Biological Oceanography and planktology

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Plankton
Plankton, classification
In 1887 Hensen (Germany) first introduced the term plankton. The word “plankton” is derived from
the Greek word “planktos” meaning “wandering”. According to Hensen “They are tiny microscopic
aquatic organisms including both plant and animals having limited capacity to move but which have
insufficient power for keeping themselves or preventing themselves against water currents,tide and
wind etc.
Plankton is a community including both plants and animals that consists of all those organisms whose
powers of locomotion are insufficient to prevent them from being passively transported by physical
factors. It may be defined as floating or drifting organism which has limited power of locomotion or
movements.
General characteristics of Plankton:
1: Planktons are aquatic organisms with limited or no locomotors powers, involuntarily
independent of the shore and bottom or remain suspended in the water column.
2: Planktons are organisms either plant or animals, relatively small and microscopic.
3: Their distribution is affected by water motion, waves and currents.
4: Plankton is at the base of the food web.
5: Plankton includes much different photosynthetic and chemosynthetic specie
On the basis ofthe nutritional requirements
1. Phytoplankton: Microscopic, autotrophic and floating organisms which performs photosynthetic
process. Obtain energy for growth. Produce food for animal. Unable to physical movements.
Example: - Diatoms, Dinoflagellates
2. Zooplankton: Heterotrophic organism. Small herbivores and carnivorous animal. Feed on
phytoplankton.
Example: - Copepods, Ctenophores.
3. Saproplankton: Non-photosynthetic micro-organisms.Heterotrophics.
Example: - Bacteria, Fungi.
Characteristics of plankton:
Adaptation techniques of plankton:
On the basis ofthe length ofthe planktonic life
1. Holoplankton or permanent plankton:
*Organisms whose entire life span in planktonic.
*Generally green and primarily zooplankton.
Example: - Copepods, Relia.
2. Meroplankton or Temporary plankton or Transitory:
*Planktonic organisms passing through a pelagic phase which is only part of the
total life span or,
*those living organism as plankton during only a part of their life.
Example: –The egg or larvae stage,planktonic spores, shrimp post larvae.
3. Tychoplankton:
*Generally benthic habit organisms.

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*Very temporary plankton.
Example: - Ostracods,Mysits.
On the basis oflife characteristics:
1. Euplankton:
*Living or true plankton.
2. Pseudoplankton:-
Consists of dead plankton & living on debris but appears as living plants & animals.
On the basis ofsize
1. Ultra-plankton :< 2 µm. e.g. - Bacteria, Fungi.
2. Nano-plankton: < 5 µm. e.g. - Coccolithophore, Chlorella.
3. Micro-plankton: 60-500 µm. e.g. - Ceratium, Artemia
5. Meso-plankton: 0.5-1 mm. e.g. - Large diatom and small zooplankton.
6. Macro-plankton: 1mm-10mm. e.g. - Copepods, Euphausiids.
7. Mega-plankton: Generally large plankton which are more than 10mm or
>10mm. e.g. - Jelly fish, Sagitta.
On the basis ofthe habitant
1. Marine plankton (Haliplankton)
A. Oceanic Plankton: Those inhabiting water beyond continental shelves.
B.Neretic Plankton: Those inhabiting waters overlying continental shelves.
2. Brakish water plankton:Those inhabiting in brakish water.
2. Fresh water plankton (Limnoplankton)
Those inhabiting in lake, Fresh water ponds.
On the basis ofdistribution
1. Superficial plankton. Or pelagic
2. Abyssal plankton/ bathyal or Benthic
depending on the depth distribution:
1. Epiplankton:
2. Mesoplankton.
3. Hypoplankton.
On the basis ofthe body formation
1. Chaetoplankton-Floating plankton.
2. Discoplankton-Dish shaped plankton.
3. Physoplankton-Bladder
4. Rhaledoplankton-Elongated.
On the basis ofthe light penetration:
1. Photic plankton
2. Aphotic plankton.
Classification by salinity:
1. Infra-haline: 0.5 ppt
2. Oligo-haline: 0.5 – 3.0 ppt
3. Meso-haline: 3.0 – 30 ppt
*Limnetic water salinity < 0.5 ppt
*Oligohaline (0.5 – 5 ppt)
*Mesohaline (5-18 ppt)
*Polyhaline (18 – 30 ppt)
*Euhaline (30 – 40 ppt)

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Factors affecting growth and abundance of phytoplankton
Phytoplankton are passively floating plant organisms which cannot move one place to another place
without assistance of Tran partial agencies of the environment factors such as wind current, wave etc.
In marine environment there are several ecological factors that influence the growth, mortality,
distribution and abundance of phytoplankton directly or indirectly. The principle factors that affecting
on the growth of phytoplankton are as follows.
Abiotic factors Biotic factors
Physical Chemical dynamic Dissolved organic
matters
1. light 5.oxygen and
CO2
10.current Grazing
2. temperature 6.pH 11.wave Competition
3.hydrostatic
pressure
7.salinity 12.tide Food
4.specific gravity 8.H2S 13.upwelling Parasitism
5.density 9.nutrients 14.turbulent Bioluminescence
15.turbidity 16. polymers 17. sestons
Primary productivity and distribution of phytoplankton
Primary productivity:
Primary productivity is defined as the amount of carbon fixed by autotrophic organisms through the
synthesis of organic matter from inorganic compounds such as CO2 and H2O using energy derived
from solar radiation or chemical reactions. The major process through which primary productivity
occurs is thought to be photosynthesis. The reaction of this process is as follow-
Light
nCO2 + nH2O → (CH2O) n + nO2
Chlorophyll
So, primary productivity means the amount of carbon fixed by autotropic
organisms per square or cubic meter with in a unit of time.
Primary productivity is included two types of productions-
1. Gross primary production 2. Net primary production.
Gross primary production:
The total amount of organic matter produced by photosynthesis per unit of time
represents the gross primary production.i.e
Gp = Np + R Here,
Gp = Gross primary production
Np = Net primary production
R = Respiration
Name the different methods for the measurement ofprimary production:-
There are severalmethods for the measurement of primary production which are given below –
*O2 method (Light & dark bottle method) *Chlorophyll method.
*pH method. *Biomass accumulation method.
*CO2 assimilation method. *Nutrient uptake method.
*Photosynthesis measurement method. *Carbohydrate estimation method.
*Zooplankton count method. *Harvesting method.
The systematic discussion of‘Light and dark bottle’ method which is described
originally by Wrinkler for the measurement of primary production is given below –

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A. Principle: -
Oxygen is produced along with organic matter during photosynthesis, and it is produced in amounts
directly related to the rate of organic production. Determination of the amount of oxygen being
produced over a given period of time, therefore,provide close approximations of productivity.
Light
nCO2 + nH2O→ (CH2O)n + nO2
Chlorophyll
Produced O2 is nearly proportional to carbon fixed. Again, during respiration
some O2 is used by the organisms.
B. Apparatus: -
1. A Nansen bottle for water sampling.
2. BOD bottle for each measurement-one is pointed black and another is
transparent.
3. Burette,pipette and conical flask.
4. Other materials.
C. Reagent: -
1. Potassium iodide (KI)
2. Sulphuric Acid (concentrated)
3. Sodium thiosulphate.
4. Starch solution.
D. Procedure: -
*At first water sample is collected from the different depth of the selected station by nansene bottle.
*Then sample from each depth are taken using the techniques. Two lights and one dark bottle are used
for each depth.
*Now, the dark and light bottles are returned to their original depth for incubation. The time is
recorded.
*Removing the bottles from each depth is fixed with Wrinkler oxygen reagents and O2 concentration
of water is determined by titration.
*After 24 hours the suspended bottles are recorded and O2 concentration is determined.
E. Calculation: -
From the different O2 concentration measured, we can calculate
Respiration (R) =IB-DB Here,
Net production (NP) =LB-IB IB=Initial bottle.
Gross production (Gp) =Np+R DB=Dark bottle
=LB-IB+IB-DB LB=Light bottle
=LB-DB Np=Net production
R=Respiration
Gp=Gross production.
Migration and vertical distribution ofzooplankton
Migration may be define as the periodic movement of an organism from one place to another is a
particular season or time for various purpose such as feeding, breeding, avoidance adverse condition
and also for survival aspect,due to some temporary environmental changes but shall come back to
their natural habitat at the end of purpose is served.
Vertical distribution of zooplankton:
All organisms having characteristics of animal known as zooplankton such as Artemia, Rotifer etc. In
vertically zooplankton are distributed in many zones.
1) Very surface water zone: -
Many zooplanktons avoid the very surface waters,except at night, because of the effect of strong
sunlight; which repels of the animal forms. At night these zooplankton migrate to the very surface

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water for food. On the other hand, some zooplankton seems not to be harmed by the light and they
remain at the very surface or near it, regardless of the time of day. Physlaia, Vetetha these types of
zooplankton are found the very surface water zone.
2) Near the surface water zone: -
Many zooplanktons are distributed near the surface,such as immature stage of many Copepods, the
adult stages of their Copepods, jellyfish of various species etc. many remain near the surface.
3) Upper zone: -
All herbivorous among zooplanktons live upper zone within the upper 200 m or so. However,the
destination between herbivorous and detritus feeders is not marked and in many cases the same
species will ingest which ever food happened to be available. The present of richer food supplies in
the waters near the surface is shown by the present of zooplankton. Some forms as the Copepods sp
Mienosetella rosea are confined to upper zone.The greater abundance of phytoplankton may cause the
occurrence of
zooplankton.
4) Deep water zone: -
In oceanic area planktonic animals are known down to the greatest depth. Deep living planktonic
animals have been observed from the bathy sphere. Some amphipods are deep living but it is perhaps
among the prawn-like crustacean that some of the most characteristics bathy belonging species are to
be found.
Mysids such as Eucopia and Nebaliopsisare typically deep sea genera.
Economic importance ofmarine plankton/plankton
The economic importance of marine plankton-phytoplankton and zooplankton are given below
Importance of phytoplankton:
Merits:-
1. Phytoplankton performs photosynthetic process through which organic food
is produced for animals.
2. They occur at the base level of food chain and food web.
3. Phytoplankton makes balance the organic environment by releasing O2 and
taking CO2.
4. Primary production depends upon phytoplankton.
5. Some organic matters and soil obtain from phytoplankton.
6. Phytoplankton is used as insulator to prepare bombs.
Demerits:-
1. Formation of water bloom.
2. Formation of red tide which is harmful for animals.
3. Dynamite is made of phytoplankton.
4. Excretion of toxic materials.
Problems ofsingle species bloom:
It would appear that physical and chemical environmental condition was favourable for severalto
many species, simultaneously at the time bloom, yet often only one species bloom. This bloom
consists of a great growth of a single species, rather than a heterogeneous bloom of a number of
different species together. This type of bloom known as a single species bloom.
Problem of single species bloom are –
a. Produce toxic substance:- When the single species bloom occur in water,they produce toxic
substance
such as excess of dinoflagellates sp produced red tide in water. They produce toxic substance and kill

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the animals.
b. Break down the food chain: - In a single species bloom only one species are found. But in the
water,where lives various types of animals which feed directly the phytoplankton. As a result for
scarcity of food, zooplanktons are decreased and other animal which live on zooplankton also
decrease. As a result food chain is hampering.
c. Create unpleasant odours: - Sometimes single species bloom creates unpleasant odours which
effect the
aquatic environment.
d. Effect of photosynthesis:-
Excess growth single species causes the decrease of phytoplankton because light can’t illuminate.
e. Decrease of O2:-
Excess growth of single species also decreases the O2. As a result animals migrate to the other place
for O2.
f. Light illumination: - Massive single phytoplankton bloom specially floating patches out off light
illumination.
Define compensation depth and critical depth
The depth of which the oxygen production and oxygen consumption are equal is called compensation
depth. The depth of which the oxygen production and oxygen consumption are equal not is called
critical depth.
Benthos
Benthos is the community of organisms that live on, in, or near the seabed,also known as the benthic
zone. This community lives in or near marine sedimentary environments, from tidal pools along the
foreshore, out to the continental shelf, and then down to the abyssal depths.
The Benthic Community is made up of organisms that live in and on the bottom of the ocean floor.
These organisms are known as benthos. Benthos include worms, clams, crabs, lobsters, sponges, and
other tiny organisms that live in the bottom sediments. Benthos are divided into two groups, the filter
feeders and the deposit feeders. Filter feeders such as clams and quahogs filter their food by siphoning
particles out of the water. Deposit feeders,such as snails and shrimp, ingest or sift through the
sediment and consume organic matter within it.
Classification ofbenthos
Basis on size
• Megafauna (-flora)
• Macrofauna >10 mm
• Meiofauna 10 – 0.1mm
Interstitial organisms
• Microfauna <0.1mm
On substrate
1: Infauna: those organisms that spend most of their lives beneath the sea floor, among the silt and the
sand.

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2: epifuana: These are organisms that live on the surface of the substrate, never intentionally burying
themselves into the sand itself, and are known as epifaunal organisms.
Distribution ofbenthos
Benthic communities include rocky shores, sediment-covered shores,kelp forest, and coral reef and
deep sea hydrothermal vent biocommunities. Organisms is small patchy aggregations,or clumps. Clumped
distributions occur when growth conditions are optimal in small areas because of physical protection (in cracks
in an intertidal rock), nutrient concentration (near a dead body lying on the bottom), initial dispersal(near a
parent), or social interaction.
Uniform distribution with equal space between individuals such as the arrangement of trees planted in
orchards, is the rarest natural pattern of all. Distribution of some garden eels through their territories becomes
almost uniform, because each eel can extend from its burrow just far enough to hassle neighboreels spaced
equally distant. Eventually, the order of position breaks—they don’t line up row-upon-row like apple trees.
Coastal and offshore benthic community
Benthic communities are largely composed of macro invertebrates, such as annelids, mollusks, and
crustaceans. These organisms inhabit the bottom substrates of estuaries and play a vital role in
maintaining sediment and water quality. They also are an important food source for bottom-feeding
fish, invertebrates, and birds.
Some benthos found in karnafully estuary
1: Polychaeta 3. Capitella sp 4. Neritina sp 6. Lutaria sp 7. Littorina sp
2: Tubifex sp, 8. Natica sp 9. Lutaria sp 10. Meretrix sp
Benthic organisms are important bio-indicator of estuarine system
Coral reef and coral reef formation
Coral reefs are most diverse underwater structures made from calcium carbonates secreted by
corals.Coralllium rubrum, produces coral reef Reefs grow best in warm, shallow, clear, sunny &
agitated waters.
Reef building coral
Scleractinian corals, also called stony or true corals, are the primary organisms depositing the massive
amounts of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) that make up the structure of coral reefs. Coral species that
produce reefs are said to be hermatypic and are found only in shallow tropical waters.
Distribution of coral
Coral reefs are estimated to cover 284,300 km 2 (109,800 sq mi), just under 0.1% of the oceans’surface
area. The Indo-Pacific region (including the Red Sea, Indian Ocean, Southeast Asia and the Pacific)
account for 91.9% Boundary for 20 °C isotherms. Most corals live within this boundary. Note the cooler
waters caused by upwelling on the southwest coast of Africa and off the coast of Peru. This map shows
areas of upwelling in red. Coral reefs are not found in coastal areas where colder and nutrient-rich
upwellings occur.of this total. Southeast Asia accounts for 32.3% of that figure, while the Pacific
including Australia accounts for 40.8%. Atlantic and Caribbean coral reefs account for 7.6%. Although
corals exist both in temperate and tropical waters,shallow-water reefs form only in a zone extending
from 30° N to 30° S of the equator. Tropical corals do not grow at depths of over 50 meters (160 ft).
The optimum temperature for most coral reefs is 26–27 °C (79– 81 °F), and few reefs exist in waters
below 18 °C (64°F).However, reefs in the Persian Gulf have adapted to temperatures of 13 °C (55 °F)
in winter and 38 °C (100 °F) in summer
Coral bleaching and causes present status ofcoral reefin the Indian Ocean

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Coral bleaching
Coral bleaching is the loss of intracellular Endosymbiont (known as Zooxanthellae) through either
expulsion or loss of algal pigmentation. The corals that form the structure of the great reef ecosystem
depend upon a symbiotic relationship with algae like unicellular flagellate protozoa like Zooxanthellae
that are photosynthetic & live within their tissue. They give coral its coloration. Under stress, corals
may expel their Zooxanthellae, which leads to a completely white appearance.
Causes of coral bleaching
As coral reef bleaching is a general response to stress, it can be induced by a variety of factors,alone
or in combination.
1: high or low water temperature 2: oxygen starvation caused
3: increased solar irradiance 4: ocean acidification
5: global warming 6: bacterial infections
7: changes in salinity 8: herbicides, fertilizers
9: cyanide fishing 10: mineral dust 11: low tide and exposure
12: xenobiotics 13: nonbiodegradable waste discharge from cities, river etc. 14: sedimentation
15: eutrophication, red tide
Different hypothesis of coral formation
1: Darwin’s or subsidence hypothesis
Darwin’s theory starts with a volcanic island which becomes extinct
• as the island and ocean floor subside, coral growth builds a fringing reef,often including a shallow
lagoon between the land and the main reef.
• As the subsidence continues, the fringing reef becomes a larger barrier reef further from the shore
with a bigger and deeper lagoon inside.
• Ultimately, the island sinks below the sea,and the barrier reef becomes an atoll enclosing an open
lagoon.
2: Daly glacial hypothesis: Daly’s Glacial Control Theory:
Daly, while studying the coral reefs of Hawaii, was greatly impressed by two things. He observed that
the reefs were very narrow and there were marks of glaciations. It appeared to him that there should
be a close relationship between the growth of reefs and temperature.
According to Daly’s hypothesis, in the last glacial period, an ice sheet had developed due to the fall in
temperature. This caused a withdrawal of water,equal to the weight of the ice sheet. This withdrawal
lowered the sea level by 125-150 m.
The corals which existed prior to the ice age had to face this fall in temperature dining this age and
they were also exposed to air when the sea level fell. As a result, the corals were killed and the coral
reefs and atolls were planed down by sea erosion to the falling level of sea in that period.
When the ice age ended, the temperature started rising and the ice sheet melted. The water returned to
the sea,which started rising. Due to the rise in temperature and sea level, corals again started growing
over the platforms which were lowered due to marine erosion.

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As the sea level rose, the coral colonies also rose. The coral colonies developed more on the
circumference of the platforms because food and other facilities were better available there than
anywhere else.
Hence,the shape of coral reefs took the form of the edges of submerged platforms, A long coral reef
developed on the continental shelf situated on the coast of eastern Australia. Coral reefs and atolls
developed on submerged plateau tops. After the ice age, the surface of platforms was not affected by
any endogenetic forces and the crust of the earth remained stationary.
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Mangrove
A mangrove is a woody plant or plant community which lives between the sea and the land, in areas
which are flooded by tides for part of the time. Mangroves make up one of the world’s most unique
ecosystems because they thrive where no other trees can survive – in the transition zone between the
ocean and land. They are also among the world’s most productive ecosystems.
Distribution of mangrove
Mangroves are coastalforests found in sheltered estuaries and along river banks and lagoons in 124
tropical and subtropical countries and areas,mainly growing on soft substrates (FAO 2007). They are
distributed in the inter-tidal region between the sea and land between approximately 30° N and 30° S
latitude (Giri et. al.,2010)
Mangrove ecology: it is the study of salt tolerant tree living intertidal zone and the interaction between
mangrove and surroundings (brakish water, soil ,organisms, saltmarsh etc.
Mangrove productivity
Primary productivity represents the major input of carbon and biological energy into world’s
ecosystems. Mangrove forests dominate tropical and subtropical coastlines and are among the most
productive marine ecosystems in the world. Mangrove forests produce organic carbon well in excess
of ecosystem respiration and are considered important sites for carbon burial( 10%) and carbon export
( 40%) to adjacent coastalwaters,indicating their significant contribution to carbon biogeochemistry
in the coastalzone. Global estimates indicate that mangrove coverage is approximately 137,760 km2,
which represents 0.7% of total tropical forests of the world. The productivity of mangroves represents
the outcome and interactions of severalfactors that operate at distinct global, regional, and local
scales
Ecological important ofmangrove
1: basis of a complex marine food chain
2: creation of critical habitat for fisheries and coastalbirds, reptiles some mammals populations
3: stabilization of sediments and protection from erosion
4: filtering and assimilating pollutants from upland run off
5: providing hatcheries and nurseries for many fishes, juvenile etc.

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6: providing a good feeding and breeding sites 7: produce nutrients, recycling
8: contribute to soil formation 9: oxygen production, fixation of carbon
10: flood prevention 11: reside for endangered species
Economic important of mangrove
1: food sources (fisheries 2: fuel 3: construction materials
4: medicinal uses (skin diseases (diabetes, kidney stone, purify blood etc.
5: a source of tannins, honey 6: recreation (tourism) 7: timber, charcoal, firewood,
pasture
Major threats for coastal affectation
• Anthropogenic impacts like reclamation, human encroachment and influence™
• Geomorphic stress caused by the neo-tectonic tilting of the Bengal basin
• Recurrent coastalflooding due to climate change (global warming), changes in sea level
(raise in sea level)
• Huge silt deposition, biodiversity loss and regeneration problems of obligate mangrove plants
• High salinity, low water table and acidity problem, loss of soil fertility, coastalerosion and a
steep fall in
fishery resources
• Reduction in the periodicity and quantity of freshwater reaching the mangrove environment
due to
diversion of freshwater in the upstream areas (especially due Farakka Barrage constructed by
India) and
change in course of main rivers
• Conversion of mangrove tracts for aquaculture and agriculture
• Extension of other non-forestry land use into mangrove forest
• Increasing demand for timber and fuel wood for consumption
• Poaching of tiger, spotted deer, wild boar, marine turtles, horse shoe crab etc
• Uncontrolled collection of prawn seedlings
• Uncontrolled fishing in the water of Reserve Forests
• Continuous trampling of river/creek banks by fishermen and prawn seed collectors
• Pollution from both the landward and seaward sides through marine paints & hydrocarbons ,
usage of
excessive pesticides & chemicals for agricultures & industries, exploitation of mineral gas
and oil etc.
• Organizational and infrastructure deficiencies
• Lack of public awareness

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Acid sulphate soil and its effect
Acid sulfate soils are naturally occurring soils, sediments or organic substrates (e.g. peat) that
are formed under waterlogged conditions. These soils contain iron sulfide minerals
(predominantly as the mineral pyrite) or their oxidation products. The overall equation for
the complete oxidation of pyrite can be written as:
FeS2 + 15
/4O2 + 7
/2H2O → Fe(OH)3 ↓ + 2SO4
2-
+ 4H+
(Iron pyrite + oxygen + water → iron hydroxide + sulfate + acidity)
These 'actual acid sulfate soils' (also known as 'sulfuric' materials) often release toxic quantities of
iron, aluminum and heavy metals.nActual and potential acid sulfate soils are often found in the same
soil profile, with actual acid sulfate soils generally overlying potential acid sulfate soil horizons.
Effects
Loss of vegetation
The drainage and oxidation of acid sulfate soils causes acidity to be generated, with soil pH
falling below 4.0. This can result in large areas becoming scalded and completely devoid of
vegetation.
Kills of aquatic life
When discharged into streams, often following rainfall, acidity and aluminium toxicity can cause
massive kills of aquatic life, particularly sediment-dwelling organisms or those which are immobile,
such as oysters.
Fish are generally highly mobile, and kills only occur in certain circumstances,such as when they
become trapped in a branching drainage network.
Impact on aquatic systems
In addition to the acute effects of acid sulfate soils, chronic effects on aquatic systems are also
common and widespread. These include:
 habitat degradation
 changes to communities of water plants, including invasion by acid-tolerant weeds
 reduced hatching, survival and growth rates
 Outbreaks of disease, especially red spot disease in fish which has been linked to exposure to
acid water.
Economic impact

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Testing, treating and monitoring acid sulfate soils can add substantially to the cost of urban
development in coastalareas. These costs associated with damage to public and private infrastructure,
such as corrosion of pipes, bridge footings and floodgates, can be significant.
Acid sulfate soils have economic impacts on most industries on the NSW coast, including recreational
fishing, commercial fishing, oyster growing and other aquaculture industries, cropping, grazing and
dairying. The impacts of acid sulfate soil oxidation constitute the most acute water-based
environmental problem in coastalareas of NSW, comparable in environmental and economic terms to
the effects of salinity on inland waters.It is now recognized that certain environmental effects of the
oxidation of acid sulfate soils can last for hundreds or even thousands of years.
Other impacts
Acid sulfate oxidation can also contribute to low dissolved oxygen levels in streams. This occurs
through the secondary oxidation of Fe2+
which consumes oxygen and lowers dissolved oxygen levels,
together with the decomposition of pasture plants killed by waterlogging.Other potential impacts may
include animal ill-health caused by polluted water. For humans, physical contact with ground and
water containing toxic concentrations of acid and metal contaminants can cause skin irritation and
dermatitis, while dust from disturbed acid sulfate soils may also irritate eyes. Exposure to hydrogen
sulfide gas should be avoided as it is highly toxic.
Causes ofdeforestation ofmangrove in Bangladesh
1: wood harvesting
2: conversion of forest to agriculture land
3: climate change
4: oil spilling
5: salt production
6: aqua and mariculture
7: sea level rising
8: coastalflooding
9: reclamation
10: exotic species
11: fire
MANGROVE ECOTOURISM
“Ecotourism is responsible travel to natural areas that conserves the environment and sustains the
well-being of local people. Ecotourism sites should be rich in natural attractions; have diverse flora
and fauna; be conducive to adventure and travel; have unique features and some historical and cultural
values, which may be interesting and educational; not be frequented by mass tourists and not
threatened by destructive activities; have untouched native or tribal tradition; and be suitable for
rehabilitation and conservation by tourism activity. The area should be ideal for walking, hiking, bird
watching, swimming and similar activities.Ecotourism involves travelling to relatively undisturbed

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natural areas to study/appreciate and enjoy the scenery and its flora and fauna. It is an
environmentally sound tourism activity in a given ecosystem that yields socioeconomic benefits and
enhances natural/cultural conservation. It is a means to generate income and employment for the local
population, to help develop rural infrastructure, to raise funds and to build political support for nature
conservation. However,ecotourism may alter norms, beliefs and the lifestyle of the host
community. In Sundarban eco-tourism has been identified as a tool to promote conservation for
environmental awareness and education and for the enjoyment of nature for both international and
domestic visitors. The Sundarban reserved forest (SRF) in Bangladesh is the single largest mangrove
forest in the world. Sundarban is very famous for unique ecosystem, river networks, which is a
landmark of ancient heritage of mythological historical events with magnificent scenic beauty and
natural resources for its wide Biodiversity of mangrove flora and fauna both on land and water. The
main attractions of the Sundarban are wildlife enthausiasm. The opportunity to sail in the solitude of
wilderness through its hundreds of channel, to learn more about the Royal Bengal Tiger and the
possibility to view the majestic creature,to view the estuarine crocodile on the mudflat banks, a
number of deer and to learn more about the mangrove forest. Tourists can visit different methods of
fishing and specially appreciate otter fishing which is unique, Most important of all to be in
Sundarban away from all location in the calm and wilderness area.
Mangroves vegetation are defined as assemblages of salt tolerant trees and shrubs that grow in the
intertidal regions of the tropical and subtropical coastlines
Systematic position of artemia
Culture technique of artemia in saltpan
Problems associated artemia culture in saltpan
Note
Bioluminescence
Bioluminescence is light produced by a chemical reaction within a living organism. Bioluminescence
is a type of chemiluminescence, which is simply the term for a chemical reaction where light is
produced. (Bioluminescence is chemiluminescence that takes place inside a living
organism.) Bioluminescence is a "cold light." Cold light means less than 20% of the light generates
thermal radiation, or heat. Most bioluminescent organisms are found in the ocean. These
bioluminescent marine species include fish, bacteria, and jellies. Some bioluminescent organisms,
including fireflies and fungi, are found on land. There are almost no bioluminescent organisms native
to freshwater habitats. The chemical reaction that results in bioluminescence requires two unique
chemicals: luciferin and either luciferase or photoprotein. Luciferin is the compound that actually
produces light. In a chemical reaction, luciferin is called the substrate. The bioluminescent color
(yellow in fireflies, greenish in lanternfish) is a result of the arrangement of luciferin molecules.Some
bioluminescent organisms produce (synthesize) luciferin on their own.
Luciferin reacts with oxygen to create light:
Carbon dioxide (CO2), adenosine monophosphate (AMP) and phosphate groups (PP) are released
as waste products. Luciferase catalyzes the reaction, which may be mediated by cofactors such as
calcium (Ca2+
) or magnesium (Mg2+
) ions, and for some types of luciferin (L) also the energy-
carrying molecule adenosine triphosphate (ATP). The reaction can occur either inside or outside
the cell.

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Luciferase
L+O2+ATP → oxy-L+CO2+AMP+PP+light
Mg2+
Dinoflagellates, for instance, bioluminesce in a bluish-green color. Bioluminescent dinoflagellates
are a type of plankton—tiny marine organisms that can sometimes cause the surface of the ocean to
sparkle at night. Some bioluminescent organisms do not synthesize luciferin. Instead, they absorb it
through other organisms, either as food or in a symbiotic relationship. Some species of midshipman
fish, for instance, obtain luciferin through the "seed shrimp" they consume. Many marine animals,
such as squid, house bioluminescent bacteria in their light organs. The bacteria and squid have a
symbiotic relationship. Luciferase is an enzyme. An enzyme is a chemical (called a catalyst) that
interacts with a substrate to affect the rate of a chemical reaction. The interaction of the luciferase
with oxidized (oxygen-added) luciferin creates a byproduct, called oxyluciferin. More importantly,
the chemical reaction creates light.
Biological filter
Marine aquarium
A marine aquarium is an aquarium that keeps marine plants and animals in a contained
environment. Marine aquaria are further subdivided by hobbyists into fish only (FO),fish only
with live rock (FOWLR), and reef aquaria.
There are also severaltypes of equarium tropical marine ,temperate marine ,live rock . During the
early days of marine aquaria, saltwater was collected at local beaches. Naturalsaltwater contains
many unwanted organisms and pollutants. Aquarium literature of the time suggests that the most
commonly kept marine fish were the percula clownfish, sergeant major damselfish, small, brackish-
water pufferfish and scats,jeweled blennies, and blue damsels. Aquariums were equipped with large
air compressors, and were heavily aerated and filtered (primarily with undergravel filters, a norm for
some time).An ever-growing number of hobbyists experiencing the inconvenience of gathering
natural sea water and the concurrent development of analytical chemistry techniques led to research
into the chemical composition of sea water. Synthetic salt mixes were developed to replicate the
chemical environment of the tropical ocean, including trace elements and salts. This advance made
marine fishkeeping popular in areas without access to clean sea water. he major components are an
aquarium, usually made from glass or acrylic, filtration equipment, lighting, and an aquarium heater.
Marine aquariums can range in volume from less than 80 litres, (< 20 US gal) to over 1,200 litres (300
US gal). Small volumes are more difficult to maintain due to the more rapid changes in water
chemistry. The majority of saltwater aquariums are between 160 and 400 litres (40 and 100 US gal).
marine aquariums have more complex filtration requirements than most freshwater aquariums. The
various components frequently include wet and dry filters and protein skimmers. Protein skimmers
are devices that remove organic compounds prior to their degradation, and are very useful in marine
aquariums. Protein skimming is also used in the popular Berlin method that relies on live rock and
periodic partial water changes to degrade and remove waste products. The Berlin method requires
large amounts of live rock in the aquarium. The rule of thumb is 1/2–1 lb. per 1 US gallon (0.2–0.4 kg
per 4 liters.
Blast water

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Red tide
Filter, biological filter
A porous substance through which a liquid or gas is passed in order to separate it from
contained particulate matter or impurities.
What are Biological filters? Biological filters are devices to culture microorganisms that
will perform a given task for us. Different types of organisms will perform different
tasks. Part of the art of designing and using biofilters is to create an environment that will
promote the growth of the organisms that are needed.Why do we need biological filters for
aquaculture?We use biofilters to help maintain water quality in recirculating or closed loop
systems. Biofilters are also used to improve water quality before water is discharged from a
facility. There are many different methods of maintaining good water quality and biofiltration
is only one component of the total picture. It is however, a very important and essential
component especially for recirculating aquaculture or aquarium systems.
Howwill biofilters help us?Depending on design and application, biofilters have the ability to
accomplish the following functions. The first three functions are performed by biological means and
the last four are done by physical processes that do not depend on living organisms.
1. Remove ammonia
2. Remove nitrites
3. Remove dissolved organic solids
4. Add oxygen
5. Remove carbon dioxide
6. Remove excess nitrogen and other dissolved gasses
7. Remove suspended solids
There are 4 main types of aerobic biological filters and severalsubcategories of each. Here is a listing
of the major types.
I. Recirculated Suspended Solids (Activated sludge and biofloc systems)
II. Aquatic Plant Filters
A. Unicellular (Microscopic)
B. Multicellular (Macroscopic)
III. Fluidized Bed Filters

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A. Sand Filters
B. Bead Filters
IV. Fixed film
A. Rotating Biological Contactors (RBC)
B. Trickling Filters
C. Submerged Filters (with or without aeration)
1. Up flow
2. Down flow
3. Horizontal flow
4. Moving Bed
How does biological filtration work?
Biological filtration is the use of biological agents (like bacteria) to remove toxic wastes (like
ammonia) by converting them into less toxic wastes. Bacterialgrowth occurs in porous surface areas.
For instance sponges, rock and gravel can act as substrate for bacteria.
Filterformarine aquarium
aquarium filters are critical components of both freshwater and marine aquaria.Aquarium filters
remove physical and soluble chemical waste products from aquaria, simplifying maintenance.
Furthermore, aquarium filters are necessary to support life as aquaria are relatively small, closed
volumes of water compared to the natural environment of most fish. Types of aquarium filters
Power filters,Canister filters.Diatom filters,Trickle filters,Algae filters,Baffle filters,Fluidized bed
filter
Red tide(2013)
red tide is a phenomenon caused by algal blooms (Wikipedia definition) during which algae become
so numerous that they discolor coastalwaters (hence the name "red tide"). The algal bloom may also
deplete oxygen in the waters and/or release toxins that may cause illness in humans and other animals.
Major factors influencing red tide events include warm ocean surface temperatures,low salinity, high
nutrient content, calm seas,and rain followed by sunny days during the summer months (NOAA). In
addition, algae related to red tide can spread or be carried long distances by winds, currents,storms, or
ships.Red tide is a global phenomenon. However,since the 1980s harmful red tide events have
become more frequent and widespread. Detection of a spread is thought to be influenced by higher
awareness of red tide, better equipment for detecting and analyzing red tide, and nutrient loading from
farming and industrial runoff. Countries affected by red tide events include: Argentina, Australia,etc.
.Red tide algae make potent natural toxins. It is unknown why these toxins are created,but some can
be hazardous to larger organisms throught the processes of biomagnification and bioaccumulation.
Grazers such as fish and krill are unaffected by the toxins, so as they eat the algae the toxins are
concentrated and accumulate to a level that is poisonous eat to organisms that feed on them. Large
fish kills and several mammalian diseases and deaths have been attributed to consumption of shellfish

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during red tide algal blooms. Diseases that may affect humans include:Paralytic Shellfish Poisoning
(PSP) - This disease is caused by the production of saxitoxin by the Alexandrium species. It is
common along the Atlantic and Pacific coasts in the US and Canada. Poisoning occurs when one
ingests shellfish contaminated with PSP toxins causing disruption of nerve function and paralysis.
Extreme cases may result in death by asphyxiation by respiratory paralysis.Dinophysis species of red
tide causing algae.Diarrhetic Shellfish Poisoning (DSP) - This disease is caused by the Dinophysis
species. It generally occurs in Japan and Europe, but it has also been found in other countries such as
Canada,the US, Chile, New Zealand, and Thailand. Symptoms of DSP include diarrhea, nausea,
vomiting, abdominal pain, and cramps. DSP is generally not lethal.Amnesic Shellfish Poisoning
(ASP) - This disease,which has been found along the eastern Canadian coast,is caused by domoic
acid producing planktonic and benthic algae, including Pseudo-nitzschia pungens forma. Pseudo-
nitzschia multiseries and Amphora coffaeformis. It can also be found in soft shell clams and blue
mussels infected by Pseudo-nitzschia delicatissima. Gastric and neurological symptoms include
dizziness, disorientation and memory loss.