Process technology

OUTLINE :
Process
Technologies
A. What Are Process Technologies
B. Application For Individual
Instruction
C. Application For Small-Group
Instruction
D. Application For Large-Group
Instruction

OUTLINE :
Process
Technologies
Instruction
Instruction
Instruction
1. Galbraith, definition, “the
systematic application of scientifics
or other organized knowledge to
practical tasks.”
2. Importance of Practice and
Feedback
3. Organization of This Chapter

OUTLINE :
Process
Technologies
Instruction
Instruction
Instruction
 Programmed Instruction
 Programmed Tutoring
 Personalized System of
Instruction
 Learning Centers

OUTLINE :
Process
Technologies
Instruction
Instruction
Instruction
 Cooperative Learning
 Games
 Simulation
 Simulation Games

OUTLINE :
Process
Technologies
Instruction
Instruction
Instruction
 Mastery Learning
 Programmed Teaching

Introduction
 In Chapter One, we provided a definition to
technology that differentiated between hard
technologies products such as computers and
satelites – and soft technologies-process or ways
of thingking about problem. In This chapter
focuses on technology as a process.
 Galbraith, definition, “the systematic application
of scientifics or other organized knowledge to
practical tasks.”

The behaviorist perspective propose that individuals learn what they
do – that is, learning is a process of trying various behaviors and
keeping those that lead to favorable results.
Cognitivists propose that learners build up and enrich their mental
schemata when their minds are actively engaged in struggling to
remember or apply some new concept or principle.
The sociopsychological perspective stresses the importance of
interpersonal communication as the social basis for knowledge
acquisition
Importance of Practice and Feedback

Organizing of This Chapter
1. Application for Individual Instruction
a. Programmed instruction
b. Programmed tutoring
c. Personalized system of instruction
d. Learning centers
2. Application for Small-Group Instruction
a. Cooperative learning
b. Games
c. Simulation
d. Simulation games
3. Application for Large-Group Instruction
a. Mastery learning
b. Programmed teaching

Advantages Limitation
 Self Pacing
 Practice and feedback
 Reliable
 Effective
 Program Design
 Tedious
 Lack of Social
Interraction
Programmed Instruction
Application :

Developed by B.F. Skinner.
Skinner’s initial inventions vere elaborate
machines that would mechanically present
chunks, of “frames”, of information; wait
for a response to be written or a button to
be pressed; then compare the response
with the correct answer. If the answere was
correct, the machine would display the
next frame. Research and practical
experience soon indicated, however, that
students learned just as well when the
sequence - information, question,
response, answer – was presented in book
form.
Linear Branching
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2 2a
33a
4
5
6
7
6a
7a

Advantages
 Self Pacing
Programmed instruction allows
individuals to learn at their own pace
at a time and place of their choice

Advantages
It requires the learner to participate
actively in the learning process and
provides immediate feedback for each
practice attempt

Advantages
 Reliable
This technology provides a reliable
form of learning, in that the
instructional routine is embodied in
print so that it can be mass produced
and experienced by many people in
exactly the same form.

Advantages
 Effective
Hundreds of research studies
compare programmed instruction
with conventional instruction.

Limitation
 Program Design
Some programmed materials are
poorly designed and have little value

Limitation
 Tedious
The repetition of the same cycle and
plowing through an endless series of
small steps taxes the attention span
and patience of many students. It can
be tedious.

Limitation
 Lack of Social
Interraction
Most programmed materials are
meant to be used by one individual at
the time.

Advantages Limitations
 Self-pacing
 Reliable
 Effective
 Labor intensive
 Development cost
Programmed Tutoring
Application :

Programmed Tutoring
Programmed tutoring is a
one-to-one method of
instruction in which the
responses to be made by
the tutor are programmed
in advance in the form of
carefully structured
printed instructions.

 Self-pacing
 Reliable
 Effective
 Labor intensive
Programmed Tutoring
Programmed tutoring shares with
programmed instruction the
characteristic of individualized
pacing.

 Self-pacing
 Reliable
 Effective
 Labor intensive
Programmed Tutoring
The use of a live tutor as a mediator
adds immensely to the flexibility of the
feedback system, and it adds another
major advantage over printed self-
instructional material by employing
social reinforces in the form of praise
rather than just simple knowledge of
result.

 Self-pacing
 Reliable
 Effective
 Labor intensive
Programmed Tutoring
Compared with unstructured
tutoring, programmed tutoring has
higer reliability because there is a
predetermined pattern to the
tutor’s action.

 Self-pacing
 Reliable
 Effective
 Labor intensive
Programmed Tutoring
The effectiveness of programmed
tutoring has been well established
through the evaluation studies
carried out by its originator,
Douglas Ellson.

 Self-pacing
 Reliable
 Effective
 Labor intensive
Programmed Tutoring
Programmed tutoring depends on
the availability of volunteer tutors.
In school, tutoring is usually done
by peers, older students, or
parents.

 Self-pacing
 Reliable
 Effective
 Labor intensive
Programmed Tutoring
The success of programmed
tutoring depends on the design of
the tutoring guides; their
development requires an
investment of time and expertise.

 Self-pacing
 Mastery
 Effective
 Behaviorist
commitment
 Self-discipline
Personalized System of Instruction
Application :

The Personalized System of
Instruction (PSI), one of the best-
known individualized instruction
system, can be described as a
template for managing instruction.
The esential idea of PSI is that the
learning materials are arranged in
sequential order and the student must
demonstrate mastery of each unit
before being allowed to move on to
the next.

 Self-pacing
 Mastery
 Effective
 Behaviorist
commitment
 Self-discipline
PSI allows students to progress at their own
rate and to take full responsibility for
determining when, where, and how they
study.

 Self-pacing
 Mastery
 Effective
 Behaviorist
commitment
 Self-discipline
The main claim of PSI is that it prevents the
“accumulation of ignorance”. Student are
not allowed to go on to advanced units until
they show that they have mastered the
prerequisites.

 Self-pacing
 Mastery
 Effective
 Behaviorist
commitment
 Self-discipline
The effectiveness of PSI has been
documented in a large number of studies
comparing PSI and conventional versions of
courses

 Self-pacing
 Mastery
 Effective
 Behaviorist
commitment
 Self-discipline
PSI demands a great deal of time in
planning and developing materials,
since it is essentially an
organizational framework and does
not come with a given set of
materials.

 Self-pacing
 Mastery
 Effective
 Behaviorist
commitment
 Self-discipline
The instructor adopting PSI must
also be willing to adopt its
behaviorist structure, including
specification of precise performance
objectives, derivation of tests from
these objectives, and selection or
design of material that leads learners
efficiently to those objectives.

 Self-pacing
 Mastery
 Effective
 Behaviorist
commitment
 Self-discipline
Dealing with the freedom of PSI can
be a problem for students, especially
younger learners who may need
practice in the required self-
discipline.

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
 Student resonsibility
 Student isolation
Learning Centers
Application :

Learning Centers
Learning center with many station
are found in business, industry,
medical facilities, and the armed
forces.
Learning centers are independent
stations set up throughout the
classroom where children can go to
actually engage in some learning
activity. Children choose the center
they wish to work in and decide on the
amount of time to spend there.

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
Learning Centers
Center encourage students to take
responsibility for their own learning and
allow them to learn at their own pace,
thus minimizing the possibility of failure
and maximizing the likeihood of success.

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
Learning Centers
Learning centers provide for student
participaton in the learning experience,
for student response, and for immediate
feedback to student response..

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
Learning Centers
Learning centers allow the teacher to play
more of a coaching role, moving around
the classroom and providing individual
help to students when they need it.

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
Learning Centers
The equipment and materials used in the
center, entali costs.

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
Learning Centers
Teachers who manage learning centers
must be very good at classroom
organization and management.

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
Learning Centers
Any form of independent study will be
successful only insofar as students are
able and willing to accept responsibility
for their own learning.

 Self-pacing
 Active learning
 Teacher role
 Cost
 Management
Learning Centers
Learning cnters need not be limited to
individual student use; small groups can
be assigned to work together. If students
do work alone, other provisions must be
made to provide for the social dimension
of learning

Learning Together Model 
Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI) 
Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning 
Cooperative Learning

Cooperative learning has gained momentum in both formal and nonformal education
from two converging forces: first, the practical realization that life outside the classroom
requires more and more collaborative activity, from the use of teams in the workplace to
everyday social life, and second, a growing awareness of the value of social interaction
in making learning meaningful.
Today’s notion of cooperative learning entails a deeper level of interaction, based on the
principle that articulating and negotiating your ideas with others forces you to process
information in a way that improves meaningfulness and retention. This new concept of
cooperative learning can be defined as the instructional use of small groups so that
students work together to maximize their own and each other’s learning.
Two particular formats will be elaborated as example of cooperative learning
technologies: Johnson and Johnson’s Learning Together model and Slavin’s Team-
Assisted Individualization (TAI)

Learning Together Model
Johnson and Johnson have determined that feedback about your performance-
knowing what is working well and what is not – is a critical factor in successful
learning.
Johnson and Johnson’s interdependent learning group, also known as the
Learning Together model, requires four basic elements:
1. Positive interdependence.
2. Face-to-face helpong interaction.
3. Individual accountability.
4. Teaching interpersonal and small-group skills.

Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI)
Robert Slavin and his colleagues have developed a different format for
cooperative learning, Team-Assisted Individualization (TAI), which was
developed for mathematics instruction in grades three to six. TAI was
specifically intended to avoid some of the problems encountered with
individualized programmed instruction.
TAI follow this pattern:
1. Teaching group
2. Team formation
3. Self-instructional materials
4. Team study
5. Team scores and team recognition

Computer-Assisted Cooperative Learning
Computer assistance can alleviate some of the logistical obstacles to using
learning methods, particularly the tasks of managing information, allocating
different individual responsibilities, presenting and monitoring instructional
material, analyzing learner responses, administering tests, and scoring and
providing remediation for those tests.
Group-oriented programs of this sort can also deal with the logistical problems
of assisting a number of groups simultaneously, as is necessary in the single-
computer classroom. The software manages a rotation of the teams so that
there is little time lost waiting in line.

A game is an activity in which participants follow
prescribed rules that differ from those of real life as
they strive to attain a challenging goal.
The distinction between play and reality is what makes
game entertaining.
Games

Attaining the goal usually entails competition –
individual against individual, as in chess; group
against group, as in basketball; or individual against a
standard, as in golf (with “par” as the standard).
On the other hand, striving to attain a challenging goal
does not necessarily have to involve competition.
Communication games, fantasy games, and encounter
games exemplify a whole array of activities in which
participants agree to suspend the normal rules of
interpersonal communication to pursue such goals as
self-awareness, empathy, sensitivity, and leadership
development.
Games

 Advantages
 Attractive
 Novel
 Atmosphere
 Time on task
 Limitations
 Competition
 Distraction
 Poor design
Games

 Simulation and Discovery Learning
 Role Plays
 Simulators
 Advantages - Limitations
Simulations

A simulation is an abstraction or
simplification of some real-life or
process. In simulations, participants
usually play a role that involves them in
interactions with other people or with
elements of the simulated environtment.
Simulations

Simulations
 Simulation and Discovery Learning
One particular value of simulation is that it implements
the discovery method as directly and clearly as
possible.
In discovery learning, the learner is led toward
understanding principles through grappling with a
problem situation.
Through simulations, we can offer learners and human
relation as well as in areas related to the physical
sciences, where laboratories have long been taken for
granted

Simulations
 Role Plays
Role play refers to a type of simulation in which the
dominant feature is relatively open-ended interaction
among people. In essence, a role play ask someone to
imagine that he or she is another person or is in a
particular situation; the person then behaves as the
other person would or in the way the situation seems to
demand.
The purpose is to learn something aout another kind of
person or about the dynanics of an unfamiliar situation.

Simulations
 Simulators
One familiar example of a simulator is the flight trainer,
a mock-up of the interior of the cockpit complete with
controls and gauges..

Simulations
 Advantages
 Realistic
 Save
 Simplified
 Limitations
 Time-consuming
 Oversimplification

 Applications
 Cooperative Simulation Games
Simulation Games

A simulation game combines the attributes of a
simulation (role playing, a model of reality) with the
attributes of a game (striving toward a goal, specific
rules).
Simulation Games

Simulation Games
 Applications
Instructional simulation games are
found in curriculum applications that
require both the repetitive skill
practice associated with game and
the reality context associated with
simulations.
Societal procsses (e.g., Ghetto,
Democracy), cultural conflicts (e.g.,
Bafa Bafa), historical eras (e.g.,
Empire, Manchester), and ecological
systems (e.g., Extinction) are
popular topics.

Simulation Games
 Cooperative Simulation Games
In recent years, sports psychologist and
educational psychologist have developed
new theories questioning the value and
necessity of competition in human
development.
Cooperative games challenge the body and
imagination but that depend on cooperation
for success.

Mastery Learning
The mastery learning approach grows
out of the theory that students differ in
the amount of time needed to master
each objective, not in their inherent
ability to learn the subject matter.
They have developed a specific
technology, known as Learning for
Mastery (LFM), that incorporates
specific procedure to implement
mastery learning.
The heart of LFM is the teach-test-
reteach-retest cycle.

Programmed Teaching
Programmed teaching, also known as Direct Instruction, is an attempts to apply
the principles of programmed instruction in a large-group setting.
Programmed teaching lessons are designed to generate high rates of
responding by all students. To avoid inattention or mere imitation of other
student’s responses, all are required to respond vocally at the same time, at a
hand signal by the instructor. When the teacher detects an error, he or she
follows the procedures specirfied in the protocol to correct and remediate the
error.
Programmed teaching has been used successfully in numerous experimental
programs in North America and many other parts of the world, including the
Philippines, Indonesia, and Liberia in the primary grades.

Print References
 Heinich, R., dkk. 1993. Instructional Media And Technologies For Learning. New
Jersey. Prentice-Hall, Inc.

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