Orientalism ReconsideredAuthor(s) Edward W. SaidReviewed .docx

Orientalism Reconsidered
Author(s): Edward W. Said
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Cultural Critique, No. 1 (Autumn, 1985), pp. 89-107
Published by: University of Minnesota Press
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Edward W. Said
T here are two sets of problems that I'd like to take up, each of
them
deriving from the general issues addressed in Orientalism, of
which
the most important are: the representation of other cultures,
societies,
histories; the relationship between power and knowledge; the
role of
the intellectual; the methodological questions that have to do
with the
relationships between different kinds of texts, between text and
con-
text, between text and history.
I should make a couple of things clear at the outset, however.
First of
all, I shall be using the word "Orientalism" less to refer to my
book
than to the problems to which my book is related; moreover, I
shall be
dealing, as will be evident, with the intellectual and political
territory
covered both by Orientalism (the book) as well as the work I
have done

since. This imposes no obligation on my audience to have read
me
since Orientalism; I mention it only as an index of the fact that
since writ-
ing Orientalism I have thought of myself as continuing to look
at the
problems that first interested me in that book but which are still
far
from resolved. Second, I would not want it to be thought that
the
license afforded me by the present occasion is an attempt to
answer my
critics. Fortunately, Orientalism elicited a great deal of
comment, much
of it positive and instructive, yet a fair amount of it hostile and
in some
cases (understandably) abusive. But the fact is that I have not
digested
and understood everything that was either written or said.
Instead, I
have grasped some of the problems and answers proposed by
some of
my critics, and because they strike me as useful in focussing an
argu-
89
90 Edward W. Said
ment, these are the ones I shall be taking into account in the

comments
that follow. Others - like my exclusion of German Orientalism,
which
no one has given any reason for me to have included - have
frankly
struck me as superficial or trivial, and there seems no point in
even re-
sponding to them. Similarly, the claims made by Dennis Porter,
among
others, that I am ahistorical and inconsistent, would have more
in-
terest if the virtues of consistency (whatever may be intended
by the
term) were subjected to rigorous analysis; as for my ahistoricity
that too
is a charge more weighty in assertion than it is in proof.
Now let me quickly sketch the two sets of problems I'd like to
deal
with here. As a department of thought and expertise,
Orientalism of
course refers to several overlapping domains: firstly, the
changing his-
torical and cultural relationship between Europe and Asia, a
relation-
ship with a 4000 year old history; secondly, the scientific
discipline in
the West according to which beginning in the early 19th century
one
specialized in the study of various Oriental cultures and
traditions;
and, thirdly, the ideological suppositions, images, and fantasies
about
a currently important and politically urgent region of the world
called
the Orient. The relatively common denominator between these

three
aspects of Orientalism is the line separating Occident from
Orient, and
this, I have argued, is less a fact of nature than it is a fact of
human pro-
duction, which I have called imaginative geography. This is,
however,
neither to say that the division between Orient and Occident is
un-
changing nor is it to say that it is simply fictional. It is to say-
emphatically - that as with all aspects of what Vico calls the
world of
nations, the Orient and the Occident are facts produced by
human
beings, and as such must be studied as integral components of
the
social, and not the divine or natural, world. And because the
social
world includes the person or subject doing the studying as well
as the
object or realm being studied, it is imperative to include them
both in
any consideration of Orientalism, for, obviously enough, there
could
be no Orientalism without, on the one hand, the Orientalists,
and on
the other, the Orientals.
Far from being a crudely political apprehension of what has
been
called the problem of Orientalism, this is in reality a fact basic
to any

theory of interpretation, or hermeneutics. Yet, and this is the
first set of
problems I want to consider, there is still a remarkable
unwillingness
to discuss the problems of Orientalism in the political or ethical
or
even epistemological contexts proper to it. This is as true of
pro-
fessional literary critics who have written about my book, as it
is of
course of the Orientalists themselves. Since it seems to me
patently
impossible to dismiss the truth of Orientalism's political origin
and its
continuing political actuality, we are obliged on intellectual as
well as
political grounds to investigate the resistance to the politics of
Orien-
talism, a resistance that is richly symptomatic of precisely what
is
denied.
If the first set of problems is concerned with the problems of
Orien-
talism reconsidered from the standpoint of local issues like who
writes

or studies the Orient, in what institutional or discursive setting,
for
what audience, and with what ends in mind, the second set of
prob-
lems takes us to a wider circle of issues. These are the issues
raised
initially by methodology and then considerably sharpened by
ques-
tions as to how the production of knowledge best serves
communal, as
opposed to factional, ends, how knowledge that is non-
dominative
and non-coercive can be produced in a setting that is deeply
inscribed
with the politics, the considerations. the positions, and the
strategies of
power. In these methodological and moral re-considerations of
Orien-
talism, I shall quite consciously be alluding to similar issues
raised by
the experiences of feminism or women's studies, black or ethnic
studies, socialist and anti-imperialist studies, all of which take
for their
point of departure the right of formerly un- or mis-represented
human
groups to speak for and represent themselves in domains
defined,
politically and intellectually, as normally excluding them,
usurping
their signifying and representing functions, overriding their
historical
reality. In short, Orientalism reconsidered in this wider and
libertarian
optic entails nothing less than the creation of new objects for a
new
kind of knowledge.

But let me now return to the local problems I referred to first.
The
hindsight of authors not only stimulates in them a sense of
regret at
what they could or ought to have done but did not; it also gives
them a
wider perspective in which to comprehend what they did. In my
own
case, I have been helped to achieve this broader understanding
by
nearly everyone who wrote about my book, and who saw it - for
better
or worse - as being part of current debates, conflicts, and
contested
interpretations in the Arab-Islamic world, as that world interacts
with
the United States and Europe. Certainly there can be no doubt
that
in my own rather limited case - the consciousness of being an
Orien-
tal goes back to my youth in colonial Palestine and Egypt,
although the
91
92 Edward W. Said
impulse to resist its accompanying impingements was nurtured
in the

heady atmosphere of the post-World War II period of
independence
when Arab nationalism, Nasserism, the 1967 War, the rise of
the Pales-
tine national movement, the 1973 War, the Lebanese Civil War,
the
Iranian Revolution and its horrific aftermath produced that
extraor-
dinary series of highs and lows which has neither ended nor
allowed us
a full understanding of its remarkable revolutionary impact.
The interesting point here is how difficult it is to try to
understand a
region of the world whose principal features seem to be, first,
that it is
in perpetual flux, and second, that no one trying to grasp it can
by an
act of pure will or of sovereign understanding stand at some
Archime-
dean point outside the flux. That is, the very reason for
understanding
the Orient generally and the Arab world in particular was first,
that it
prevailed upon one, beseeched one's attention urgently, whether
for
economic, political, cultural, or religious reasons, and second,
that it
defied neutral, disinterested, or stable definition.
Similar problems are commonplace in the interpretation of
literary
texts. Each age, for instance, re-interprets Shakespeare, not
because
Shakespeare changes, but because despite the existence of
numerous

and reliable editions of Shakespeare, there is no such fixed and
non-
trivial object as Shakespeare independent of his editors, the
actors who
played his roles, the translators who put him in other languages,
the
hundreds of millions of readers who have read him or watched
perfor-
mances of his plays since the late sixteenth century. On the
other hand, it
is too much to say that Shakespeare has no independent
existence at
all, and that he is completely reconstituted every time someone
reads,
acts, or writes about him. In fact Shakespeare leads an
institutional or
cultural life that among other things has guaranteed his
eminence as a
great poet, his authorship of thirty-odd plays, his extraordinary
canon-
ical powers in the West. The point I am making here is a
rudimentary
one: that even so relatively inert an object as a literary text is
commonly
supposed to gain some of its identity from its historical moment
interacting with the attentions, judgements, scholarship, and
perfor-
mances of its readers. But, I discovered, this privilege was
rarely allowed
the Orient, the Arabs, or Islam, which separately or together
were sup-
posed by mainstream academic thought to be confined to the
fixed
status of an object frozen once and for all in time by the gaze of
Western
percipients.

Far from being a defense either of the Arabs or Islam - as my
book
was taken by many to be - my argument was that neither existed
except as "communities of interpretation" which give them
existence,
and that, like the Orient itself, each designation represented
interests,
claims, projects, ambitions, and rhetorics that were not only in
violent
disagreement, but were in a situation of open warfare. So
saturated
with meanings, so overdetermined by history, religion, and
politics are
labels like "Arab" or "muslim" as subdivisions of "The Orient"
that no
one today can use them without some attention to the
formidable
polemical mediations that screen the objects, if they exist at all,
that the
labels designate.
I do not think it is too much to say that the more these
observations
have been made by one party, the more routinely they are
denied by
the other; this is true whether it is Arabs or Muslims discussing

the
meaning of Arabism or Islam, or whether an Arab or Muslim
disputes
these designations with a Western scholar. Anyone who tries to
suggest
that nothing, not even a simple descriptive label, is beyond or
outside
the realm of interpretation is almost certain to find an opponent
saying
that science and learning are designed to transcend the vagaries
of
interpretation, and that objective truth is in fact attainable. This
claim
was more than a little political when used against Orientals who
dis-
puted the authority and objectivity of an Orientalism intimately
allied
with the great mass of European settlements in the Orient. At
bottom,
what I said in Orientalism had been said before me by A.L.
Tibawi, by
Abdullah Laroui, by Anwar Abdel Malek, by Talal Asad, by
S.H.
Alatas, by Fanon and Cesaire, by Pannikar, and Romila Thapar,
all of
whom had suffered the ravages of imperialism and colonialism,
and
who, in challenging the authority, provenance, and institutions
of the
science that represented them to Europe, were also
understanding
themselves as something more than what this science said they
were.
Nor was this all. The challenge to Orientalism and the colonial
era of

which it is so organically a part was a challenge to the muteness
imposed upon the Orient as object. Insofar as it was a science of
incor-
poration and inclusion by virtue of which the Orient was
constituted
and then introduced into Europe, Orientalism was a scientific
move-
ment whose analogue in the world of empirical politics was the
Orient's
colonial accumulation and acquisition by Europe. The Orient
was
therefore not Europe's interlocutor, but its silent Other. From
roughly
the end of the eighteenth century, when in its age, distance, and
rich-
93
94 Edward W. Said
ness the Orient was re-discovered by Europe, its history had
been a
paradigm of antiquity and originality, functions that drew
Europe's
interests in acts of recognition or acknowledgement but from
which
Europe moved as its own industrial, economic, and cultural
develop-
ment seemed to leave the Orient far behind. Oriental history -
for

Hegel, for Marx, later for Burkhardt, Nietzsche, Spengler, and
other
major philosophers of history - was useful in portraying a
region of
great age, and what had to be left behind. Literary historians
have
further noted in all sorts of aesthetic writing and plastic
portrayals that
a trajectory of "Westering," found for example in Keats and
Holderlin,
customarily saw the Orient as ceding its historical preeminence
and
importance to the world spirit moving westwards away from
Asia and
towards Europe.
As primitivity, as the age-old antetype of Europe, as a fecund
night
out of which European rationality developed, the Orient's
actuality
receded inexorably into a kind of paradigmatic fossilization.
The
origins of European anthropology and ethnography were
constituted
out of this radical difference, and, to my knowledge, as a
discipline
anthropology has not yet dealt with this inherent political
limitation
upon its supposedly disinterested universality. This, by the way,
is one
reason Johannes Fabian's book, Time and The Other: How
Anthropology
Constitutes Its Object is both so unique and so important;
compared, say,

with the standard disciplinary rationalizations and self-
congratulatory
cliches about hermeneutic circles offered by Clifford Geertz,
Fabian's
serious effort to re-direct anthropologists' attention back to the
dis-
crepancies in time, power, and development between the
ethnograph-
er and his/her constituted object is all the more remarkable. In
any
event, what for the most part got left out of Orientalism was
precisely
the very history that resisted its ideological as well as political
encroach-
ments, and this repressed or resistant history has returned in the
various critiques and attacks upon Orientalism, which has
uniformly
and polemically been represented by these critiques as a science
of
imperialism.
The divergences between the numerous critiques made of Orien-
talism as ideology and praxis, at least so far as their aims are
concerned,
are very wide nonetheless. Some attack Orientalism as a prelude
to
assertions about the virtues of one or another native culture:
these are
the nativists. Others criticize Orientalism as a defense against
attacks
on one or another political creed: these are the nationalists. Still
others

criticize Orientalism for falsifying the nature of Islam: these
are, grosso
modo, the fundamentalists. I will not adjudicate between these
claims,
except to say that I have explicitly avoided taking stands on
such mat-
ters as the real, true, or authentic Islamic or Arab world, except
as
issues relating to conflicts involving partisanship, solidarity, or
sym-
pathy, although I have always tried never to forsake a critical
sense or
reflective detachment. But in common with all the recent critics
of
Orientalism I think that two things are especially important -
one, a
rigorous methodological vigilance that construes Orientalism
less as a
positive than as a critical discipline and therefore makes it
subject to
intense scrutiny, and two, a determination not to allow the
segregation
and confinement of the Orient to go on without challenge. My
own
understanding of this second point has led me to the extreme
position
of entirely refusing designations like "Orient" and "Occident,"
but
this is something I shall return to a little later.

Depending on how they construed their roles as Orientalists,
critics
of the critics of Orientalism have either reinforced the
affirmations of
positive power lodged within Orientalism's discourse, or much
less
frequently alas, they have engaged Orientalism's critics in a
genuine
intellectual exchange. The reasons for this split are self-evident:
some
have to do with power and age, as well as institutional or guild
defen-
siveness; others have to do with religious or ideological
convictions.
All, irrespective of whether the fact is acknowledged or not, are
political
- something that not everyone has found easy to acknowledge. If
I
may take use of my own example, when some of my critics in
particular
agreed with the main premises of my argument they tended to
fall back
on encomia to the achievements of what one of their most dis-
tinguished individuals, Maxime Rodinson, called "la science
orien-
taliste." This view lent itself to attacks on an alleged Lysenkism
lurking
inside the polemics of Muslims or Arabs who lodged a protest
with
"Western" Orientalism, despite the fact that all the recent critics
of
Orientalism have been quite explicit about using such "Western"
cri-
tiques as Marxism or structuralism in an effort to override
invidious
distinctions between East and West, between Arab and Western

truth,
and the like.
Sensitized to the outrageous attacks upon an august and
formerly
invulnerable science, many accredited members of the certified
pro-
fessional cadre, whose division of study is the Arabs and Islam,
have
disclaimed any politics at all, while pressing a vigorous, but for
the
95
96 Edward W. Said
most part intellectually empty and ideologically intended,
counter-
attack. Although I said I would not respond to critics here, I
need to
mention a few of the more typical imputations made against me
so that
you can see Orientalism extending its 19th-century arguments to
cover
a whole incommensurate set of late 20th-century eventualities,
all of
them deriving from what to the 19th-century mind is the
preposterous
situation of an Oriental responding to Orientalism's
asseverations. For

sheer heedless anti-intellectualism, unrestrained or
unencumbered
by the slightest trace of critical self-consciousness, no one, in
my
experience, has achieved the sublime confidence of Bernard
Lewis,
whose almost purely political exploits require more time to
mention
than they are worth. In a series of articles and one particularly
weak
book - The Muslim Discovery of Europe - Lewis has been busy
respond-
ing to my argument, insisting that the Western quest for
knowledge
about other societies is unique, that it is motivated by pure
curiosity,
and that in contrast Muslims neither were able nor interested in
getting
knowledge about Europe, as if knowledge about Europe were
the only
acceptable criterion for true knowledge. Lewis's arguments are
pre-
sented as emanating exclusively from the scholar's apolitical
impar-
tiality, whereas at the same time he has become an authority
drawn on
for anti-Islamic, anti-Arab, Zionist, and Cold War crusades, all
of them
underwritten by a zealotry covered with a veneer of urbanity
that has
very little in common with the "science" and learning Lewis
purports
to be upholding.
Not quite as hypocritical, but no less uncritical, are younger
ideo-

logues and Orientalists like Daniel Pipes whose expertise as
demon-
strated in his book In the Path of God: Islam and Political
Power is wholly at
the service not of knowledge but of an aggressive and
interventionary
State - the U.S. - whose interests Pipes helps to define. Even if
we
leave aside the intellectually scandalous generalizing that
allows Pipes
to speak of Islam's anomie, its sense of inferiority, its
defensiveness, as
if Islam were one simple thing, and as if the quality of his either
absent
or impressionistic evidence were of the most secondary
importance,
Pipes's book testifies, I think, to Orientalism's unique
resilience, its
insulation from intellectual developments everywhere else in
the cul-
ture, and its antediluvian imperiousness as it makes its
assertions and
affirmations with little regard for logic or argument. I doubt
that any
expert anywhere in the world would speak today ofJudaism or
Chris-
tianity with quite that combination of force and freedom that
Pipes

allows himself about Islam, although one would have thought
that a
book about Islamic revival would allude to parallel and related
de-
velopments in styles of religious resurgence in, for example,
Lebanon,
Israel, and the U.S. Nor is it likely that anyone anywhere,
writing about
material forwhich, in his own words, "rumor, hearsay, and
otherwisps
of evidence" are the only proof, will in the very same paragraph
alchemically transmute rumor and hearsay into "facts" on whose
"multitude" he relies in order "to reduce the importance of
each."
This is magic quite unworthy even of high Orientalism, and
although
Pipes pays his obeisance to imperialist Orientalism he masters
neither
its genuine learning nor its pretense at disinterestedness. For
Pipes,
Islam is a volatile and dangerous business, a political movement
inter-
vening in and disrupting the West, stirring up insurrection and
fanat-
icism everywhere else.
The core of Pipes's book is not simply its highly expedient
sense of its
own political relevance to Reagan's America where terrorism
and
communism fade imperceptibly into the media's images of
Muslim
gunners, fanatics, and rebels, but its thesis that Muslims
themselves
are the worst source for their own history. The pages ofIn the

Path of God
are dotted with references to Islam's incapacity for self-
representation,
self-understanding, self-consciousness, and with praise for
witnesses
like V.S. Naipaul who are so much more useful and clever in
under-
standing Islam. Here, of course, is perhaps the most familiar of
Orien-
talism's themes - since the Orientals cannot represent
themselves,
they must therefore be represented by others who know more
about
Islam than Islam knows about itself. Now it is often the case
that you can
be known by others in different ways than you know yourself,
and that
valuable insights might be generated accordingly. But that is
quite a dif-
ferent thing than pronouncing it as immutable law that outsiders
ipsofacto
have a better sense of you as an insider than you do of yourself.
Note
that there is no question of an exchange between Islam's views
and an
outsider's: no dialogue, no discussion, no mutual recognition.
There is
a flat assertion of quality, which the Western policy-maker, or
his faith-
ful servant, possesses by virtue of his being Western, white,
non-
Muslim.
Now this, I submit, is neither science, nor knowledge, nor
under-
standing: it is a statement of power and a claim for relatively

absolute
authority. It is constituted out of racism, and it is made
comparatively
acceptable to an audience prepared in advance to listen to its
muscular
97
98 Edward W. Said
truths. Pipes speaks to and for a large clientele for whom Islam
is not a
culture, but a nuisance; most of Pipes's readers will, in their
minds,
associate what he says about Islam with the other nuisances of
the 60's
and 70's - blacks, women, post-colonial Third World nations
that
have tipped the balance against the U.S. in such places as
UNESCO and
the U.N., and for their pains have drawn forth the rebuke of
Senator
Moynihan and Mrs. Kirkpatrick. In addition, Pipes - and the
rows of
like-minded Orientalists and experts he represents as their
common
denominator - stands for programmatic ignorance. Far from
trying
to understand Islam in the context of imperialism and the

revenge of
an abused, but internally very diverse, segment of humanity, far
from
availing himself of the impressive recent work on Islam in
different his-
tories and societies, far from paying some attention to the
immense
advances in critical theory, in social science and humanistic
research,
in the philosophy of interpretation, far from making some slight
effort
to acquaint himself with the vast imaginative literature
produced in the
Islamic world, Pipes obdurately and explicitly aligns himself
with
colonial Orientalists like Snouck Hurgronje and shamelessly
pro-
colonial renegrades like V.S. Naipaul, so that from the eyrie of
the State
Department and the National Security Council he might survey
and
judge Islam at will.
I have spent this much time talking about Pipes only because he
usefully serves to make some points about Orientalism's large
political
setting, which is routinely denied and suppressed in the sort of
claim
proposed by its main spokesman, Bernard Lewis, who has the
effron-
tery to disassociate Orientalism from its 200 year old
partnership with

European imperialism and associate it instead with modern
classical
philology and the study of ancient Greek and Roman culture.
Perhaps
it is also worth mentioning about this larger setting that it
comprises
two other elements, about which I'd like to speak very briefly,
namely
the recent (but at present uncertain) prominence of the
Palestinian
movement, and secondly, the demonstrated resistance of Arabs
in the
United States and elsewhere against their portrayal in the public
realm.
As for the Palestinian issue - the question of Palestine and its
fate-
ful encounter with Zionism, on the one hand, and the guild of
Orien-
talism, its professional caste-consciousness as a corporation of
experts
protecting their terrain and their credentials from outside
scrutiny, on
the other hand, account for much of the animus against my
critique of
Orientalism. The ironies here are rich, and I shall restrict

myself to
enumerating a small handful. Consider the case of one
Orientalist who
publicly attacked my book (he told me in a private letter) not
because
he disagreed with it - on the contrary, he felt that what I said
was just
- but because he had to defend the honor of his profession!! Or,
take
the connection - explicitly made by two of the authors I cite in
Orien-
talism, Renan and Proust - between Islamophobia and anti-
Semitism.
Here, one would have expected many scholars and critics to
have seen
the conjuncture, that hostility to Islam in the modern Christian
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of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Education
(or) Doctorate of Philosophy
(or) Doctorate of Business Administration
Equal Spacing~2.0” – 2.5” Comment by GCU: Delete yellow
highlighted “Helps” as your research project develops.
Grand Canyon University
Phoenix, Arizona Comment by GCU: HINT: There are several
“styles” that have been set up in this GCU Template. When you
work on your proposal or dissertation, “save as” this template in
order to preserve and make use of the preset styles. This will
save you hours of work!
[Insert Current Date Until Date of Dean’s Signature]
GCU Dissertation Template V8.3 01.18.18

GCU Dissertation Template V8.3 01.18.18
© by Your Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic
Credentials), 2018 Comment by GCU: NOTE: This is an
optional page. If copyright is not desired, delete this page. The
copyright page is included in the final dissertation and not part
of the proposal. Comment by GCU: For example: © by Jane
Elizabeth Smith, 2012
This page is centered. This page is counted, not numbered, and
should not appear in the Table of Contents.
All rights reserved.
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY Comment by GCU: The
Signature Page is only included in the final dissertation and not
part of the proposal.
Comment by GCU: If the title is longer than one line,
double-space it. The title should be typed in upper and
lowercase letters.
by
Insert Your Full Legal Name (No Titles, Degrees, or Academic
Credentials) Comment by GCU: For example: Jane Elizabeth
Smith
Approved
[Insert Current Date Until Date of Dean’s Signature]
DISSERTATION COMMITTEE:
Full Legal Name, Ed.D., DBA, or Ph.D., Dissertation Chair
Full Legal Name, Ed.D., DBA, or Ph.D., Committee Member

Full Legal Name, Ed.D., DBA, or Ph.D., Committee Member
ACCEPTED AND SIGNED:
________________________________________
Michael R. Berger, Ed.D.
Dean, College of Doctoral Studies
_________________________________________
Date
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY Comment by GCU: This
page is only included in the final dissertation and not part of the
proposal. However, the learner is responsible for ensuring the
proposal and dissertation are original research, that all scholarly
sources are accurately reported, cited, and referenced, and the
study protocol was executed and complies with the IRB
approval granted by GCU.
I verify that my dissertation represents original research, is not
falsified or plagiarized, and that I accurately reported, cited,
and referenced all sources within this manuscript in strict
compliance with APA and Grand Canyon University (GCU)
guidelines. I also verify my dissertation complies with the
approval(s) granted for this research investigation by GCU
Institutional Review Board (IRB).
_____________________________________________
______________________
[Type Doctoral Learner Name Beneath Signature] Date
Comment by GCU: This page requires a “wet signature.”
Remove the brackets and type in the learner’s name. The learner
needs to sign and date this page and insert a copy into the

dissertation manuscript as an image (JPEG) or PDF text box.
This page must be signed and dated prior to final AQR Level 5
review.
Abstract Comment by GCU: On the first line of the page,
center the word “Abstract” (boldface) Style with “TOC
Heading”
Beginning with the next line, write the abstract. Abstract text is
one paragraph with no indentation and is double-spaced. This
page is counted, not numbered, and does not appear in the Table
of Contents.
Abstracts do not include references or citations.
The abstract should be between 150-250 words, most
importantly the abstract must fit on one page.
The abstract is only included in the final dissertation and not
part of the proposal.
The abstract is required for the dissertation manuscript only. It
is not a required page for the proposal. The abstract, typically
read first by other researchers, is intended as an accurate,
nonevaluative, concise summary, or synopsis of the research
study. It is usually the last item completed when writing the
dissertation. The purpose of the abstract is to assist future
researchers in accessing the research material and other vital
information contained in the dissertation. Although few people
typically read the full dissertation after publication, the abstract
will be read by many scholars and researchers. Consequently,
great care must be taken in writing this page of the dissertation.
The content of the abstract covers the purpose of the study,
problem statement, theoretical foundation, research questions
stated in narrative format, sample, location, methodology,

design, data sources, data analysis, results, and a valid
conclusion of the research. The most important finding(s)
should be stated with actual data/numbers (quantitative) or
themes (qualitative) to support the conclusion(s). The abstract
does not appear in the table of contents and has no page
number. The abstract is double-spaced, fully justified with no
indentations or citations, and no longer than one page. Refer to
the APA Publication Manual, 6th Edition, for additional
guidelines for the development of the dissertation abstract.
Make sure to add the keywords at the bottom of the abstract to
assist future researchers. Comment by GCU: Please note this is
crucial and must be included in the abstract at the final
dissertation stage. This is required for dean’s signature.
Keywords: Abstract, assist future researchers, 150 to 250 words,
vital information Comment by GCU: Librarians and
researchers use the abstract to catalogue and locate vital
research material.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)
Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
ABSTRACT
(Dissertation Only—Not Required for the Proposal)
The abstract is typically read first by other researchers and is an
accurate, non-evaluative, concise summary or synopsis of the
research study. The abstract provides a succinct summary of the
study and MUST include the purpose of the study, theoretical
foundation, research questions (stated in narrative format),
sample, location, methodology, design, data analysis, and
results, as well as, a valid conclusion of the research. Abstracts
must be double-spaced, fully justified with no indentions. (one
page)
The abstract provides a succinct summary of the study and

MUST include: the purpose of the study, theoretical foundation,
research questions stated in narrative format, sample, location,
methodology, design, data sources, data analysis, results, and a
valid conclusion of the research. Note: The most important
finding(s) should be stated with actual data/numbers
(quantitative) ~or~ themes (qualitative) to support the
conclusion(s).
The abstract is written in APA format, one paragraph fully
justified with no indentations, double-spaced with no citations,
and includes key search words. Keywords are on a new line and
indented.
The abstract is written in a way that is well structured, has a
logical flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct
sentence structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct
APA format.
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the
following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are
Required.
1 = Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are
Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions
May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.

Reviewer Comments:
Dedication Comment by GCU: The Dedication page is the
first page in the dissertation with a Roman Numeral. In the final
dissertation, this is usually page vi, so we have set it as vi.
An optional dedication may be included here. While a
dissertation is an objective, scientific document, this is the
place to use the first person and to be subjective. The dedication
page is numbered with a Roman numeral, but the page number
does not appear in the Table of Contents. It is only included in
the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal. If this page
is not to be included, delete the heading, the body text, and the
page break below. Comment by GCU: If you cannot see the
page break, click on the top toolbar in Word (Home). Click on
the paragraph icon. ¶Show/Hide button (go to the Home tab and
then to the Paragraph toolbar).
Acknowledgments Comment by GCU: See formatting note for
Dedication
An optional acknowledgements page can be included here. This
is another place to use the first person. If applicable,
acknowledge and identify grants and other means of financial
support. Also acknowledge supportive colleagues who rendered
assistance. The acknowledgments page is numbered with a
Roman numeral, but the page number does not appear in the
table of contents. This page provides a formal opportunity to
thank family, friends, and faculty members who have been
helpful and supportive. The acknowledgements page is only
included in the final dissertation and is not part of the proposal.
If this page is not to be included, delete the heading, the body
text, and the page break below. Comment by GCU: If you
cannot see the page break, click on the top toolbar in Word

(Home). Click on the paragraph icon. ¶Show/Hide button (go to
the Home tab and then to the Paragraph toolbar).
Do not use section breaks!
Table of Contents
List of Tables xi
List of Figures xii
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study 1
Introduction 1
Background of the Study 6
Problem Statement 7
Purpose of the Study 10
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses 11
Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study
14
Rationale for Methodology 16
Nature of the Research Design for the Study 17
Definition of Terms 19
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations 21
Assumptions. 22
Limitations and delimitations. 22
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study 24
Chapter 2: Literature Review 26
Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem 26
Identification of the Gap 28
Theoretical Foundations and/or Conceptual Framework 30
Review of the Literature 32
Methodology and instrumentation/data sources/research
materials 36
Summary 39
Chapter 3: Methodology 42
Introduction 42
Statement of the Problem 43
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses 44
Research Methodology 45

Research Design 47
Population and Sample Selection 48
Quantitative sample size 48
Qualitative sample size 50
Research Materials, Instrumentation OR Sources of Data54
Trustworthiness (for Qualitative Studies) 58
Credibility. 59
Transferability 59
Dependability. 60
Confirmability.61
Validity (for Quantitative Studies) 63
Reliability (for Quantitative Studies) 64
Data Collection and Management 65
Data Analysis Procedures 67
Ethical Considerations 70
Limitations and Delimitations 73
Summary 74
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results 76
Introduction 76
Descriptive Findings 77
Data Analysis Procedures 81
Results 83
Summary 91
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations 94
Introduction and Summary of Study 94
Summary of Findings and Conclusion 95
Implications 98
Theoretical implications. 98
Practical implications 99
Future implications 99
Strengths and weaknesses of the study 99
Recommendations 100
Recommendations for future research 100
Recommendations for future practice. 101
References 104
Appendix A. Site Authorization Letter(s) 108

Appendix B. IRB Approval Letter 109
Appendix C. Informed Consent 110
Appendix D. Copy of Instruments and Permissions Letters to
Use the Instruments 111
Appendix E. Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation
(Quantitative Only) 112
Appendix F. Additional Appendices 113
List of Tables Comment by GCU: This List of Tables has been
set up to update automatically (when you click to do so). The
List of Figures “reads” the style “Table Title,” which should be
used in the text for the table title and subtitle of each table.
Check “Help” in Word on how to update the TOC.
The List of Tables follows the Table of Contents.
The List of Tables is included in the Table of Contents and
shows a Roman numeral page number at the top right. The page
number is right justified with a 1 in. margin on each page. Dot
leaders must be used. The title is bolded.
On the List of Tables, each table title and subtitle will appear
on the same line are single spaced if more than one line, and
double-spaced between entries. See 5.01-5.19 for details and
specifics on Tables and Data Display. The preferences for the
Table of Figures (style for the List of Tables) have been set up
in this template.
The automatic List of Tables (set up here) uses the style “Table
of Figures, which has been formatted to achieve correct single
space/double space formatting.
All tables are numbered with Arabic numerals in the order in
which they are first mentioned. [5.05]
Table 1. Correct Formatting for a Multiple Line Table Title is
Single Spacing and

Should Look Like this Example 79
Table 2. Equality of Emotional Intelligence Mean Scores by
Gender 85
Table 3. The Servant Leader 87
Note: Single space multiple-line table titles; double space
between entries per example above. The List of Tables and List
of Figures (styled as Table of Figures) have been formatted as
such in this template. Update the List of Tables in the following
manner: [Right click Update Field Update Entire Table], and
the table title and subtitle will show up with the in-text
formatting. After you update your List of Tables, you will need
to manually remove the italics from each of your table titles per
the example above.
List of Figures Comment by GCU: This is an example of a List
of Figures “boiler plate.” Freely edit and adapt this to fit the
particular dissertation. In Word, “overtype” edits and
adaptations.
The List of Figures follows the List of Tables. The title “List of
Figures” is styled as Heading 1.
The List of Figures is included in the Table of Contents (which
will show up automatically since it is styled as Heading 1). and
shows a Roman numeral page number at the top right.
The list of figures has been set up with the style “Table of
Figures,” for which all preferences have been set in this
template (hanging indent tab stop 5.99” right justified with dot
leader).
Figures, in the text of the manuscript, include graphs, charts,
maps, drawings, cartoons, and photographs [5.21]. In the List of
Figures, single-space figure titles and double-space between
entries. This has been set up in the “Table of Figures” style in
this template. See 5.20-5.30 for details and specifics on Figures
and Data Display.

All figures are numbered with Arabic numerals in the order in
which they are first mentioned. [5.05] The figure title included
in the Table of Contents should match the title found in the text.
Note: Captions are written in sentence case unless there is a
proper noun, which is capitalized.
Figure 1. IRB alert. 71
Figure 2. Correlation for SAT composite score and time spent
on Facebook. 88
Note: single-space multiple line figure titles; double-space
between entries per example in List of Tables on previous page.
Use sentence case for figure titles. After you update your List
of Figures, you will need to manually remove the italics per the
example above.
8
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study Comment by GCU:
This heading is styled according to APA Level 1 heading (style:
“Heading 1”) [3.03]. Do not modify or delete as it will impact
your automated table of contents
Introduction Comment by GCU: This heading is styled
according to APA Level 2 heading (style: “Heading 2”) [3.03].
Do not modify or delete as it will impact your automated table
of contents
This section describes what the researcher will investigate,
including the research questions, hypotheses, and basic research
design. The introduction develops the significance of the study
by describing how the study is new or different from other
studies, how it addresses something that is not already known or
has not been studied before, or how it extends prior research on
the topic in some way. This section should also briefly describe
the basic nature of the study and provide an overview of the

contents of Chapter 1.
The GCU Dissertation Template provides the structure for the
GCU dissertation. The template provides important narrative,
instructions, and requirements in each chapter and section.
Learners must read the narrative in each section to fully
understand what is required and also review the section criteria
table which provides exact details on how the section will be
scored. As the learner writes each section, s/he should delete
the narrative and “Help” comments, but leave the criterion
table, after each section, as this is how the committee members
will evaluate the learners work. Additionally, when inserting
their own narrative into the template, leaners should never
remove the headings, as these are already formatted, or
“styled.” Removing the headings will cause the text to have to
be reformatted, that is, you will need to reapply the style.
“Styles” are a feature in Word that defines what the text looks
like on the page. For example, the style “Heading 1, used for
Chapter headings and the List of Tables title, the List of Figures
title, the References title, and the Appendices title, has set up to
conform to APA: bold, double spaced, “keep with next,” Times
New Roman 12. In addition, the automatic TOC “reads” these
styles so that the headings show up in the TOC and exactly
match those in the text.
The navigation pane in Word shows the first and second level
headings that will appear in the Table of Contents. To access
the navigation pane, click on Home in a Word document>View
Pane. Learners should consult their course e-books for
additional guidance on constructing the various sections of the
template (e.g., Grand Canyon University, 2015, 2016, 2017a,
2017b).
Learners should keep in mind that they will write Chapters 1
through 3 as the dissertation proposal. However, there are
changes that typically need to be made in these chapters to
enrich the content or to improve the readability as the final
dissertation manuscript is written. Often, after data analysis is
complete, the first three chapters will need revisions to reflect a

more in-depth understanding of the topic and to ensure
consistency. Engaging in scholarly writing, understanding the
criterion rubrics, and focusing on continuous improvement will
help facilitate timely progression. Comment by GCU: Include
one space after the final sentence punctuation in the
dissertation.
To ensure the quality of both the proposal and final dissertation
and reduce the time for AQR reviews, writing needs to reflect
doctoral level, scholarly-writing standards from the very first
draft. Each section within the proposal or dissertation should be
well organized and easy for the reader to follow. Each
paragraph should be short, clear, and focused. A paragraph
should (1) be three to eight sentences in length, (2) focus on
one point, topic, or argument, (3) include a topic sentence the
defines the focus for the paragraph, and (4) include a transition
sentence to the next paragraph. Include one space after each
period. There should be no grammatical, punctuation, sentence
structure, or APA formatting errors. Verb tense is an important
consideration for Chapters 1 through 3. For the proposal, the
researcher uses future tense (e.g., “The purpose of this proposed
study is to…”), whereas in the dissertation, the chapters are
revised to reflect past tense (e.g., “The purpose of this study
was to…”). Taking the time to ensure high-quality, scholarly
writing for each draft will save learners time in all the steps of
the development and review phases of the dissertation process.
As a doctoral researcher, it is the learner’s responsibility to
ensure the clarity, quality, and correctness of their writing and
APA formatting. The DC Network provides various resources to
help learners improve their writing. Grand Canyon University
also offers writing tutoring services through the Center for
Learning Advancement on writing basics; however, the writing
tutors do not provide any level of dissertation editing. The chair
and committee members are not obligated to edit documents.
Additionally, the AQR reviewers will not edit the proposal or
dissertation. If learners do not have outstanding writing skills,
they may need to identify a writing coach, editor, and/or other

resource to help with writing and editing. Poorly-written
proposals and dissertations will be immediately suspended in
the various levels of review if submitted with grammatical,
structural, and/or form-and-formatting errors.
The quality of a dissertation is evaluated on the quality of
writing and based on the criteria that GCU has established for
each section of the dissertation. The criteria describe what must
be addressed in each section within each chapter. As learners
develop a section, first read the section description. Then,
review each criterion contained in the table below the
description. Learners use both the overall description and
criteria as they write each section. Address each listed criterion
in a way that it is clear to the chair and committee members.
Learners should be able to point out where each criterion is met
in each section.
Prior to submitting a draft of the proposal or dissertation or a
single chapter to the chair or committee members, learners
should assess the degree to which each criterion has been met.
Use the criteria table at the end of each section to complete this
self-assessment. The following scores reflect the readiness of
the document:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions
Are Required. Comment by GCU: Format with style “List
Bullet.”
Numbered or bulleted lists are indented .25 inch from the left
margin. Subsequent lines are indented further with a hanging
indent of .25” per the example in the text. Each number or
bullet ends with a period. Bullet lists use “List Bullet” Style.
Numbered lists use “List Number” Style.
Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations.
3 = Item is Exemplary. No Revisions Required.
Sometimes the chair and committee members will score the
work “between” numbers, such as a 1.5 or 2.5. The important

thing to remember is that a minimum score of 2 is required on
each criterion on the prospectus, proposal and dissertation
before one can move to the next step. A good guideline to
remember is that learners are not finished with the dissertation
until the dean signs the cover page.
Learners need to continuously and objectively self-
evaluate the quality of writing and content for each section
within the proposal or dissertation. Learners will score their
work using the learner column in the criteria tables as evidence
that they have critically evaluated their own work. When
learners have completed a realistic, comprehensive self-
evaluation of their work, then they may submit the document to
the chair for review. Rating work as all 3’s will indicate that the
learner has not done this. The chair will also review and score
each section of the proposal and dissertation and will determine
when it is ready for full committee review. Keep in mind the
committee review process will likely require several
editorial/revisions rounds, so plan for multiple revision cycles
as learners develop their dissertation completion plan and
project timeline. Notice the tables that certain columns have an
X in the scoring box. As mentioned above, the chair will score
all five chapters, the abstract and the reference list; the
methodologist is only required to score Chapters 1, 3, and 4 and
the abstract; the content expert is only required to score
Chapters 1, 2, and 5 and the abstract. The chair and committee
members will assess each criterion in their required chapters
when they return the document with feedback.
Once the document has been fully scored and approved by the
chair and committee, and is approved for Level 2 or 5 review,
the chair will submit one copy of the proposal or dissertation
document with the fully scored assessment tables and one copy
of the document with the assessment tables removed for AQR
review. Refer to the Dissertation Milestone Guide for
descriptions of levels of review and submission process.
Criterion
*(Score = 0, 1, 2, or 3)

Learner Score
Chair Score
Methodologist Score
Content Expert Score
Introduction
This section provides a brief overview of the research focus or
problem, explains why this study is worth conducting, and
discusses how this study will be completed. (Minimum three to
four paragraphs or approximately one page)
Dissertation topic is introduced and value of conducting the
study is discussed.
Discussion provides an overview of what is contained in the
chapter.
Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a logical
flow, uses correct paragraph structure, uses correct sentence
structure, uses correct punctuation, and uses correct APA
format.
*Score each requirement listed in the criteria table using the
following scale:
0 = Item Not Present or Unacceptable. Substantial Revisions are
Required.
Required.
2 = Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations. Some Revisions

May be Suggested or Required.
3 = Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions are Required.
Reviewer Comments:
Background of the Study Comment by GCU: This heading uses
the style “Heading 2” [3.03].
The background section of Chapter 1 describes the recent
history of the problem under study. It provides a summary of
results from the prior empirical research on the topic. First, the
learner identifies the need for the study, referred to as a gap,
which the dissertation study will address. Strategies learners
can use to identify a need or gap include:
Using results from prior studies.
Using recommendations for further study.
Using societal problems documented in the literature.
Using broad areas of research in current empirical articles.
Using needs identified in three to five research studies
(primarily from the last three years.
Next, the learner builds an argument or justification for the
current study by presenting a series of logical arguments, each
supported with citations from the literature. This need, called a
gap, developed from the literature, is the basis for creating the
problem statement. A local need is appropriate for a study.
However, the learner needs to situate the “need” or problem by
…
The Internalization of the Strong Black Woman Schema and
Mental Health Help-Seeking
Submitted by

Breanna Marie Fulton
A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment
of the Requirements for the Degree
Doctorate of Education
Phoenix, Arizona
August 15, 2018
ProQuest Number:
All rights reserved
INFORMATION TO ALL USERS
The quality of this reproduction is dependent upon the quality

of the copy submitted.
In the unlikely event that the author did not send a complete
manuscript
and there are missing pages, these will be noted. Also, if
material had to be removed,
a note will indicate the deletion.
ProQuest
Published by ProQuest LLC ( ). Copyright of the Dissertation
is held by the Author.
This work is protected against unauthorized copying under
Title 17, United States Code
Microform Edition © ProQuest LLC.
ProQuest LLC.
789 East Eisenhower Parkway
P.O. Box 1346
Ann Arbor, MI 48106 - 1346
10932389
10932389
2018

© by Breanna Marie Fulton, 2018
GRAND CANYON UNIVERSITY
The Internalization of the Strong Black Woman Schema and
Mental Health Help-Seeking
I verify that my dissertation represents original research, is not
falsified or plagiarized,

and that I accurately reported, cited, and referenced all sources
within this manuscript in
strict compliance with APA and Grand Canyon University
(GCU) guidelines. I also
verify my dissertation complies with the approval(s) granted for
this research
investigation by GCU Institutional Review Board (IRB).
_____________________________________________
______________________
Breanna Marie Fulton Date
Abstract
The purpose of this quantitative correlational research was to
determine if, and to what
extent, a correlation existed between the internalization of the
Strong Black Woman
schema and attitudes toward mental health help-seeking in

Black women aged 18-65 in the
Southern region of the United States. Data were collected from
153 Black women utilizing
the Strong Black Woman Attitudes Scale to measure
internalization of the Strong Black
Woman schema. The Inventory of Attitudes Toward Seeking
Mental Health Services
measured attitudes toward mental health help-seeking. This
study utilized gender schema
theory and the Theory of Planned Behavior as the theoretical
framework. The guiding
research questions analyzed using Spearman’s rho correlation
were: (1)Is there a
correlation between internalization of the Strong Black Woman
schema and attitudes
toward mental health help-seeking, (2) Is there a correlation
between the internalization of
the Strong Black Woman schema and psychological openness,
(3) Is there a correlation
between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema
and help-seeking
propensity, (4) Is there a correlation between internalization of
the Strong Black Woman
schema and indifference to stigma. Results of research question

one found a significant
correlation, rs (153) =.230, p = .005; two-tailed. Results of
research question three
suggested a significant correlation propensity, rs (153) =.281, p
= .001; two-tailed. This
research may be significant for mental health care providers to
gather a more complete
framework for understanding how internalization of the Strong
Black Woman schema may
influence mental health help-seeking behaviors.
Keywords: Strong Black Woman schema, mental health, help-
seeking attitudes,
gender schema theory
vi
Dedication
First, I give honor to the Most High. It is your word, “For I
know the plans I have
for you,” declares the Lord, “plans to prosper you and not to
harm you, plans to give you
hope and a future” (Jeremiah 29:11, NIV) that motivated me to

apply to this program. It
has been your promise, “And we know that in all things God
works for the good of those
who love him, who have been called according to his purpose”
(Romans 8:28, NIV) that
has sustained me to see it to the end of this journey.
To my mother, please know that I am eternally grateful for
every sacrifice that
you have made for me since I formed in your womb. Thank you
for continuously keeping
me lifted in prayer, as well as showering me with your love and
support. To my
grandmother and Aunt Faith, I am tremendously thankful for
every reminder that I am
capable, phenomenal, and inspirational. To the one my heart
beats for, Lee, you have
been the most amazing support system throughout this arduous
process. Thank you for
standing by me during numerous hours of research and writing,
believing and pushing me
to continue when I felt like pushing my computer on the floor
and giving up, and for
reminding me of my divine purpose and dopeness. For these
reasons and countless more,

I love you beyond measure. To my siblings, Reginald and
Jazmine, your faith in my
abilities mean more to me than you will ever be able to
comprehend. Finally, to every
Black woman on this planet, may you always walk in your
purpose, remember your
magic, bend but never break, and never lose your spirit or your
sparkle for you are
fearfully and wonderfully made.
vii
Acknowledgments
I would like to acknowledge my phenomenal committee
including Dr. Tibbs, Dr.
Pernsteiner, and Dr. Robinson. I truly appreciate all the
knowledge, patience, and
persistence that you have given me. I am grateful to have you
all as my doctoral
cheerleaders.

I would like to extend a special acknowledgement to my
Georgian Hills family
for their support. Principal Dandridge, Dean Miller, and Ms.
Washington were always
around to give me that special dose of encouragement that I
needed to get my life
together and persevere. Thank you O’Neal and Robinson for
consistently motivating me
to get this done and reminding me how awesome graduation will
be when the process is
finally over.
Also, I would like to acknowledge Dr. Segura and the English
department at
Alcorn State University. It is the time that I spent beneath the
shade of giant trees with
those wonderful professors that motivated me to pursue this
journey. Thank you for
sharpening my reading, writing, and critical thinking skills.
Dr. Whitfield, thank you for all your help throughout this
process. Without your
knowledge and expertise, I wouldn’t be where I am today.
Finally, I want to extend my
gratitude to every family member, friend, soror, and colleague

that offered me
encouragement and motivation on the days that I needed it the
most.
viii
Table of Contents
List of Tables
...............................................................................................
..................... xii
List of Figures
...............................................................................................
................... xiii
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
....................................................................................1
Introduction
...............................................................................................
.....................1
Background of the Study
...............................................................................................
3
Problem Statement

...............................................................................................
..........6
Purpose of the Study
...............................................................................................
.......7
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses
.........................................................................9
Advancing Scientific Knowledge and Significance of the Study
................................12
Rationale for Methodology
..........................................................................................15
Nature of the Research Design for the Study
...............................................................16
Definition of
Terms.....................................................................................
.................18
Assumptions, Limitations, Delimitations
....................................................................21
Summary and Organization of the Remainder of the Study
........................................22
Chapter 2: Literature Review
.............................................................................................2
5
Introduction to the Chapter and Background to the Problem
......................................25

Identification of the Gap
..............................................................................................
27
Theoretical Foundation
...............................................................................................
.30
Review of the Literature
..............................................................................................
34
The strong black woman in contrast to white women.
.......................................35
Strong black woman schema.
.............................................................................37
Role strain and the strong black woman schema.
...............................................43
Mental health help-seeking.
................................................................................46
ix
Measurements of help-seeking attitudes.
............................................................49
Health disparities in the black community.
........................................................51

Discrimination based disparities.
........................................................................51
Medical
distrust....................................................................................
...............54
Psychological distress in black women.
.............................................................55
Coping strategies of black women.
.....................................................................57
Religious coping.
...............................................................................................
.62
Methodology.
...............................................................................................
.......63
Instrumentation.
...............................................................................................
...65
Summary
...............................................................................................
.......................68
Chapter 3: Methodology
...............................................................................................
.....73
Introduction
...............................................................................................
...................73

Statement of the Problem
.............................................................................................7
4
Research Questions and/or Hypotheses
.......................................................................75
Research Methodology
...............................................................................................
.78
Research
Design....................................................................................
.......................79
Population and Sample
Selection.................................................................................
80
Instrumentation
...............................................................................................
.............83
Validity
...............................................................................................
.........................85
Reliability
...............................................................................................
......................86
Data Collection and Management
................................................................................87
Data Analysis Procedures

............................................................................................8
9
Ethical Considerations
...............................................................................................
..94
Limitations and Delimitations
......................................................................................95
x
Summary
.......................................................................................... .....
.......................98
Chapter 4: Data Analysis and Results
..............................................................................100
Introduction
......................................................................................... ......
.................100
Descriptive Findings
...............................................................................................
...102
Descriptive Statistics
............................................................................... ................
...105
Data Analysis Procedures

..........................................................................................11
1
Instrument Reliability for the Sample
........................................................................122
Results
...............................................................................................
.........................125
Research question one/hypothesis one.
............................................................126
Research question two/hypothesis two.
............................................................127
Research question three/hypothesis three.
........................................................127
Research Question Four/Hypothesis Four.
.......................................................127
Summary
...............................................................................................
.....................128
Chapter 5: Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations
............................................129
Introduction and Summary of Study
..........................................................................129
Summary of Findings and Conclusion
.......................................................................133
Correlation of internalization of the strong Black woman

toward mental health help-seeking.
..................................................................134
schema and
psychological
openness.................................................................................
....135
schema and help-
seeking propensity.
...........................................................................................13
5
schema and
indifference to stigma.
......................................................................................136
Implications............................................................................
....................................137
Theoretical implications.
..................................................................................137
xi

Practical implications.
.......................................................................................138
Future implications.
..........................................................................................13
9
Strengths and weaknesses of the study.
............................................................139
Recommendations
...............................................................................................
.......142
Recommendations for future research
..............................................................142
Recommendations for future practice.
..............................................................144
References 146
Appendix A. Site Authorization Letter
............................................................................179
Appendix B. IRB Approval Letter
...................................................................................180
Appendix C. Informed Consent
.......................................................................................181
Appendix D. Copy of Instruments and Permission Letters to Use
the Instruments ........183
Appendix E. Power Analyses for Sample Size Calculation

............................................188
Appendix F. Data Source Table
.......................................................................................190
List of Tables
Table 1. Dimensions of the Strong Black Woman Schema
.............................................. 8
Table 2. Dimensions of Attitudes toward Mental Health Help-
Seeking .......................... 8
Table 3. Age
Group.....................................................................................
................... 103
Table 4. Marital Status
...............................................................................................
.... 104
Table 5. Education Level
...............................................................................................
104
Table 6. Household Income
...........................................................................................

105
Table 7. Descriptive
Statistics.................................................................................
....... 106
Table 8. Shapiro-Wilk Normality Test
Results.............................................................. 112
Table 9. Reliability Coefficients
.................................................................................... 122
Table 10. Correlation Matrix
................................................................................ .........
126
xiii
List of Figures
Figure 1. Internalization of the strong Black woman schema.
....................................... 107
Figure 2. Black/African American females’ attitudes toward
mental health help-seeking.
...............................................................................................
.......................... 108

Figure 3. The psychological openness of Black/African
American females. ................. 109
Figure 4. The help-seeking propensity of Black/African
American females. ................ 110
Figure 5. The indifference to stigma of Black/African American
females. .................... 111
Figure 6. Normal histogram for internalization of the strong
Black woman schema. .... 113
Figure 7. Histogram for attitude toward mental health help-
seeking. ............................ 114
Figure 8. Box and whisker plot for attitude toward mental health
help-seeking. ........... 115
Figure 9. Histogram for psychological openness.
........................................................... 116
Figure 10. Box and whisker plot for psychological openness.
....................................... 117
Figure 11. Histogram for help-seeking propensity.
........................................................ 118
Figure 12. Box and whisker plot for help-seeking propensity.
....................................... 119
Figure 13. Histogram for indifference to stigma.
........................................................... 120
Figure 14. Box and whisker plot for indifference to stigma.
.......................................... 121

1
Chapter 1: Introduction to the Study
Introduction
A myriad of factors may impact the mental health of women in
the United States.
Yet, Black women in the United States have high rates of
exposure to stressors that can
negatively influence their mental health (Lacey et al., 2015).
However, cultural-based
notions may determine if individuals seek mental health help
(Campbell & Long, 2014).
Current research characterizes the Strong Black Woman schema
as a culturally imposed
notion of emotional resilience and has been explored as one
possible coping mechanism
for African American women (Hamin, 2008; Romero, 2000;
Thompson, 2003).

The aim of dissertation study was to determine if, and to what
extent, a correlation
existed between the internalization of the Strong Black Woman
toward mental health help-seeking. This research was based on
the premise that mental
health services are underutilized in the Black community even
after removing
socioeconomic barriers such as transportation and cost of care
(Jimenez, Cook, Bartels, &
Alegría, 2013). The assertion by Jimenez et al. (2013) suggests
that even when barriers to
accessing care are eliminated, mental health services are still
being underutilized in the
Black community.
Although mental health underutilization has been noted, there is
a shortage of
literature regarding the role of cultural factors in the decision to
seek mental health help
(Abrams, Maxwell, Pope, & Belgrave, 2014; Watson & Hunter,
2015; Watson & Hunter,
2016). Additionally, Donovan and West (2015) suggested that
researchers further
examine the correlation between the Strong Black Woman

schema and mental health
given the negative implications of the endorsement of the
schema implied by the results
2
of their study regarding the schema and stress. Further, Watson-
Singleton (2017)
recommended that future research be conducted to assess the
Strong Black Woman
schema’s impact on Black women’s health experiences.
Consequently, this dissertation
research expanded the knowledge base of mental health help-
seeking attitudes and the
Strong Black Woman schema using quantitative measures.
Watson and Hunter (2015) suggested that additional studies
regarding the Strong
Black Woman schema be conducted among women of various
socioeconomic,
educational, and regional backgrounds. As a result, this research
provides a unique
perspective because it utilized data from a range of age groups
and diverse backgrounds.

Additionally, the researcher explored the possibility of cultural
factors, such as gender
role schemas, playing a role in the underutilization of mental
health services. The results
of this research are valuable because it offers a platform for
future research to further
evaluate the Strong Black Woman schema and its correlation to
mental health-help-
seeking. Since the Strong Black Woman schema has been
associated with mental and
physical outcomes (Black & Woods-Giscombé, 2012),
understanding the internalization
of the schema may allow mental health professionals to improve
effectiveness and
cultural appropriateness of health care delivery service to Black
women. Furthermore,
this research provides value to the literature and expands the
knowledge base by
extending research on the Strong Black Woman schema from a
perspective that has not
been explored sufficiently.
Chapter 1 provides an introduction and rationale for the need to
investigate the

correlation between the Strong Black Woman schema and help-
seeking attitudes.
Additionally, it contains a review of previously conducted
empirical research which
3
indicates a knowledge gap in the literature. Further, the purpose
statement for this study,
the research questions, and hypotheses stated for this study are
based on the
internalization of the Strong Black Woman schema and
dimensions of the Inventory of
Attitudes toward Seeking Mental Health Service (Mackenzie,
Knox, Gekoski, &
Macaulay, 2004).
Each research question focuses on the correlation between the
internalization of
the Strong Black Woman schema and attitudes toward mental
health help-seeking.
Chapter 1 includes the background of the study, states the
research problem and purpose,
presents the research questions and hypotheses, and provides

the rationale for the
research methodology and design. The significance of the study
and advancing scientific
knowledge are also discussed in Chapter 1. In addition, the
researcher defines key terms
and discusses the assumptions, limitations, and delimitations of
this study. Finally,
Chapter 1 concludes with a summary.
Background of the Study
Researchers have suggested that the Strong Black Woman
schema can be traced
to slavery and remains pervasive due to the adversities that
Black women experience,
such as financial hardship and primary caretaking
responsibilities (Romero, 2000;
Thomas, Witherspoon, & Speight, 2004). The capture and
subsequent enslavement of
Africans thrust them into an unfamiliar context and culture.
However, many Africans
retained their cultural norms and values as Rodgers-Rose (1980)
pointed out in her
overview of the history of Black women. Consequently, many of
the social norms of

African womanhood were passed down within the new cultural
context of slavery and
servitude.
4
Because of the genesis in slavery, the Strong Black Woman
schema relies heavily
on a discourse of strength. The discourse of strength mirrors the
primary factors of self-
reliance, caretaking, and affects regulation as identified by
Romero (2000) and validated
in a scale by Thompson (2003) and Hamin (2008). The concept
of strength, although
generally acknowledged and accepted within the Black cultural
context as positive
(Watson & Hunter, 2015), can also be associated with
detrimental psychological
outcomes for those attempting to embody this ideal of
womanhood (Donovan & West,
2015).
During slavery, Black women found themselves not only
responsible for taking

care of their own families and children in the community, but
also acting as caretaker in
the slave master’s household (Rodgers-Rose, 1980). Performing
the primary caretaking
roles in the slave master’s household called for frequent contact
with the master’s family.
It is this recurring contact that may have contributed to the
development of the third
component of the Strong Black Woman schema—a need to
control the expression of
negative feelings.
Black women in captivity did not have the opportunity to
express all the pain,
anger and negative emotions that resulted from their societal
position (Broussard, 2013).
Throughout slavery, the Black woman may have developed a
façade to mask the true
feelings associated with the subservient position as an enslaved
person. Robinson (1983)
detailed the ways the enslaved African woman suffered abuse,
exploitation, and
oppression at the hands of her enslavers. Not only was she
expected to perform the same

back-breaking work as a man, for as long as a man, but she was
also subject to sexual
abuse, physical violence, and the constant threat of the
disintegration of her family at the
5
behest of her enslavers. Therefore, Black women concealing
their true feelings may have
developed as a coping mechanism in response to the double bind
of experiencing abuse
and oppression while simultaneously having to mask emotional
vulnerability (Broussard,
2013).
The ideal of independence as a pertinent characteristic of Black
women has been
reflected in both past and present social contexts and reflects
cultural expectations as well
as social and economic realities (Wallace, Moore, & Curtis,
2014). Contemporary Black
women descended from women who maintained heavy work
ethics and independence
(Robinson, 1983). Thus, the context of slavery potentially

exacerbated the traits of
independence and strength. Black men had little opportunity to
effectively protect their
women or their families. Accordingly, these factors necessitated
the Black woman’s need
to rely on herself (Hurt, McElroy, Sheats, Landor, & Bryant,
2014).
The self-reliance, caretaking, and affect regulation
characteristics of the Strong
Black Woman schema may correlate to the underutilization of
mental health services in
the Black community. Considering the current underutilization
of mental health services
in the Black community, researchers have conducted qualitative
research regarding the
association of health outcomes along the intersection of race
and gender (Abrams et al.,
2014; Thomas, Hoxha, & Hacker, 2013). Although some
research was conducted,
Abrams et al. (2014), Watson-Singleton (2017), and Watson and
Hunter (2015) identified
the need for future studies to assess the correlation between the
internalization of the
Strong Black Woman schema and mental health help-seeking

behaviors among various
socioeconomic, educational, and regional backgrounds.
6
Problem Statement
It was not known if, and to what extent, there were statistically
significant
correlations between the internalization of the Strong Black
Woman schema and attitudes
toward mental health help-seeking. Given that the core
expectations of the Strong Black
Woman schema include self-reliance, caretaking, and affect
regulation, Black women
may feel that seeking mental health help is inconsistent with
their culture (Turner et al.,
2016). Although prior studies show that there is a negative link
between the Strong Black
Woman schema and depression in middle class Black women,
hardly any quantitative
studies have been conducted regarding Black women’s attitudes
toward seeking mental

health help using women ages 18-65 which indicates a gap in
the literature (Abrams et
al., 2014; Donovan & West, 2015; Watson & Hunter, 2015;
Watson & Hunter, 2016;
Watson-Singleton, 2017). Black women in the southern region
of the United States ages
18-65 were used as the unit of analysis for this research.
This research may assist in closing the gap regarding the Strong
Black …
32
Dissertation Prospectus
Factors Influencing Individuals' Decision to Utilize Mental
Health in South Texas
Submitted by:
James Dada
March 7, 2020

The Prospectus Overview and Instructions
Prospectus Instructions:
1. Read the entire Prospectus Template to understand the
requirements for writing your prospectus. Each section contains
a narrative overview of what should be included in the section
and a table with required criteria for each section. WRITE TO
THE CRITERIA, as they will be used to assess the prospectus
for overall quality and feasibility of your proposed research
study.
2. As you draft each section, delete the narrative instructions
and insert your work related to that section. Use the criterion
table for each section to ensure that you address the
requirements for that particular section. Do not delete/remove
the criterion table as this is used by you and your committee to
evaluate your prospectus.
3. Prior to submitting your prospectus for review by your chair
or methodologist, use the criteria table for each section to
complete a realistic self-evaluation, inserting what you believe
is your score for each listed criterion into the Learner Self-
Evaluation column. This is an exercise in self-evaluation and
critical reflection, and to ensure that you completed all sections,
addressing all required criteria for that section.
4. The scoring for the criteria ranges from a 0-3 as defined
below. Complete a realistic and thoughtful evaluation of your
work. Your chair and methodologist will also use the criterion
tables to evaluate your work.
5. Your Prospectus should be no longer than 6-10 pages when
the tables are deleted.
0
Item Not Present
1

Item is Present. Does Not Meet Expectations. Revisions are
Required: Not all components are present. Large gaps are
present in the components that leave the reader with significant
questions. All items scored at 1 must be addressed by learner
per reviewer comments.
2
Item is Acceptable. Meets Expectations.Some Revisions May Be
Required Now or in the Future. Component is present and
adequate. Small gaps are present that leave the reader with
questions. Any item scored at 2 must be addressed by the
learner per the reviewer comments.
3
Item Exceeds Expectations. No Revisions Required. Component
is addressed clearly and comprehensively. No gaps are present
that leave the reader with questions. No changes required.
Dissertation Prospectus
Introduction
Mental health is a major issue around the World. The United
Nations (UN, 2015), has identified the issue as one of its
Sustainable Development Goals. These are a collection of goals

designed globally that aim to achieve a sustainable future for
all. The UN expressed its uncertainty regarding the extent to
which major social determinants of mental disorders are being
addressed worldwide (WHO, 2015). Developing a conceptual
framework will address the social determinants and align it with
its sustainable development goals. This way it can
systematically review the pieces of evidence about the social
determinants and identify potential mechanisms and targets for
interventions (Lund, et.al, 2018). According to the Substance
Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration (SAMHSA),
the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention (CDC) and the
U.S. Department of Justice, millions of people suffer from
mental illness in this country. The high numbers necessitate
raising public awareness and start campaigning for a much
better health care system (Hamilton.et.al, 2016). According to
the National Alliance on Mental Health (2019), in 2018, 47.6
million people in the U.S. experienced mental illness which
means 1 in every 5 adults. 11.4 million Adults between ages 25
and 35 had an episode of serious mental illness in the same
year. In 2016, 7.7 million youths aged 6-17 experienced some
sort of mental health disorder, while 9.2 million people were
reported to have experienced substance use disorder (National
Alliance on Mental Illness, 2019).
According to Kohn, et al (2018), there is an emphasis on the
gap in mental health treatment in America when examined
through the prevalence of mental health disorders, the use of
mental health services, and the global burden of disease.
Statistical data from community-based surveys of mental
disorders in the various countries in America including
Argentina, Brazil, Canada, Chile, and the United States, etc.
were utilized. While 42.6% of children and adolescents in the
US suffered mental illness, the treatment gap in this group was
64%. The need to address the issue of mental health has not
been given enough attention resulting in the wide gap in
treatment. Mental disorders in children can be corrected if
detected early enough. Unfortunately, most of the caregivers do

not have the skills to detect these disorders causing them to
advance (Kohn et al, 2018).
According to Bowdoin et al (2018), a patient-centered medical
home (PCMH) is a model meant for improving health outcomes
while at the same time meant to contain the cost of care. In this
study, I will examine the links between care provided
inconsistent with the PCMH and healthcare services utilization
as well as expenditures for non-aging citizens who are suffering
from mental illness in the United States. 6908 non-aging adults
suffering from mental illness participated in the 2007-2012
Medical Expenditure Panel Survey. Utilization of healthcare
services was compared with expenditures on care consistent
with the PCMH, other participants include a non-PCMH, usual
source of care (USC), and participants without a USC. The
outcome showed differences in utilization and expenditures
between participants who were provided with care consistent
with the PCMH and those who had a non-PCMH. USC showed
no statistical importance for any healthcare services category.
This research study will examine the factors according to
mental health providers that influence an individuals' decision
to utilize mental health services in South Texas. This research
will help us understand why individuals choose to or not to
utilize mental health services in the state.
Criteria
Learner Self-Evaluation Score
(0-3)
Chair Evaluation Score
(0-3)
Reviewer Score
(0-3)
Introduction
This section briefly overviews the research focus or problem,
why this study is worth conducting, and how this study will be
completed.

The recommended length for this section is two to three
paragraphs.
1. Dissertation topic is introduced along with why the study is
needed.
2. Provides a summary of results from the prior empirical
research on the topic.
3. Using results, societal needs, recommendations for further
study, or needs identified in three to five research studies
(primarily from the last three years), the learner identifies the
stated need, called a gap
4. Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a
APA format.
NOTE: This Introduction section elaborates on the Topic from
the 10 Strategic Points. This Introduction section provides the
foundation for the Introduction section in Chapter 1 of the
Proposal.
Reviewer Comments:
Background of the Problem
According to the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention
(2018), mental health has become a significant public health

issue in the United States that requires immediate attention. A
mental disorder must be diagnosed at its early stages to avoid
the advance effects of it progressing into adolescence (Kohn et
al, 2018). According to Grayson (2018), there has been a
notable difference in how patients utilize mental health services
with patients that experience a high level of burden more likely
to utilize mental health services. Similarly, the caregivers that
experience serious signs of depression or anxiety in their child
or adolescent will tend to use the services more than the
caregivers who experience mild or no sign of depression or
anxiety. The mental health status of the caregiver is of no
significance and does not influence need and utilization
(Grayson, 2016).
Misra et al (2017) in their article describe the concept relating
to the use of complementary and alternative medicine (CAM)
for mental health treatment among children in the Southern
State Region. According to the authors, CAM use among US
children stands at 12%. The Southern State Region has placed a
lot of effort into improving the health care treatment of
children. The services offered are directly proportional to the
allocation provided. Research showed that some institutions
have released a lot of funds to run this sector and that the
Sothern State Region receives the second-largest allocation for
mental health (Mista et al, 2017). Despite all these efforts, there
still exists a gap between the treatment of mental health
disorders in the US.
Criteria
Learner Self-Evaluation Score
(0-3)
Chair or Score
(0-3)
Reviewer Score
(0-3)
Background of the Problem
This section uses the literature to provide the reader with a

definition and statement of the research gap and problem the
study will address. This section further presents a brief
historical perspective of when the problem started and how it
has evolved over time.
The recommended length for this section is two-three
paragraphs.
1. Includes a brief discussion demonstrating how literature has
established the gap and a clear statement informing the reader
of the gap.
2
2. Discusses how the “need” or “defined gap” has evolved
historically into the current problem or opportunity to be
addressed by the proposed study (citing seminal and/or current
research).
2
3. ALIGNMENT: The problem statement for the dissertation
will be developed from and justified by the “need” or “defined
gap” that is described in this section and supported by the
empirical research literature published within the past 3-5 years.
2
4. Section is written in a way that is well structured, has a
APA format.
2
NOTE: This Background of the Problem section uses
information from the Literature Review in the 10 Strategic

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