Guidelines for Effective Curriculum Development

PART IV · Administration of Programs and Services
Table 13-2 Steps in Curriculum Development
I. Planning the Curriculum
l. Who assigns committee members?
2. What groups are represented within the committee?
3. Who determines priorities. standards, competencies, etc.?
4. How do we identify needs, problems, issues, etc.?
5. Who formulates goals and objectives? What type of goals,
objectives?
II. Implementing the Curriculum
l . Who defines what knowledge is most important?
2. Who decides on instructional materials and media?
3. Who evaluates teachers? What measurement criteria ore
used?
4. Who decides how teachers will be prepared and trained for
the program?
5. Who determines how much money/resources will be made
available?

Ill. Evaluating the Curriculum
l . Who decides how the curriculum will be evaluated?
2. I,A/ho decides on assessment procedures? Tests? And how
ore they to be used?
3. Have our goals and objectives been addressed in the
evaluation?
4. Does the program work? To what extent? How can it be
improved?
5. Who is responsible for reporting the results? To whom?
6. Do we wish to make comparisons or judgments about the
program? Why? Why not?
during the early period and set the stage for the modern
period. 19 Tyler proposed a number of steps in planning
a curriculum, outlined in Figure 13-1, starting with the
goals of the school. These goals would be selected on
the basis of what he called sources of information about
important aspects of contemporary life, subject matter,
and the needs and interests of learners. By analyzing
changing society, at the local, state, or national level, it
could be determined what goals (and also what subject
matter) were most important. By consulting with sub-
ject specialists (as well as teachers), helpful decisions
could be determined about concepts, skills, and tasks to
be taught in the various subjects (reading, math, science,
etc.). By identifying the needs and interests of students,
a beginning point in content, methods, and materials
could be determined. (Hence, Tyler helped popularize
the concept of a needs assessment study.)

Tyler then suggested that the school staff, possibly
organized as a curriculum committee, screen the rec-
ommended goals according to the school's (or school
1"Tyler, Basic Principles of Curriculum and Instruction.
district's) philosophy and beliefs about psychology
learning {or what some might call learning theory .
What resulted from this screening process would be
instructional objectives, more specific than the schoor~
goals and designed for classroom use.
Tyler then proceeded to the selection of learning
experiences that would allow the attainment of obje.::-
tives. Learning experiences would take into account the
developmental stage of the learners, such as their age
and abilities, and consider the learners' background
(present attainments), external environment (classroom
and school), and what the learners did (their behav-
ior) when learning. Tyler next talked about organizing
learning experiences in a systematic way to produce a
maximum, positive effect. Here he elaborated on the
vertical (recurring subject matter such as social studies
from grade to grade) relationship and horizontal (in-
tegration of different subjects at the same grade levei
relationship of curriculum.
Tyler elaborated on the need for evaluation tt''
determine whether the objectives were achieved or the
learning experiences actually produced the intended
results. Also, it was necessary to determine whether
•

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CHAPTER 13 · Curriculum Development and Implementation
ADMINISTRATIVE ADVICE -
Guidelines for Curriculum Development
Below are some guiding statements to help clarify the steps
involved in curriculum development.
These statements are based on school practice and apply to all
curriculum models.
• The curriculum-design committee should include
teachers, parents, and administrators; some schools
might include students, too.
• The committee should establish a sense of mission
or purpose in the early stages or meetings.
• Needs and priorities should be addressed in relation
to students and society.
• School goals and objectives should be reviewed, but
they should not serve as the only guiding criteria
on which to develop the curriculum. Such criteria
should connote a broad educational philosophy to
guide curriculum development.
• Alternative curriculum designs should be contrasted
in terms of advantages and disadvantages such as
cost, scheduling, class size, facilities and personnel
required, existing relationship to present programs,

and so on.
• To help teachers gain insight into a new or modified
design, it should reveal expected cognitive and
affective skills, concepts, and outcomes .
FIGURE 13-1
Tentative
Objective
• Principals have significant impact on curriculum
development through their influence on school
climate and their support of the curriculum process.
• District administrators, especially the superinten-
dent, have only a peripheral impact on curriculum
development because their outlook and concerns
center on managerial activities. Their curriculum
role is minor, but their support and approval are
essential.
• State education officials have even less impact on
curriculum development, although various depart-
ments publish guides, bulletins, and reports that can
be informative. However, these educators establish
policies, rules, and regulations that affect curriculum
and instruction.
• The influence of special interest groups and local
politics should not be underestimated. Polarization
or conflict has frequently obscured reasonable efforts
for reform and meaningful dialogue between educa-
tors and parents in regard to educational matters.
Selecting

Experiences
Evaluation
Organizing the Curriculum-A Behavioral Approach, Based on
the Tyler Model
the curriculum was effective or ineffective and whether
changes should be made or a new curriculum was
warranted.
Although Tyler never introduced his model of cur-
riculum development in a graphic manner, Figure 13-1
helps interpret what he was hoping to achieve. Because
Tyler did not clarify at what level his model could be
used, school district or school level, or whether it was
a top-down (line staff) model or bottom-up (teacher
empowerment) model, it can be applied to both
External Forces
Legal Requirements
Research Data
Professional Associations
State Guidelines
Curriculum I Goalsand ~ Curriculum Design Curriculum l
Objectives Decisions made by f----- Implementation ~
Evaluation
curriculum planners Decisions regarding Decisions assessing
about the instruction by teachers. the effectiveness of
characteristics of Various experiences the curriculum and

Bases of Curriculum a good curriculum: are included in the the
teachers.
Society the content, its curriculum plan so
Learners organization. and that teachers have
Knowledge appropriate learning options.
opportunities.
Feedback and Ad'ustment I
FIGURE 13-2
Managing the Curriculum
Source: Adapted from J. Galen Saylor, William M.Alexander,
and Arthur J. Lewis,
Curriculum Planning for Better Teaching and Learning, 4th ed
(New York: Holt,
Rinehart. 1981 ). pp. 29-30.
orientations. However, at the period of his writings,
the top-down model prevailed in schools: Curriculum
experts usually presented ideas for teachers to develop,
and administrators either supervised or delegated
supervisors to ensure that the ideas were implemented
in the classroom.
Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis:
Managerial Model
Galen Saylor and his colleagues belong to the mana-
gerial school. As former administrators, they were very
clear about the lines of authority and the need for su-
pervisors and administrators to be in charge of the cur-
riculum at the state and local district levels, in terms

of curriculum guidelines and textbook selection, as well
as at the school level, in terms of subjects for study on
the basis of grade levels. 20 Saylor saw curriculum as a
general plan, through which particular plans for indi-
vidual programs of studies, courses of study, syllabi,
unit plans, policy statements, handbooks, and learning
packages were used in different parts of the school and
20
]. Galen Saylor, William ;1. Alexander, and Arthur]. Lewis,
Curriculum Planning for Better Teaching and Learning, 4th ed.
(New York: Holt, Rinehart & Winston, 1981).
school district by many groups of people and individu-
als. Curriculum had to be put together or incorporated
as a total package, or curriculum plan, by those in
charge of running the schools.
As Figure 13-2 indicates, a number of consider-
ations enter into the development of curriculum. Goals
and objectives are largely influenced ( 1) by external
forces such as legal requirements, current research, pro-
fessional knowledge, interest groups, and state agen-
cies and (2) by the bases of curriculum such as society.
learners, and knowledge. (These bases were similar to
Tyler's sources, which had originally been elaborated
on by Boyd Bode and John Dewey.)
Agreed on goals and objectives then provide a
basis for curriculum design, that is, a view of teach-
ing and learning. Five different designs are examined:
( 1 )subjectmatter/disciplines,(2)competencies,(3 )human
traits and processes, ( 4) social functions and activities,
and (5) individual needs and interests. A subject matter
design emphasizes the role of knowledge and problem-

solving activities. Specific competencies emphasize
performance objectives, task analysis, and measurable
outcomes. Human traits and processes are concerned
with the learners' feelings, emotions, and values, as
well as the affective domain of learning. A design
that focuses on social functions and activities em-
phasizes the needs of society and, to a lesser extent,
the needs of students. The individual needs and inter-
ests design is concerned with what is relevant to and
motivates learners and what learning experiences
lead to their full potential. Depending on the na-
ture of management, the design can be optional and
chosen by the classroom teacher, or it can be recom-
mended by a school curriculum committee (adminis-
trators, supervisors, and/or teachers) or required by
the central school district. School authorities, however,
rarely require a particular design because curriculum
matters involve teachers as well as possibly students
and parents.
Curriculum implementation is mainly concerned
with instructional activities that facilitate or put in
practice the design. It includes instructional meth-
ods, materials, and resources, often listed in courses
of study, unit plans, and lesson plans and often
observed in classrooms as the teaching and learn-
ing process unfolds. Curriculum implementation
includes supervision of instruction, teacher-supervisor
planning and meetings, as well as staff development
programs. The help teachers receive from resource per-
sonnel, supervisors, and administrators is the basis of

implementation.
Curriculum evaluation involves the procedures for
evaluating student outcomes and the curriculum plan.
Evaluative data become the basis for decision making
and planning among administrators. Administrators
rarely engage in this type of evaluation; rather, they
often delegate it to supervisors or outside consultants
who report their findings to administrators, who in
turn have the option of communicating the findings to
teachers, parents, or the community.
Macdonald: Systems Model
Theory development prior to the 1960s tended to sepa-
rate curriculum and instruction from teaching and learn-
ing. The classic model by James Macdonald showed the
relationship between these four systems, as illustrated
in Figure 13-3. He defined curriculum as a plan for in-
struction as the plan is put into action. Teaching was
defined as the broad behavior of the teacher and learn-
ing as the change in learner.
Another way of explaining the Macdonald model is
the following: Curriculum is planning endeavors that
take place prior to instruction; instruction deals with
teacher-student interaction (usually taking place in the
classroom, library, or laboratory); teaching is the act
of presenting stimuli or cues; and learning involves
FIGURE 13-3
Curriculum
I
Instruction

II
Systematizing the Curriculum
Source: Adapted from James B. Macdonald, "Educa-
tional Models for Instruction," in J. B. Macdonald (ed.).
Theories of Instruction (Washington, DC: Association for
Supervision and Curriculum Developme'!t. 1965), p. 5.
student responses. When appropriate instruction
and teaching take place, desired responses will occur.
When instruction or teaching is inappropriate, dysfunc-
tional or unintended responses will take place.
Most curriculum leaders today agree with the
Macdonald model: Curriculum is viewed as plan-
ning; instruction is seen as implementation; teaching
involves behavior, methods, and/or pedagogy; and
learning connotes desired responses or student actions.
Macdonald's view was easy to understand, a rea-
son for the classic status of the model, and it helped
show the relationship among the four systems. Break-
ing from the previous generation of linear models by
interrelating his systems, Macdonald contended that
curriculum was the heart of the educational enterprise
(note that it represents the largest component in his
system, as per Figure 13-3) in part because everything
that followed was based on this plan and in part be-
cause he was a curriculum theorist-not a professor of
pedagogy or philosophy. Had he been a professor of
educational psychology, Macdonald probably would
have seen teaching and learning as the most important
'

1rio D.
:lfion.
rd
give the
:::>ugh di-
egies for
sis is on
eir lives
;anizing
themes
than on
1d skills
th their
Jr prin-
/es: life
s of the
·.These
lis, and
y form
tde the
1rn in-
r their
s deal
differ-
·sonal
; deal
other
rning
each-
es oi
their

nn:'
out-
~ ot--
) the
fyb
1 the
u is.
Scientific-Aesthetic Model
Elliot Eisner combines scientific and behavioral prin-
ciples with aesthetic components to form a curriculum
planning model. It is more rational and measurable
than one might expect from Eisner who tends to stress
artistic and qualitative forms of education. His model
comprises four major areas of planning: (1) aims and
objectives, (2) curriculum planning, (3) teaching, and
(4) evaluation. Each contains numerous categories, as
shown in Figure 13-5.
Aims and Objectives (Category 1) include
(a) behavioral objectives that can be easily observed
and measured; (b) problem-solving objectives that in-
volve broader concepts and various forms and solu-
tions that cannot be easily measured; and (c) expressive
outcomes-that is, results or qualities (intended or
unintended, attitudinal or artistic) that are not always
rational, predictable, or easy to measure. .
Curriculum Planning (Category 2) includes the mput
and influence of the (a) federal and (b) state agencies,
which provide direction, policies, and money; (c) t~e
school district, which appoints curriculum commit-

tees and personnel for planning content and develop-
ing materials; (d) the teacher's role in planning, such
as choosing topics, textbooks, and other materials to
meet objectives; (e) research centers, which develop
materials, methods, and pilot programs; (f) commercial
publishers, which provide textbooks, materials, and (if
the authors may add) tests; and (g) curriculum develop-
ers, groups, and professional associations, which pre-
scribe content in particular subject areas.
(l)
Aims and Objecti·es
(2)
Curriculum Planning
a. Federal influence
b. State influence
Teaching (Category 3) involves (a) the art of teaching
as expressive and qualitative forms and behaviors;
(b) the difference between teaching and instruction, the
latter of which is more technical and controls content
and classroom activities; and (c) the difference between
teaching and curriculum-in simple Eisner terms,
"curriculum is the content that is taught and teaching is
how the content is taught."
Evaluation (Category 4) is divided into five areas:
(a) diagnose student learning and prescribe treatment;
(b) revise, that is, modify and/or improve the cur-
riculum; (c) compare programs to determine which is
more effective for specific students; (d) identify edu-
cation needs by employing interviews, questionnaires,
and tests in order to justify programs and content; and

(e) determine if objectives have been achieved-to what
extent and whether revisions are needed, or possibly
new objectives are needed.
While Eisner touches on the role of the artist in
curriculum and teaching, it is important to note there is
little discussion today on the contributions of the artist,
musician and filmmaker in shaping curriculum, despite
the fact that the media plays such an important role in
shaping society worldwide. Artists are expected to i~-
spire people and challenge public thinkin~, but their
role is often underrated and undervalued 1n schools,
especially with regard to curriculum making. Read-
ing, math, and science take preference, partially due to
the emphasis on high-stake testing, the traditional no-
tion that reading is the key to academic success, and the
current notion that math and science are essential for a
high-tech and innovative society.
(3)
Teaching
(4)
Evaluation
a. Diagnose
a. Behavioral objectives
b. Problem-solving
objectives
c. District influence a. The art of teaching b. Revise
c. Compare d. Teacher·::. role
c. Expres-.ivc objectives
e. Research centers

f. Commercial publisher~
g. Curriculum de elopers
b. Teaching and instruction
c. Teaching and curriculum d. Identify education need~
e. Determine if objectives
ha·e been achieved
Feedback su1rgested bv evaluation categorie~ such as revising.
comparing. and detem1ining if objectives
have been achieved. Eisner mak6 no mention of feedback
proces~.
FIGURE 13-5
Eisner's Curriculum Planning Model
Source: Adapted from Elliot W. Eisner, The Educational
imagination, 3rd e_d. (Columbus.
OH: Merril. 2002), chs. 6-7. 9-l 0. Diagram and sequencing
have been Interpreted by
the authors.
,
component. Similarly, had he been a professor of
supervision or administration, he might have viewed
supervision (or supervision of instruction) as more
important than curriculum, or curriculum as a subcom-
ponent or one aspect of the larger field of educational
leadership. Indeed, a person's professional background
and knowledge base determines his or her view of what
is essential or secondary in education, what is a macro-

system and a microsystem.
Weinstein and Fantini: Humanistic Model
Gerald Weinstein and Mario Fantini link sociopsy-
chological factors with cognition so learners can deal
with their problems and concerns. For this reason,
these authors consider their model a "curriculum of
affect." In viewing the model, some readers might con-
sider it part of the behavioral or managerial approach,
but the model shifts from a deductive organization of
curriculum to an inductive orientation and from tradi-
tional content to relevant content.21
The first step, shown in Figure 13-4, is to identify
the learners, their age, grade level, and common cultural
and ethnic characteristics. Weinstein and Fantini are
concerned with the group, as opposed to individuals,
because most students are taught in groups. Therefore,
knowledge of common characteristics and interests is
considered prerequisite to differentiating and diagnos-
ing individual problems.
In the second step, the school determines the learners'
concerns and assesses the reasons for these concerns.
Student concerns include the needs and interests of the
learners, self-concept, and self-image. Because concerns
21 Gerald Weinstein and Mario D. Fantini, Toward Humanistic
Education (New York: Praeger, 1970).
FIGURE 13-4
Curriculum of Affect
Source: Gerald Weinstein and Mario D.
Fantini, Toward Humanistic Education.

p. 35. Copyright © 1970 by the Ford
Foundation.
center on broad and persistent issues, they give the
curriculum some consistency over time. Through di-
agnosis, the teacher attempts to develop strategies for
instruction to meet learners' concerns. Emphasis is on
how students can gain greater control over their lives
and feel more at ease with themselves. In organizing
ideas, the next step, the teacher should select themes
and topics around learners' concerns rather than on
the demands of subject matter. The concepts and skills
to be taught should help the learners cope with their
concerns.
The content is organized around three major prin-
ciples, or what Weinstein and Fantini call vehicles: life
experiences of the learners, attitudes and feelings of the
learners, and the social context in which they live. These
three types of content influence the concepts, skills, and
values that are taught in the classroom, and they form
the basis of the "curriculum of affect."
According to the authors, learning skills include the
basic skill of learning how to learn which in turn in-
creases learners' coping activity and power over their
environment. Learning skills also help students deal
with the content vehicles and problem solve in differ-
ent subject areas. Self-awareness skills and personal
skills are recommended, too, to help students deal
with their own feelings and how they relate to other
people.
Teaching procedures are developed for learning
skills, content vehicles, and organizing ideas. Teach-
ing procedures should match the learning styles of

students, which in turn are partially based on their
common characteristics and concerns (the first two
steps). In the last step, the teacher evaluates the out-
comes of the curriculum: cognitive and affective ob-
jectives. This evaluation component is similar to the
evaluation components of the previous models (Tyler
and Saylor); however, there is more emphasis on the
needs, interests, and self-concept of learners-that is,
affective outcomes.
Curriculum Overview
Figure 13-6 presents an overview of the procedures and
steps to consider for planning, developing, and evaluat-
ing the curriculum. The model is based on a behavioral/
managerial model, rooted in the Tyler-Taba (behavioral)
and Saylor-Aiexander (managerial) approaches.
(I)
Political Forces
(2)
Knowledge Industry
(Con,ultants)
Subject Specialists
K-8
• Reading. Literacy
•Math
• Bilingual

9-12
• Core Subjects
t
Learning Speciali~ts
Learning Styles
Learning Processe~
Needs of Leamers
Abilitie.;; of Learners
Aims j''
or Goals Standards
(3)
External Groups
National
State
City
• Reading
•Math
• Basic Skills
State Committees
School Di.-.trict and
School Committees
Publishing Companies
Ob
. t.
JCCtiVCS

School
Overall, the model reflects a traditional approach
because decisions and actions take place within a formal
organization that has a prescribed and expected way of
doing things. In joining the school (or school district),
participants accept an authority relationship and under-
stand certain roles, limits, and expectations of behavior,
{4)
Content
Knowledge
Skills
Concepts
(7)
Supervision of Curriculum
(5)
Instructional
Activities
Methods
1olaterials
Media
(6)
Evaluation
Diagnostic
Pla;ement
Formative
Federal, state.

and communi tv
departments: ·
agencies and
commi~sions
Federal
1-- State
District
School
- Federal State Di!-trict
School
• Program
f--. Classroom
• Unit Plan
f- Research Methods
Ideas
f-- Places
• Classroom
-+ Summati"e
A~.:reditation
rational. state. and
local departments,
agencies. and
opinion/information
intluence policies.
planning, and
procedures for
curriculum.

FIGURE 13-6
v
Technology Specialiq.,.
D1s.tance EducatiOn
Computers
Videos
CD-ROM
Television
t
Testing Spedali~t~
Criterion Reference
;l"orm Reference
•IQTe,ts
• Achievement
Te-;ts
• Aptitude Tests
• Personality Tests
• Vocational Tests
Standards are
expressed in
reports and
bulletins at the
• Lesson Plan
t
Profes~ional A~sociation~

SubJect Areas
Special Students
Teacher Groups
Administrative Groups
Networks. and Leagues
t
College Requirements
Carnegie Units
• Required Cour~e:-.
• Elective~
• Advanced Placement
SAT Test
ACT Test
Traditionaltorces
such as the testing
and textbook
industries. as well
Aims are
expressed by
national and state
commis~ion~. task
forces. and panels
at the federal and
state level. Goals
can be expressed
at all tour levels:
federal. state.
district. and
school.
federal and state as college and

level, as well as in professional
newsletters at the a~sociations and
district and school requirements.
level. modify curriculum
objectives.
Planning and Developing the Curriculum
Values • Librar)
• Computer Lab
• Science Lab
•Community
The elementary school principal takes an active role in selection
and organization of content and instruction. as well as in
various
aspect~ of evaluation. The person is often considered an
instructional leader. The secondary school principal usually
relies
on the chair or supervisor of various subject areas. and is often
perceived as a general numa}(er. especially v.:ithin large
schools.
Content deals with
what is to be taught
and learned-
structured and
organized around
knowledge. skills.
research methods.
ideas, and values.
Instruction deals
with the how of the
curriculum. or the

implementation
process: what
methods. materials
media, and places
of instruction the
teacher plans.
Five types of
evaluation are
noted: for purpose
of diagnosis and
placement of
students. formative
(or ongoing),
summative (or
reporting). and
accreditation.
Source: Allan C. Ornstein. "Curriculum Planning and
Development." in Fred Lunenburg and Allan
Ornstein. Educational Administration: Concepts and Practices,
4th ed. (Belmont. CA: Wadsworth,
2004). Copyright© by Allan Ornstein. 2003. Revised by Allan
Ornstein. 2007, 2011.
certain policies and procedures for communication,
and change (the three Cs).
As part of curriculum planning, the political forces
cu.~.,,,,~,....,., 1) are considered, the situation as it "really
-or, more precisely, as it appears to the participants.

1, state, and local issues and opinion in general
will reflect in the aims, goals,22 and objectives of the cur-
oculum, but they will change over time. Standards are ex-
at the federal and state level-and imposed on the
;.;xal or district/school level. Specialists, consultants, and
experts can provide knowledge or expertise (category 2)
!or modifying the school district's or school's goals and
(?bjectives. These people will most likely be subject, learn-
mg, technological, or testing specialists. In determining
what to teach, external groups (category 3) play a ma-
por role in influencing curriculum participants, organiza-
nonal norms and policies, and criteria for the selection
t.1t content. Major external groups are from the testing
i.'ldustry, textbook companies, professional associations,
.md colleges. The connection between the external forces
.md individual participants is virtually "one way"; that is,
external groups influence participants' decisions and ac-
rions, but the reverse influence is almost nonexistent or
slight. Viewed as "experts," those involved in determining
rhe content of tests (and now standards), the content of
textbooks, college requirements (or Carnegie units), and/
or establishing standards and policies of professional asso-
.::iations transmit, from one generation to the next, many
of the major ideas of objectives and subsequent content.
Instructional actlvittes (category 5)-methods,
materials and media-usually take place in the class-
room (although they can take place in the local and
larger community) and represent the processes through
which the teacher delivers the content. Activities are
part of the implementation process. Although most ac-
tivities are well entrenched by tradition, different meth-
ods, materials, and media evolve and replace traditional
modes of instruction. The tension between traditional

and progressive ideas of education is clearly depicted
in Dewey's compact book, Education and Experience
(1938). The term instructional activities (category 5)
closely resembles what Dewey called "techniques and
practices," what Kilpatrick called "purposeful meth-
ods," what Taba and Tyler referred to as "experiences,"
and what Bruner termed "processes." In short, instruc-
tion deals with ways in which content (subject matter)
is taught by the teacher and learned by the student-
that is the how of implementation.
Curriculum evaluation provides information for the
purpose of making judgments and decisions about stu-
dents, teachers, and programs-or whether to postpone,
modify, continue, or maintain the curriculum. Such
decisions can be made at the classroom, school, and
school district level. The role of the curriculum leader-
resource teacher, program director, supervisor or chair,
principal or superintendent in charge of curriculum-
is crucial at this stage. The person in charge, the cur-
riculum leader, provides direction, oversees content and
instruction, and then based on some form of evaluation
makes recommendations and decisions for maintain-
ing, improving, or terminating the program. Five pur-
"Experts" from external groups may see the world
differently than teachers and principals, but the
have little influence in determining the content
in (category 4); basically, their job is to imple-
he curriculum. Curriculum implemelltatirm in-
c what and bow of curriculum. The content is
sometimes called the heart of the curriculum,

activities represent the how. Con-
poses and forms of evaluation (category 6) are listed:
diagnosing problems; placement of students; formative,
that is, during the implementation stage; summative, or
at the end of the program; and accreditation, the whole
program is assessed.
into knowledge, skills, concepts, research
and values. (Knowledge and skills have
elsewhere by Adler, Taba, and Tyler;
;: .. H.""'""ips are best represented by the
Dewey, and Ausubel; research meth-
Bruner, Dewey, and Tyler; ideas
. Jler. Bruner, and Taba; and values
:ki!er. Dewey, and Tyler).
l.7f ····:netimes used interchangeably at the
Tyler also used them interchange-
'!ii.ii:''·.' P•i>tciples of Curriculum and Instruc-
Finally, curriculum leaders at the school level include
program directors, coordinators, chairs, and principals.
They are responsible for overseeing curriculum, instruc-
tion, and evaluation. In Figure 13-6, this is represented
by the term supervision of curriculum (category 7). At
the district level, the curriculum leader is usually called
a director or an assistant or associate superintendent .
Nontechnical Model
The danger in noting that one model is systematic,

rational, or technical and another is nonsystematic,
irrational, or nontechnical is that the latter will be
considered as fluff, watered down, or disorderly by most
administrators, who rely on an orderly and rational
world. Advocates of the latter model take issue with
the assumption and consequences of traditional mod-
els. They reject the high degree of objectivity, order, and
logic; they also reject the assumption that reality can be
defined and represented by symbolic forms-by boxes,
arrows, or graphs. Finally, they feel that aims and goals
of education cannot always be known in advance,
stated precisely, or addressed in a linear or step-by-step
approach.
It may not make practical sense for administrators
who need to plan and who have only so much time in
the day, but the world is much more complex, involving
subjective, personal, aesthetic, heuristic, transactional,
and intuitive forms of thinking and behavior. The argu-
ment is that curriculum cannot be precisely planned-it
evolves as a living organism as opposed to a machine
which is precise and orderly.
Common among advocates of the nontechnical
model, sometimes called naturalistics, conversational-
ists, critical pedagogists, and postpositivists, is the belief
that the focus should be on the student, not the con-
tent or subject matter. Subject matter has importance
only to the degree that students can find meaning in it
for themselves. Subject matter should provide opportu-
nities for reflection and personal growth.23

In contrast to the majority of teachers and admin-
istrators who consider curriculum as a plan, blueprint,
or product-consisting of a series of rational steps and
outcomes-people in the nontechnical camp often view
curriculum more as a drama or conversation. People
don't develop conversation or plan it; they create op-
portunities for it to evolve. If we accept that curricu-
lum involves conversation, then it makes sense to reflect
on the social, political, and moral thoughts and voices
involved in curriculum making. Such consideration
brings into focus concepts that are ignored in technical
approaches, such as ideology, values, beliefs, and power.
Communication, collegiality, and consensus are neces-
sary processes or social activities to consider. Creating
curricula through conversation relies on dialogue, de-
bate, and deliberation-the ebb and flow of ideas and
ideology.
23 Gary D. Fenstermacher, et a!. Approaches to Teaching, rev.
ed.
(New York: Teachers College Press Columbia University,
2009);
Herbert Kohl, Beyond the Silence (Westport, CT: Heinemann,
1998 ); Nel Noddings, The Challenge to Care, 2nd ed. (New
York: Teachers College Press, Columbia University, 2005).
The contemporary, nontraditional paradigm of cur-
riculum questions the scientific paradigm of sound
logical thought that rests on Newtonian logic. In a
theoretical sense, these nontraditional people advocate
that we detach ourselves from rational or scientific
models of accepted procedures that follow preestab-
lished rules. They suggest that our actions in creating
curricula cannot be judged according to predetermined
criteria, generalized findings, or rational or empirical

judgment; moreover, what appears objective or ratio-
nal is frequently selective, incomplete, or reflective of a
political agenda. 24
According to this model, old criteria cannot be used
to critique new curricula. It challenges the technical ra-
tionality of viewing the world as a machine that we can
study, observe, and objectively evaluate as bystanders.
It questions assumptions about facts as well as about
cause and effect. The data we obtain through tests and
evaluative procedures are also questioned. In short, all
the old assumptions about curriculum development that
administrators rely on are challenged by many who call
themselves postmodern thinkers.
Nontechnical contemporary educators believe that
curriculum making represents an uncertain system
and an uncertain set of procedures. People like James
Macdonald, Elliot Eisner, Peter McLaren, and William
Pinar argue that aesthetic rationality and artistic forms
complement our technical rationality. What we are
asked to do as education leaders is to transform images
and aspirations about education into curriculum
programs.25
The nontechnical process evolves in an open, unex-
pected, free-flowing way. It even permits chaos to occur
so that some unplanned system may result. In the same
vein, artistry is considered a special way of knowing and
constructing reality. Reality, according to Peter Senge, ex-
ists in circles and is constructed of overlapping and inter-
acting systems, not neat little boxes or flowcharts. Reality
involves circularity, confusion, and interrelatedness of
24Tom Barone, "Science, Art, and the Predispositions of
Educational Researchers," Educational Researcher, 30 (2001):

24-28; Gerald W. Bracey, "How to Avoid Statistical Traps,"
Phi Delta Kappan, 63 (2006): 78-82; Elliot Eisner, "Back
to Whole," Educational Leadership, 63 (2005): 14-19; and
'X1illiam A. Reid, "Reconceptualist and Dominant Perspectives
in Curriculum Theory," Journal of Curriculum and Supervision,
!3 (1998): 287-298.
25 Elliot W. Eisner, The Kind of School We Need (Westport,
CT:
Heinemann, 1998); Peter McLaren, Life in Schools, 5th ed.
(Boston: Allyn and Bacon, 2007); William F. Pinar, Contempo-
rary Curriculum Discourses (New York: Peter Lang, 1999).
n of cur-
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ermined
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').

CHAPTER 13 · Curriculum Developrr>e-' :;-,: ~::>ementation
EXEMPLARY EDUCATIONAL ADMINISTRATORS IN
ACTION
LONNIE E. PALMER Superintendent, City School
District of Albany, New York.
Words of Advice: One current trend in education is
to test students extensively and to use these results to
drive decision making. While the analytical part of my
background agrees that such an approach will provide
rhe best research for measured, productive, positive
change, I'm also concerned that in the process we'll
lose what truly makes learning a lifelong, exciting quest
for knowledge and opportunity. The assumption that
somehow we can teacher-proof the curriculum with
research-tested, instructional methods and thereby help
children from poverty to achieve test success, ignores
some basic facts.
Teaching is as much an art as :1 science. And while
the science can help us with strategies and tactics
decisions and actions. 26 Goals (objectives) and outcomes
(products) are no longer perceived so much as ends but
as beginnings, a view advocated by Dewey that is now
part of the new literature on change and curriculum
reform. Of course, all this new dialogue is hard to sell to
a school principal or superintendent who is responsible
for meeting goals and achieving certain products and
must deal with social, political, and educational reality-
high-stake tests, state standards, and students who are
entering the workforce or applying to college.
The nontechnical model maintains that curriculum

specialists have lost their visionary, moral, and social
purposes, their sense of reform and innovation. This
argument dates back to George Counts, in his famous
speech to the Progressive Education Association pub-
lished a year later under the title Dare the Schools
Build a New Social Order?27 Actually, Joseph Schwab's
concern with theory and practice represents a bench-
mark or transition period between the traditional and
new models. An advocate of scientific methods and ra-
tional planning, a person who appreciated the need for
technical experts, Schwab also had a clear moral vision
of schooling, an awareness of social and cultural forces
influencing curriculum, and a concern for relations of
people involved in curriculum making. He argued that
26Peter M. Senge, The Filth Discipline (New York: Doubleday,
1990).
27 George S. Counts, Dare the Schools Build a New Social
Order? (New York: John Day, 1932).
to overcome the obstacles that children face as they
learn, nothing can replace the love of learning, the
love of children, and the understanding of those
factors in children's backgrounds that inhibit their
success.
While the pendulum swings far to the right with
federal Ko Child Left Behind policies and programs
and }'o;ew York State-mandated testing and prescrip-
tive academic intervention services, little attention
is being paid to the hearts, souls, and values of those
entering the education profession. Educators must not
only be smarter, more attuned to research and data,
and cognizant of the best research-based strategies for
student learning; they must also care deeply for their
students, their parents, and their communities.

"the field of curriculum [had become] moribund," 28
that it had ceased to flourish and offer anything new,
and that it needed to be "resurrected to include alter-
native perspectives and systems as viable solutions to
varying problems." 29 This rejection of the traditional
curriculum by a traditionalist, and the need to revise or
remake the curriculum in terms of alternative ways, is a
prelude to the nontechnical interpretation of the field of
curriculum today. 30
A wider conception of curriculum-nontechnical and
more philosophical, personal, and interesting methods-
includes numerous theories and ideas that are artis-
tic and aesthetic (Elliot Eisner), gay (James Sears) and
feminist (Madeline Grumet), pluralistic and diverse
(James Banks), political/social (Henry Giroux and
Peter McLaren), moral/ethical (William Reid), visionary
and imaginative (Maxine Greene), and even spiritual
(William Pinar). These new theories and ideas repre-
sent a rejection of traditional curriculum planning,
2Hjoseph J. Schwab, "Education and the State: Learning Com-
munity," in R. M. Hutchins and M. J. Adler (eds.), The Great
Ideas Today (Chicago: Encyclopedia Britannica, 1976), p. 238.
29Ibid, p. 271.
30 See William F. Pinar (ed. ), Contemporary Curriculum
Discourses (New York: Peter Lang, 1999); William A. Reid,
"Rethinking Schwab: Curriculum Theorizing as a Visionary
Activity," Journal of' Curriculum and Supervision, 17 (2001 ):
29-41; Leonard J. Waks, "Reid's Theory of Curriculum as
Institutionalized Practice," Journal of' Curriculum Studies, 32
(2000): 589-598.

,----------
a rethinking of curriculum, but not necessarily a "prac-
tical" interpretation (a term used by Schwab and later
Reid) that assists teachers and curriculum leaders
(directors, chairs, supervisors, principals, etc.) in the
organization and operation of classrooms and schools.
Although some of these new concepts may be consid-
ered dysfunctional and divisive, as well as impracti-
cal for practitioners, among theorists and academics
they are considered relevant-or at least interesting.
Much of the new "new" curriculum is considered more
speculative, expressive, emotional, argumentative, and
political-based on heated controversy and crisis, far
different from the rational, logical, behaviorist, and
technocratic ideas that have characterized mainstream
curriculum making.
Components of Curriculum
Development
Curriculum leaders must always be concerned with
what should be included and how to present or ar-
range what is selected. In other words, they must first
deal with content or subject matter and then learning
experiences. Regardless of the curriculum approach or
development model used, curriculum leaders cannot ig-
nore these two components.
Groups charged with curriculum planning have op-
tions in selection of content and experiences-to be
determined in part by the philosophical and psycho-
logical views of the committee members and school.
Unquestionably, there are too much content and too
many learning experiences to include, and committee

members (or those in charge of curriculum) must de-
cide what content and experiences to include.
Criteria for Selecting Content
Curriculum planners should apply criteria in choosing
curriculum content. Although the following criteria are
neutral and can fit into any curriculum approach or
model, various philosophical camps might place greater
emphasis on particular criteria. For example, Hilda
Taba, in a classic text on curriculum, maintains that
content should include the following functions.
1. Four Levels of Knowledge. These include specific
facts, skills, and processes; basic ideas such as gen-
eralizations, principles, and causal relationships
within the subject matter; concepts dealing with
abstract ideas, complex systems, multiple causa-
tions, and interdependence; and thought systems or
methods of problem solving, inquiry, and discovery.
2. New Fundamentals to Master. The content in many
subjects becomes increasingly obsolete, especially
in light of the explosion of knowledge. The curri-
culum must be periodically updated to include new
content to be learned.
3. Scope. Scope is the breadth, depth, and variety of
the content and includes the coverage of boundaries
of the subject.
4. Sequence. By sequencing, there is recognition of
and need for differentiating levels of knowledge,
that learning is based on prior knowledge, and
that the curriculum should be cumulative and

continuous. 31
5. Integration. Integration emphasizes the relation-
ships among various content themes, topics, or
units; it helps explain how content in one subject is
related to content in another subject.32
A more recent text established seven additional
criteria to consider when selecting and organizing con-
tent. Whereas Taba stresses cognitive learning theory
for her five criteria, these seven combine cognitive and
humanistic psychology:
1. Self-Sufficiency. A guiding principle for content se-
lection is that it helps learners attain learning skills
and self-sufficiency in learning (economy of the
teacher's effort and time in instruction and economy
of students' efforts and time in learning).
2. Significance. Content should contribute to learning
particular concepts, skills, or values; it should be
significant in terms of what knowledge needs to be
transmitted to students.
3. Validity. As new knowledge is discovered, old
knowledge that is less relevant, misleading, or incor-
rect must be pruned. Only relevant and accurate
knowledge should be a part of the curriculum
content. The content should also be sound in rela-
tion to stated goals and objectives.
31 This concept is similar to Jerome Bruner's idea of a ~spiral
curriculum". Previous learning is the basis of subsequent learn-
ing; learning should be continuous, and the content (or subject
matter) is built on a foundation (from grade to grade).
32Hilda Taba, Curriculum Development: Theory and Practice

(New York: Harcourt, Brace & World, 1962).

Guidelines for Effective Curriculum Development

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