4. The Nature
of
Managerial
Work
(1973)
Pengambilan keputusan hanyalah sebagian kecil
dari apa yang mereka lakukan.
Mereka tertarik dan menaruh kepercayaan pada
media lisan.
Mereka menghabiskan banyak waktu untuk
berinteraksi—berbicara, membujuk,
menenangkan, menjual, mendengarkan—dengan
beragam pihak di dalam dan di luar organisasi.
6. Basic Dimensions of the Job
• External and Internal Activities
• Strategy Formulation, Implementation,
and Context Creation
• formulation of company strategy.
• Allocating resources, establishing
policies and programs.
• staffing, reward and measurement
systems, culture and style.
• Substance and Symbols
7. Do Managers Matter? A
Doubtful View
• Top executives have far less effect on
organizations than do other factors.
• Ada batasan legitimasi.
• 6.5 and 14.5 percent of variance in the three
performance measures examined. “In short, all
three performance variables are affected by
forces beyond a leader’s immediate control”
(Lieberson and O’Connor 1972).
• Only 5 percent of variance in return on assets
(Bertrand and Schoar (2003).
• Effect of leaders is small (Weber et al. 2001)
8. Do Managers Matter? A Positive View
• Problems with Lieberson and O’Connor’s Study
• Significant associations between executive attributes or succession and
organizational performance.
• General manager expertise were associated with business performance,
depending on the strategy being pursued by the business.
• Top management teams composed of members of diverse tenures
outperformed those with more homogeneous tenures.
• Values held by top management teams affected their organizations’
subsequent degree of innovation.
• Chief executive personality influenced the structure of the organization.
• A new chief executive comes from inside or outside the organization
affects how much organizational change will occur.
9. Managerial
Discretion
• Product differentiability
• Market growth
• Demand instability
• Low capital intensity
• Monopolistic and purely competitive industry structures (as
opposed to oligopolies)
• Absence of legal and quasi-legal constraints (e.g., regulation)
• Absence of powerful outside forces (e.g., large, concentrated
customers, suppliers, funding sources)
Environmental,
• Volatility, Uncertainty, Complexity, and Observability
• Managers can create or select activities in which they have
greater opportunities to have an impact on organizational
outcomes.
Organizational
Individual managerial characteristics.
11. Efektif
Managers
Effective managers find and
create options that others
do not have.
When confronted with the
same situation, respond
differently.
• Executive’s locus of control
12. Effects of
Discretion
Discretion makes the executive’s job more complex,
demanding, and risky.
High-technology firms, which tend to be characterized by
greater levels of discretion.
Executive orientations become reflected in organizational
outcomes when High discretion exists, vice versa.
Stronger links between executive characteristics and firm
outcomes.
Low-discretion situations receiving relatively low levels of
pay and little incentive pay.
13. The
Managerial
Mystique
• leadership is a
“perception” that allows
people to make sense
out of organizationally
relevant phenomena.
• the better the
performance, the more
attention is showered on
leaders, vice versa.
• More moderate or
neutral performance was
less likely to be
attributed to the leader.
