inefficient. Even if all new buildings were to be built as net-zero energy (structures
that produce the amount of energy they consume) from today on, it would take decades to have
an appreciable effect on overall energy consumption [37]. In addition, the building sector is
growing at an unprecedented rate and consume about 40% of global energy for lighting,
cooking, heating, cooling, ventilation, and operating electric and mechanical devices [38].
Every week, the world is expected to add an equivalent of Paris to the planet, in the form of
new constructions over the next 40 years [39]. Therefore, sustainable smart architectures which
produce minimum carbon footprint and offer higher comforts, higher rentals, and resale values
have become a global priority.
Around the world, a number of building regulations are enforced to reduced energy
consumption in built environments in the framework of climate change. The energy
performance of buildings directive (2010/31/EU [40]), promulgated by the European
Commission (EC), require all new constructions in EU to become nearly zero energy buildings
(nZEBs). The Welsh school of architecture at Cardiff University has built a smart energy
positive building which produces more energy than it consumes at an affordable cost [41]. The
building, shown in Figure 4, integrate solar generation and battery storage to power all its all
electrical appliances.

Figure 4 A zero-energy building at Cardiff University. Adapted from [41]
Smart architectures are automated intelligent buildings that allow their devices and
environments to be controlled either locally or remotely via the internet. Smart management
solutions are used to automate and optimize the building operations. Smart architectures can
be easily integrated into the grid for sharing of information. These functions not only make
buildings energy efficient but also allow itself to adapt to certain situations to enhance the
occupants’ convenience and comfort. According to the McGraw Hill Construction
SmartMarket Report, intelligent buildings consume 20% to 40% less energy that results in 8%
to 9% lower operating expenses and 7.5% higher valuations. Furthermore, the use of ICT and
IoT help reduce energy consumption via better management of devices, remote maintenance,
and accurate and timely prediction of weather. Smart buildings can also adjust lighting and
temperature controls automatically depending upon the weather conditions. A smart home
connected to the smart grid, adopting smart energy technologies and appliances, developed by
Global energy management company “Schneider Electric”, is shown in Figure 5.
New constructions represent the best opportunity, but such opportunities are obviously
limited. Rather than demolishing and rebuilding, retrofitting can be the most environmentally
efficient and cost-effective way to achieve smart architectures [42]. The markets for smart
home retrofits and upgrades, such as solid-state lighting, smart energy management solutions,
and smart materials are on the rise. A number of companies are offering building efficiency
and sustainability improvement programs appropriate to users’/organization’s requirements.
However, options need to be exercised carefully to achieve better results. By investing only in
a few options, significant energy savings can be achieved. A large number of existing
residential and commercial buildings in many countries are undergoing selective energy
retrofits or upgrades [43]. The Empire State Building, the tallest LEED-certified building in
New York, is one such finest example, where energy reduction to the tune of 38% was achieved
by pursuing only eight energy retrofit options [44].
Figure 5 Smart Home Solution by Schneider Electric
4. CONCLUSION
This paper presents a review of technologies that can reduce energy consumption in built
environments to meet the challenges of global warming. It has been demonstrated that the
development of smart architectures and the use of smart energy technologies together would
significantly help to achieve this goal. Such an integrated approach is crucial to reduce
greenhouse gas emissions and carbon footprint in built environments. The benefits range from

energy savings to productivity gains to sustainability. Smart metering technology provides the
users and utility providers valuable information regarding energy consumption and energy
consumption patterns. The information is used for load planning, demand management, detect
device failure, connect, and even disconnect power. There is good evidence of the effectiveness
of smart feedback methods in curbing energy use. Empirical studies indicate that reductions in
energy consumption vary from 3% to 20%.
The smart grid offers a promising tool for improving the efficiency and reliability of energy
supply. It helps the management to control utility operations, reduce transmission losses and
downtime in case of blackouts and provides better services by effectively addressing
emergencies like tornadoes, earthquakes, and tsunamis. Because of its two-way interactive
capacity, the smart grid allows for automatic rerouting in case equipment fails or outages occur.
Integration of power produced through renewable energy sources helps in load balancing and
peak shavings. Results indicate that smart grid projects boost innovation, reduce energy costs
and losses, and create clean jobs.
Energy storage facilitates a balance between power supply and demand. The use of local
energy storage systems powers the household during the potential disruptions, peak demand
and ensure the realization of nearly zero energy buildings. Improved energy storage systems
help individuals gain greater control over their energy costs and provide uninterrupted power
supply over a wide range of environmental conditions. Storage systems possessing higher
efficiency and negligible environmental impact are now available for both household and grid-
scale applications.
Smart energy management systems have become essential, in view of grof greatery,
comfort, and increasing use of energy appliances in smart homes. To help users to manage their
consumption and have greater control over their costs, these systems offer a formidable
solution. Successful implementation of all these technologies requires secure communication
systems to transmit a voluminous stream of data accurately. Currently, ICT and IoT
technologies are being used for this purpose and are playing a crucial role in the transition of
conventional buildings to smart architectures to realize the intelligent and interactive use of
electricity.
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Ijciet 10 02_048

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