Successful Women Expatriates: Foreign, Not Female In a classic article titled “A Gaijin, Not a Woman,” Nancy Adler debunked one of the key myths regarding women as expatriates.*Gaijin is the Japanese word for foreigner. From her research, Adler concluded that it is a mistake to assume that people from foreign cultures, even traditionally patriarchal Asian cultures, apply the same gender role expectations to foreign women that they apply to local women. It seems that people from even very traditional cultures can view foreign businesswomen so differently from how they view local women that gender becomes irrelevant for business purposes. For example, one businesswoman working in Sudan was surprised by the behavior of her Sudanese host. She asked him how it was possible that he could serve her food, give her a cushion to sit on, and wash her arms after the meal. Men never do these things for women according to traditional Sudanese gender role expectations. The Sudanese host reasoned, “Oh, it’s no problem. Women do not do business; therefore, you are not a woman.”* After establishing a business relationship, according to Adler, the real issues that arise in cross-cultural interactions depend more on how host country people react to people of another nationality than on how they react to an expatriate’s gender. The Woman’s Advantage and Disadvantage Some studies suggest that women may have some advantages in expatriate positions, especially in Asia.* Being unique has its benefits. Because so few women have expatriate assignments, women who take them report being more visible. Local businesspeople were more likely to remember them and often sought them out more than the women’s male colleagues. North American expatriate women also report that local businessmen from traditional cultures assume that the woman is the best person for the job, reasoning, “Why else would the organization send a woman?” Women may be more likely to excel in relational skills, a major factor in expatriate success. Women report that local male managers can be more open in communication with a woman than with a man. Local men, even from traditional cultures, can talk at ease with a woman about an array of subjects that include issues outside the domain of traditional male-only conversations. Consequently, being both a businessperson and female gives expatriate women a wider range of interaction options than those available to expatriate men or to local women.* A recent study provides further insights into the potential advantages that female expatriates have relative to male expatriates.* In a comparative small survey of expatriates, the researchers found that female expatriates had higher scores of self-transcendence than males. Self-transcendence, made up of universalism (ability to understand, appreciate, and care for the well-being of others and nature) and benevolence (ability to make decisions that shows caring and enhancement of the wellbeing of others), is expected t.

1. Successful Women Expatriates: Foreign, Not Female
In a classic article titled “A Gaijin, Not a Woman,” Nancy
Adler debunked one of the key myths regarding women as
expatriates.*Gaijin is the Japanese word for foreigner. From her
research, Adler concluded that it is a mistake to assume that
people from foreign cultures, even traditionally patriarchal
Asian cultures, apply the same gender role expectations to
foreign women that they apply to local women. It seems that
people from even very traditional cultures can view foreign
businesswomen so differently from how they view local women
that gender becomes irrelevant for business purposes. For
example, one businesswoman working in Sudan was surprised
by the behavior of her Sudanese host. She asked him how it was
possible that he could serve her food, give her a cushion to sit
on, and wash her arms after the meal. Men never do these things
for women according to traditional Sudanese gender role
expectations. The Sudanese host reasoned, “Oh, it’s no problem.
Women do not do business; therefore, you are not a
woman.”* After establishing a business relationship, according
to Adler, the real issues that arise in cross-cultural interactions
depend more on how host country people react to people of
another nationality than on how they react to an expatriate’s
gender.
The Woman’s Advantage and Disadvantage
Some studies suggest that women may have some advantages in
expatriate positions, especially in Asia.* Being unique has its
benefits. Because so few women have expatriate assignments,
women who take them report being more visible. Local
businesspeople were more likely to remember them and often
sought them out more than the women’s male colleagues. North
American expatriate women also report that local businessmen
from traditional cultures assume that the woman is the best
person for the job, reasoning, “Why else would the organization
send a woman?”

2. Women may be more likely to excel in relational skills, a major
factor in expatriate success. Women report that local male
managers can be more open in communication with a woman
than with a man. Local men, even from traditional cultures, can
talk at ease with a woman about an array of subjects that
include issues outside the domain of traditional male-only
conversations. Consequently, being both a businessperson and
female gives expatriate women a wider range of interaction
options than those available to expatriate men or to local
women.*
A recent study provides further insights into the potential
advantages that female expatriates have relative to male
expatriates.* In a comparative small survey of expatriates, the
researchers found that female expatriates had higher scores of
self-transcendence than males. Self-transcendence, made up of
universalism (ability to understand, appreciate, and care for the
well-being of others and nature) and benevolence (ability to
make decisions that shows caring and enhancement of the
wellbeing of others), is expected to help expatriates adjust well
in other cultures. Individuals with high self-transcendence are
expected to be more understanding and open-minded and also
more loyal and forgiving. The researchers do indeed find that
the female expatriates they study have higher self-transcendence
than the male expatriates. The study also shows that higher self-
transcendence is indeed linked to stronger cultural and work
adjustment. The study thus provides some mechanisms as to
why female expatriates do perform better than male expatriates.
· Despite the many obvious advantages women expatriates
enjoy, the situation is nevertheless bleak for many of them. In-
depth interviews with 50 European female expatriates revealed
that they faced much worse situations than their male
counterparts.* Female expatriates are more likely to Face the
glass ceiling: Women expatriates have more difficulty being
taken seriously in the early stages of their career. They are more
likely to face isolation and loneliness.* They must work harder
than their male counterparts, and they constantly need to prove

3. themselves. Studies have shown that, in some cases, women
have to be at much higher positions than their male counterparts
before they are assigned international positions.
· Need to balance work and family responsibilities: Because of
socialization and childhood experiences, research suggests that
women expatriates may have a higher burden than their male
counterparts to balance family and home responsibilities. There
is evidence that female expatriates may be more likely to have
to choose between having an international career and having a
family, often because of very little support from the partner.
Not surprisingly, women managers are less likely to be married
and more likely to remain childless than their male
counterparts.*
· Need to worry about accompanying spouse: Many female
expatriates felt that they could be successful only if the career
of their spouse became secondary. However, because of societal
norms, it is still difficult for male partners to accept that their
spouses have the primary career. It has been found that female
expatriates are more likely to have partners with professional
careers and that it is more difficult for the company to
accommodate the needs of the male partner because of visa
regulations and other host country work policies.*
Furthermore, even in societies where women may have
advantages because they are viewed differently (e.g., gaijin in
Japan), they still face significant barriers. For instance,
although research found that Western women had some
advantages because they were seen as foreigners rather than as
women, it also found that these women faced significant
barriers, influencing their ability to adjust to the Japanese
environment and to perform well in their jobs.* However, a
more recent study argued that Western women should have an
easier time in Japan.* It reasoned that Japan has experienced
many institutional changes, such as a more flexible market,
growth of foreign multinational presence, growth of women in
the workforce, and Japan’s 1986 Equal Opportunity Act. These
changes should result in some convergence between Western

4. and Japanese attitudes toward women and make for a better
environment for women. However, results show that many of
the barriers found in a similar study a decade ago are still
formidable. Foreign women managers still face cultural barriers,
making it harder for them to adjust to their new jobs, perform
well, and become accepted in Japan.
The next section explains that women are an ever-growing
segment of the expatriate population and companies can
implement programs to ensure that they have an opportunity to
flourish.What Can Companies Do to Ensure Female Expatriate
Success?
Despite the disadvantages women face, the opportunities for
them as expatriate managers are expected to grow, particularly
with global companies. Scholars see several factors leading to
more women in international assignments.
Many global and multinational companies face an acute
shortage of high-quality multinational managers.* At the same
time, perhaps because of the rise in dual-career couples, fewer
men are willing to take the assignments.* One solution is to tap
the available population of women managers. Freed from local
cultural barriers that restrict the use of women managers,
multinational companies can select the best people for the job
regardless of gender. Because of potentially stronger relational
skills, women managers often may be better qualified for
international positions than their male colleagues.
Because women expatriates are likely to increase in number
and are as motivated and willing to take international
assignments as men, companies must take the necessary steps to
ensure that their female expatriates are successful. Companies
should ensure that the following steps are implemented:
· Provide mentors: Because women expatriates face more
barriers than their male counterparts, mentors can furnish the
necessary psychosocial support to face such obstacles.* Mentors
can be informal and provide guidance to the female expatriates.
Mentors from the home office can supply the necessary support
to facilitate reentry to the home office.

5. · Offer opportunities for interpersonal networks as a form of
organizational support: Access to a network of colleagues in
similar situation can be a source of social support, contacts, and
opportunities. Although it may be difficult for the female
expatriates to gain access to the typical male-dominated
networks,* the organization can take the necessary steps to
develop formal professional networks of female managers.
· Remove sources of barriers: The organization should ensure
that female expatriates are treated as fairly and equally as their
male counterparts.* The HRM department can be instrumental
in this effort. The organization also needs to educate their
employees and change stereotypical attitudes toward women
expatriates.
· Provide support to cope with dual-career issues: The
organization should accept that women expatriates face peculiar
and more difficult circumstances regarding their spouses than
male counterparts do. It should furnish the necessary counseling
to ensure that the couple is aware of the difficulties an
international assignment will pose for the family. The company
should help the spouse find an equivalent job or provide the
necessary counseling.