98 I. DESCRIPTION OF YOUR BUSINESS In recent years, there has been an increase in the number of households that have pets, especially dogs and cats. Further, there is emerging a steadily growing group of pet owners that is will- ing to purchase upscale, unique products for these important members of their family. Pet Élan is an upscale boutique for these discrimi- nating pet owners. Pet Élan will offer high- quality pet products to discerning individuals who wish their pets to enjoy a healthy, fun, and elegant lifestyle while being pampered. By care- fully selecting luxurious accessories made with superior materials, Pet Élan will provide an elite product line that celebrates the uniqueness of each animal’s personality. II. THE PRODUCT/SERVICE Unique Features: Benefits Pet Élan will offer products that promote a healthy, fun, and elegant lifestyle for dogs and cats. Our products are grouped into three pri- mary categories: dietary products, playtime products, and accessories. Dietary Products Pet Élan will offer all-natural pet food and treats, full of essential vitamins and nutrients to pro- mote a healthy diet. We will carry two to three top-selling brands of organic pet food from the industry leaders such as Newman’s Own Organ- ics,2 Natura Pet Products,3 and Organix.4 We will also feature snacks and treats from Old Mother Hubbard,5 Three Dog Bakery,6 Flint River Ranch,7 and Howling Hound Bakery.8 Playtime Products Playing with one’s pet is also a key ingredient for a pet’s healthy lifestyle. Pet Élan will offer products that enable owners and their pets to play in style. For dogs, we will offer toys for chewing, retrieving, tugging, and chasing. For cats, we will offer toys stuffed with premium grade catnip and other toys to chase and fetch. We will offer exclusive toy brands such as Happy Dog Toys,9 KONG Toys,10 and Fat Cat, Inc.11 Accessories Pet Élan will make walking or traveling with a dog or cat an extension of the owner’s unique style with leashes, collars, and travel bags that make a statement. We will also offer pet home accessories including food and water bowls, pet furniture and pillows, and pet clothing made from fine fabrics such as silk, suede, and faux fur. Unlike other pet stores, Pet Élan will target clientele who demand top quality in pet couture. To fulfill this demand, Pet Élan will order pet clothing and accessories from the trendiest brands such as Woof: The Small Dog Company,12 Dogz Togz,13 and Ruff Ruff and Meow.14 Unique Features: Limitations One of the largest threats to the luxury pet acces- sory industry is the presence of online stores. Pet Élan will compete with these online retailers, as well as other local pet stores. Consumers have the opportunity to comparison shop on the Internet, so Pet Élan will need to carefully determine the pricing strategy for each line of accessories to re- main competitive. However, it is likely that pet owners will want to sample and view unique prod- ucts we carry an.

1. 98
I. DESCRIPTION OF YOUR BUSINESS
In recent years, there has been an increase in the
number of households that have pets, especially
dogs and cats. Further, there is emerging a
steadily growing group of pet owners that is will-
ing to purchase upscale, unique products for
these important members of their family. Pet
Élan is an upscale boutique for these discrimi-
nating pet owners. Pet Élan will offer high-
quality pet products to discerning individuals
who wish their pets to enjoy a healthy, fun, and
elegant lifestyle while being pampered. By care-
fully selecting luxurious accessories made with
superior materials, Pet Élan will provide an elite
product line that celebrates the uniqueness of
each animal’s personality.
II. THE PRODUCT/SERVICE
Unique Features: Benefits
Pet Élan will offer products that promote a
healthy, fun, and elegant lifestyle for dogs and
cats. Our products are grouped into three pri-
mary categories: dietary products, playtime
products, and accessories.
Dietary Products
Pet Élan will offer all-natural pet food and treats,
full of essential vitamins and nutrients to pro-

2. mote a healthy diet. We will carry two to three
top-selling brands of organic pet food from the
industry leaders such as Newman’s Own Organ-
ics,2 Natura Pet Products,3 and Organix.4 We
will also feature snacks and treats from Old
Mother Hubbard,5 Three Dog Bakery,6 Flint
River Ranch,7 and Howling Hound Bakery.8
Playtime Products
Playing with one’s pet is also a key ingredient for
a pet’s healthy lifestyle. Pet Élan will offer products
that enable owners and their pets to play in style.
For dogs, we will offer toys for chewing, retrieving,
tugging, and chasing. For cats, we will offer toys
stuffed with premium grade catnip and other
toys to chase and fetch. We will offer exclusive
toy brands such as Happy Dog Toys,9 KONG
Toys,10 and Fat Cat, Inc.11
Accessories
Pet Élan will make walking or traveling with a
dog or cat an extension of the owner’s unique
style with leashes, collars, and travel bags that
make a statement. We will also offer pet home
accessories including food and water bowls, pet
furniture and pillows, and pet clothing made
from fine fabrics such as silk, suede, and faux fur.
Unlike other pet stores, Pet Élan will target
clientele who demand top quality in pet couture.
To fulfill this demand, Pet Élan will order pet
clothing and accessories from the trendiest
brands such as Woof: The Small Dog Company,12
Dogz Togz,13 and Ruff Ruff and Meow.14

3. Unique Features: Limitations
One of the largest threats to the luxury pet acces-
sory industry is the presence of online stores. Pet
Élan will compete with these online retailers, as
well as other local pet stores. Consumers have the
opportunity to comparison shop on the Internet,
so Pet Élan will need to carefully determine the
pricing strategy for each line of accessories to re-
main competitive. However, it is likely that pet
owners will want to sample and view unique prod-
ucts we carry and will be willing to come to our
store for its one-of-a-kind shopping experience—
and bring their pets with them.
The rise of larger chain pet stores, like
PETCO and PETsMART, has made it much eas-
ier for pet owners to satisfy all their pet needs in
one place. These stores are now offering pet ap-
parel, pet furniture, and natural pet food. Pet
Élan will offer a higher quality, but more expen-
sive, product mix that may overlap with these
stores in some areas. To counter this, Pet Élan
will showcase the products we carry that cannot
be obtained at the larger retailers.
Competitive Advantage
Pet Élan’s competitive advantage is quality and
the ability to provide customers with the feeling
that pampering their pets is an integral part of a
healthy, fun, and contemporary lifestyle. Pet Élan
must establish this reputation through high qual-
ity products and selective advertising and through
exceptional customer service.
Appendix

4. A Sample Feasibility Study1
PET ÉLAN
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 98
Small Business Ideas: Creativity, Opportunity, and Feasibility C
H A P T E R 4 99
Stage of Development
Pet Élan is currently in the idea stage. This feasi-
bility study is the first step in exploring the mar-
ket potential for a luxury pet store. The current
time frame for introducing Pet Élan is one year.
Pet Élan has set the following milestones to ac-
complish prior to launch:
● Complete feasibility study: month 1.
● Begin and complete business plan:
months 2–4.
● Pursue start-up capital: months 5–6.
● Receive start-up capital: month 7.
● Identify store location and secure appro-
priate permits: months 7–8.
● Plan and order inventory: month 9.
● Receive inventory and set up store:
months 10–11.
● Store launch: month 12.
Legal Restrictions and Rights
Pet Élan will operate as a Sub-Chapter S Corpora-
tion to ensure limited personal liability and for tax

5. advantages. Pet Élan will have one owner, who
will have day-to-day responsibility for running the
business. The corporation will receive all income
generated by the business and pay the owner a
salary and/or reinvest in the store. A board of
directors will be appointed by the owner.
Insurance Requirements
Although business insurance may not be required,
Pet Élan will purchase insurance to protect the
corporation’s assets and to benefit employees:
● Property insurance will cover the business
in the event of damage or loss to the busi-
ness property. The insurance will need to
cover the store location’s fixtures, cash
registers/computers and any other equip-
ment, any store furniture such as display
tables and shelving, as well as inventory
and supplies.
● Liability insurance will protect the busi-
ness against the unfortunate situation of a
customer or employee being injured on the
property and suing.15
As an employer, Pet Élan will also need to
secure additional insurance for:
● Workers’ compensation insurance: The
Workers’ Compensation and Workers’
Occupational Diseases Acts require
employers to provide insurance for acci-
dental deaths, injuries, and occupational
diseases of employees arising in the course

6. of employment. Temporary workers who
normally do not receive company benefits
are still provided workers’ compensation.
The Illinois Workers’ Compensation Act
requires all employers to post a notice in
the workplace that explains workers’
rights and lists the name and address of
the workers’ compensation carrier.
● Unemployment insurance: Since Pet Élan
will most likely employ one or more work-
ers in each of 20 or more calendar weeks,
the business will be required to make unem-
ployment insurance contributions to the Illi-
nois Department of Employment Security.16
Trends Related to the Product or Service
Several studies show that pet ownership is at an
all-time high and that people are taking better
care of their pets and spending more money on
them than previously. Surveys conducted every
two years by the American Pet Products Manu-
facturers Association, Inc. (APPMA) show that
63.4 million households have a pet, compared to
52.6 million households a decade ago.17 Pet Élan
will cater to the increasing number of customers
that consider their pets a full-fledged member of
the family.
Trends in Customer Demographics
The demographics of the typical customers of
the pet industry have been shifting over recent
years from married with children, to younger,
cohabitating couples who are waiting longer for
marriage, as well as married baby boomers look-
ing to fill their empty nests, and single house-

7. holds composed of divorcees and seniors looking
for companionship. In fact, only one-third of all
pet owners today are married with children.18
Trends in Pet Products
The pet products industry is booming. The up-
scale pet services industry was named as a hot
market by Entrepreneur magazine in its annual
prediction of the hottest business ideas for both
2004 and 2005.19 The APPMA also cites luxury,
natural, and hygiene products as the top three
amongst its top ten trends in pet gifts.20 In fact,
the APPMA further notes that high-tech and
high-end products such as luxury doghouses are
showing the most growth.21
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 99
Similar to the human food industry, pet food
trends are moving toward more organic and
natural products. The Organic Trade Associa-
tion reported that organic pet food sales are up
by 63 percent from last year and are growing at
almost three times the rate of human organic
food sales.22
III. THE INDUSTRY AND MARKET
Current Industry
Americans spent a total of $34.4 billion on pet
food, care, and supplies in 2004, and the indus-
try is estimated to increase to $35.9 billion in
2005. Sixty-five percent of this estimated total
was spent on food and supplies alone (supplies

8. also included medicine).23
This growing industry is made up of a diverse
customer base. Although families have been the
traditional focal point of pet-related businesses,
only one-third of all pet owners today are mar-
ried with children.24 Pet Élan plans to not only
target this traditional market, but also to reach
out to newer niche markets such as seniors,
young unmarried, and middle-aged couples who
are married but have no children.
Thirty-nine percent of Americans between the
ages of 55 and 64 own a pet.25 One of the largest
percentages of pet owners is 18- to 34-year-old
married Americans without children (52 percent).
Of this group, 36 percent own a dog and 26 per-
cent own a cat. In addition, this group is 33 per-
cent more likely than the average American to
own more than one pet.26 Finally, 52 percent of
married 35- and 54-year-olds without children
have a pet and 31 percent have two or more.
Market Potential for This Industry
One out of three U.S. households owns a dog or
cat,27 and over 80 percent of pet owners pur-
chased at least one accessory for their pet during
the past year.28 In 2003, MarketResearch.com
predicted that the pet supplies industry would be
an $8 billion market by 2007.29 Business Com-
munications Co. projects that the pet services in-
dustry as a whole (including pet food, pet services,
and pet supplies) will grow to $36.3 billion by
2008.30
Despite this promising growth and if the econ-

9. omy continues to contract, customers may have
less disposable income. The percentage they in-
tended to spend on their cat or dog may be
diverted for necessity purchases. However,
according to pet industry analyst Julia Dvorko,
“Owners tend to pamper their pets even when
they have to cut back on [household] spending.
After all, even during economic downturns, peo-
ple give gifts to family members and buy special
treats for their children.”31
The Competition
Pet Élan plans to open in the 60657 zip code area
of Chicago, Illinois, locally known as Lakeview.
There are 22 pet-related businesses in this zip
code: nine are veterinarians, three are pet sitting/
walking services, three are pet grooming services,
three large chain pet stores (one PETsMart,
two PETCO), two combination pet grooming/
accessories stores, a combination boarding/training
store, a pet adoption/accessories store, and one
boutique called “Sam & Willy’s: A Bow Meow
Boutique.”
While not competing directly in the 60657
area code market, national companies including
Paul Mitchell, Omaha Steaks, Origins, Harley
Davidson, and Old Navy are now offering lines
of pet products ranging from dog shampoo, pet
attire, and name-brand toys to gourmet treats
and food.32 Although these companies have rec-
ognizable brand identities, they do not specialize
in the pet retail market. They do not carry a full
line of pet products as Pet Élan will, and they
cater more to impulse buyers rather than dis-

10. cerning pet owners.
The following table compares the strengths
and weaknesses of a subset of the competitor pet
stores in the 60657 area code, as well as online
retailers, and highlights the differentiating fea-
tures of Pet Élan.
Customers
According to the APPMA, 62 percent of house-
holds in the United States own a pet, and 46 per-
cent of households own more than one pet. Also,
as mentioned earlier, dogs or cats are found in at
least one out of three households (in the United
States).33 Data collected on dog owners show
that they are likely to be married high school
graduates who own their homes. As income in-
creases, the percentage of households with a dog
increases as well.34 In fact, 75 percent of the
households with dogs have a combined income
of greater than $35,000. This is consistent with
the specific market profile of the clientele Pet
Élan plans to target in the 60657 zip code.
100 P A R T 1 Entrepreneurs, Ideas, and Plans: The Basis of
Small Business
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 100
Small Business Ideas: Creativity, Opportunity, and Feasibility C
H A P T E R 4 101
Ar
ea

11. p
et
g
ro
om
in
g/
ac
ce
ss
or
ie
s
st
or
es
PE
TC
O3
5
PE
Ts
M
ar

12. t3
6
Om
ah
a
St
ea
ks
37
Ol
d
Na
vy
/H
ar
le
y
Da
vi
ds
on
38
Sa

13. m
&
W
ill
y’
s:
A
Bo
w
M
eo
w
B
ou
tiq
ue
39
•
Cu
st
om
er
s
w

14. ho
se
p
et
s
ar
e
be
in
g
gr
oo
m
ed
c
an
br
ow
se
w
hi
le
t
he

15. y
w
ai
t
fo
r
th
ei
r
pe
ts
•
W
el
l-e
st
ab
lis
he
d
br
an
d
id

16. en
tit
y
•
Al
l-i
n-
on
e
br
ic
k-
an
d-
m
or
ta
r
st
or
es
•
W
id

17. e
se
le
ct
io
n
of
b
as
ic
p
et
n
ec
es
si
tie
s
•
On
lin
e
sh
op

18. pi
ng
•
W
el
l-e
st
ab
lis
he
d
br
an
d
id
en
tit
y
•
Al
l-i
n-
on
e

19. br
ic
k-
an
d-
m
or
ta
r
st
or
es
•
W
id
e
se
le
ct
io
n
of
b
as

20. ic
p
et
n
ec
es
si
tie
s
•
On
lin
e
sh
op
pi
ng
•
Cu
st
om
er
s

21. m
ay
a
dd
o
n
pe
t
tre
at
s
as
a
n
im
pu
ls
e
w
he
n
sh
op
pi

22. ng
f
or
t
he
m
se
lv
es
o
r
fo
r
gi
fts
•
Re
co
gn
iz
ab
le
b
ra

23. nd
•
Ca
n
ta
rg
et
im
pu
ls
e
bu
ye
rs
w
ho
a
re
m
ak
in
g
ot
he

24. r
pu
rc
ha
se
s
•
Pr
ov
id
es
a
cc
es
so
rie
s
an
d
gi
fts
t
o
pe

25. ts
a
nd
t
he
ir
ow
ne
rs
in
a
b
ou
tiq
ue
s
et
tin
g
•
Pr
ov
id

26. es
v
ar
ie
ty
o
f
or
ga
ni
c
pe
t
fo
od
b
ra
nd
s
•
Li
m
ite
d

27. se
le
ct
io
n
•
Pe
t
gr
oo
m
in
g
is
c
or
e
co
m
pe
te
nc
y,
no

28. t
se
lli
ng
a
cc
es
so
rie
s
•
Do
es
n
ot
s
el
l p
et
f
oo
d
be
ca

29. us
e
of
hi
gh
s
hi
pp
in
g
co
st
s
•
Li
m
ite
d
nu
m
be
r
of

30. b
ra
nd
s
in
p
et
cl
ot
hi
ng
a
nd
a
cc
es
so
rie
s
•
In
ex
pe
rie

31. nc
ed
s
al
es
a
ss
oc
ia
te
s
•
Se
lls
p
et
f
oo
d
on
lin
e,
bu
t

32. co
ns
um
er
fa
ce
s
hi
gh
s
hi
pp
in
g
co
st
s
•
M
or
e
pe
t
cl

33. ot
hi
ng
a
nd
a
cc
es
so
rie
s
br
an
ds
t
ha
n
PE
TC
O,
bu
t
no
t

34. hi
gh
-
en
d
br
an
ds
•
In
ex
pe
rie
nc
ed
s
al
es
a
ss
oc
ia
te
s

35. •
Li
m
ite
d
se
le
ct
io
n—
on
ly
o
ffe
rs
o
ne
va
rie
ty
o
f
pe
t

36. tre
at
s
•
Pr
od
uc
ts
a
re
n
ot
c
ur
re
nt
ly
a
va
ila
bl
e
on

37. W
eb
s
ite
•
V e
ry
s
pe
ci
fic
t
ar
ge
t
au
di
en
ce
s
•
St
at
ic

38. W
eb
s
ite
•
Sp
on
so
r
lo
ca
l a
ni
m
al
s
he
lte
rs
b
ut
do
es
n’

39. t
ha
ve
s
oc
ia
l e
nt
re
pr
en
eu
ria
l
m
is
si
on
•
Co
re
c
om
pe

40. te
nc
y
an
d
pr
im
ar
y
fo
cu
s
of
st
or
e
ar
e
on
s
el
ec
tin
g

41. an
d
se
lli
ng
lu
xu
ry
pe
t
pr
od
uc
ts
a
nd
a
cc
es
so
rie
s
•
Ca

42. te
rs
t
o
di
sc
er
ni
ng
p
et
a
nd
o
w
ne
r
ta
st
es
b
y
pr
ov

43. id
in
g
hi
gh
-e
nd
p
et
p
ro
du
ct
s
an
d
ac
ce
ss
or
ie
s
•
St

44. or
e
ow
ne
r
bu
ild
s
pe
rs
on
al
r
el
at
io
ns
hi
ps
w
ith
c
us
to

45. m
er
s
ba
se
d
on
k
no
w
le
dg
ea
bl
e
se
rv
ic
e
th
at
f
oc
us

46. es
o
n
th
ei
r
in
di
vi
du
al
pr
ef
er
en
ce
s
an
d
pe
t’s
p
er
so

47. na
lit
y
•
Ca
te
rs
t
o
di
sc
er
ni
ng
p
et
a
nd
o
w
ne
r
ta
st

48. es
b
y
pr
ov
id
in
g
hi
gh
-e
nd
p
et
p
ro
du
ct
s
an
d
ac
ce
ss

49. or
ie
s
•
St
or
e
ow
ne
r
bu
ild
s
pe
rs
on
al
r
el
at
io
ns
hi
ps

50. w
ith
c
us
to
m
er
s
ba
se
d
on
k
no
w
le
dg
ea
bl
e
se
rv
ic
e

51. th
at
f
oc
us
es
o
n
th
ei
r
in
di
vi
du
al
pr
ef
er
en
ce
s
an
d

52. pe
t’s
p
er
so
na
lit
y
•
Pe
t
Él
an
w
ill
o
ffe
r
a
w
id
er
v
ar

53. ie
ty
o
f
pe
t
tre
at
s
(a
ll
or
ga
ni
c)
•
P e
t
Él
an
w
ill
t

54. ar
ge
t
cu
st
om
er
s
th
at
lo
ok
fo
r
th
e
la
te
st
p
et
c
ou
tu

55. re
b
y
fo
cu
si
ng
o
n
br
an
ds
m
ad
e
ex
cl
us
iv
el
y
fo
r
pe

56. ts
•
W
eb
s
ite
w
ill
p
ro
vi
de
t
ip
s
an
d
tre
nd
s
fo
r
hi
p

57. pe
t
ow
ne
rs
•
F i
ve
p
er
ce
nt
o
f
pr
et
ax
p
ro
fit
s
w
ill
g

58. o
to
a
lo
ca
l n
o-
ki
ll
an
im
al
s
he
lte
r
C
o
m
p
e
ti
to
r

59. P
e
t
D
if
fe
re
n
ti
a
ti
n
g
F
e
a
tu
re
s
S
to
re
s
in
Z

60. ip
C
o
d
e
S
tr
e
n
g
th
s
W
e
a
k
n
e
ss
e
s
o
f
P
e
t
É

61. la
n
C
o
m
p
e
ti
ti
ve
A
n
a
ly
si
s
o
f
P
e
t
S
to
re
s

62. kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 101
102 P A R T 1 Entrepreneurs, Ideas, and Plans: The Basis of
Small Business
Seventy-six percent of Lakeview households
have a combined income of $35,000 or more
(see chart).40
Additionally, 30 percent of Lakeview residents
own their homes, and 94 percent of residents
over age 25 are high school graduates. The aver-
age family size is 2.56 with 7,523 residents below
the age of 16 and 7,706 senior residents (65�).
The median household income is $63,695.41 Of
the approximately 49,534 employed residents 16
years and older in the 60657 zip code area (as of
the 2000 census), 64 percent are in “manage-
ment, professional, and related occupations.”42
Market Penetration
Pet Élan will serve customers in a boutique setting
where pets are welcome to browse along with
their owners. The store will operate with a social
entrepreneurial mission and will donate 5 percent
of pretax profits to a local no-kill animal shelter.
Consistent with this socially responsible mission,
Pet Élan will work with other area pet-related
businesses to form a network of highly qualified
veterinarians, as well as well-established board-
ing, grooming, in-home sitting, and training service
providers. By connecting Pet Élan customers with
reliable service providers, Pet Élan will also bene-
fit from the reciprocal referrals from these service

63. providers.
Pet Élan will also maintain a Web site, but ini-
tially only to provide the location and hours of
operation. As the business grows, the Web site
could include tips and trends information for
current and future consumers to keep up with
the latest in pet fashion accessories. Pet Élan will
seek assistance from a local college or Small
Business Development Center for the Web site
and market research assistance.
When the Pet Élan storefront opens, we plan to
advertise by hosting a series of pet fashion shows,
combined with an adoption event with local pet
shelters. The events will raise awareness among
clientele and would help a good cause. Until Pet
Élan breaks even, the store will rely on the advertis-
ing and public relations from partnering with other
service providers to draw customers into the store.
IV. FINANCIAL PROJECTIONS
Pricing
Pet Élan will price the merchandise it intends to
sell using cost-plus pricing. The base cost will be
the wholesale cost of the pet product, and the
markup component will be the profit Pet Élan
will make on each product. For purposes of this
feasibility study, Pet Élan will assume a 54 per-
cent margin on goods sold. Because Pet Élan will
be selling luxury products and because the target
clientele is customers with a large percentage of
disposable income, we will work to maximize
the profit from each item sold.

64. The store will also follow a price skimming
strategy, meaning it will set relatively high prices
on the newest luxury products when they are
first released, and then lower the price over time.
By maintaining a wide selection of the newest
fashions and accessories for cats and dogs, Pet
Élan will be able to charge a higher price for
newly released items, reducing prices as the trend
becomes more mainstream.
Less than 15K
15K–25K
25K–35K
35K–50K
50K+
Household Income for Lakeview Residents
60%
9%
7%
8%
16%
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 102
Small Business Ideas: Creativity, Opportunity, and Feasibility C
H A P T E R 4 103

65. The social entrepreneurial mission is to do-
nate 5 percent of pretax profits to a local no-kill
animal shelter, and this amount will be donated
quarterly based on pretax profits from that quar-
ter. Pet Élan made the following assumptions in
putting together the sales revenue forecast for
the first three years of operations:
● Pet Élan will sign a three-year rental agree-
ment for a 2,000 square-foot storefront lo-
cation. The rental property will be priced
at $35 per square foot, with an additional
real estate tax of $9.50 per square foot per
annum.
● Pet Élan will be open for business six days a
week (Monday through Saturday) from ten
o’clock in the morning until seven o’clock
in the evening. The store will be closed on
Sunday.
● It is estimated that the average Pet Élan cus-
tomer will spend $18 per visit and will visit
the store, on average, two times per month.
● Pet Élan will contribute 5 percent of pre-
tax profits to a local no-kill animal shelter
on a quarterly basis. This contribution has
been accounted for in the pretax net profit
(loss) forecast.
Based on these assumptions and a break-even
analysis, Pet Élan’s break-even sales will be
$263,699, or $21,975 per month. This was cal-
culated by determining the total fixed costs in the
first year and by dividing it by a gross margin ex-

66. pressed as a percentage of sales.
Sales Revenue Forecast
Pet Élan forecasts gross revenues during year one
of operations to be $296,740. The gross revenues
for year two and year three are predicted to in-
crease to $404,448 and $458,304, respectively.
Cost Forecast
Pet Élan will maintain an inventory of products
in each of the three primary areas of focus men-
tioned earlier: dietary products, playtime prod-
ucts, and accessories. As products are purchased,
Pet Élan will reorder monthly to maintain a suf-
ficient inventory to serve its customers’ needs.
Pet Élan has estimated that initial inventory will
cost $20,000. The wholesale cost of inventory
for the first year is estimated to be $147,000. As
the customer base grows, Pet Élan will need to
have a significantly higher amount of inventory
on hand to support increased demand. The future
cost of inventory is forecast to be $186,880 for
year two and $211,730 for year three.
Gross Margin
The gross margin (sales minus cost of goods sold)
for Pet Élan during the first three years of opera-
tion is estimated to be $159,620, $217,568, and
$246,574 respectively.
Operating Expenses
There are several operational costs associated
with running a pet store like Pet Élan, and these
are also accounted for in the budget forecast for
the first three years of operation. These opera-

67. tional expenses include items such as rent, utili-
ties, advertising costs, and professional services
assistance. These operational costs are summa-
rized in total operating expenses and are forecast
to be $147,907 for year one, $190,881 for year
two, and $201,744 for year three.
The owner will be the primary employee of
Pet Élan for the first three months of operation.
Beginning in the fourth month of operation, Pet
Élan will hire one full-time sales associate. As the
business grows, Pet Élan anticipates hiring a sec-
ond full-time sales associate during the second
year of operation. The full-time sales associates
will assist the owner with customer service and
other retail functions. Pet Élan will pay the sales
associate approximately $12.25 per hour (or
$25,500 per year) for the work.43
Profitability
The expected net profit of Pet Élan for the first
year of operation is $10,660. This profit is ex-
pected to grow significantly in the future two
years as some of the initial start-up costs are de-
frayed and the customer base becomes larger. In
year two the net profit is forecast to be $25,345,
and in year three it is estimated to be $42,589.
V. FUTURE ACTION PLAN
Start-up Capital
To start the business, Pet Élan will need to have
enough start-up capital to cover leasing costs to
secure the storefront location. The start-up cap-
ital will also need to cover insurance and oper-
ating expenses including appropriate licensing,

68. store utilities, and professional services such as
legal and accounting assistance. Initial inventory,
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 103
104 P A R T 1 Entrepreneurs, Ideas, and Plans: The Basis of
Small Business
as well as retail equipment needs (such as a cash
register) will require a large initial investment.
These needs will be funded through the start-up
capital that Pet Élan secures prior to opening.
The amount needed is estimated to be $70,000.
Sources of Start-up Capital
The start-up capital of $70,000 is composed of
45 percent (or $31,500) of the owner’s personal
savings, 25 percent (or $17,500) of a bank loan,
in addition to two equity investors (one family
member of the owner and one local veterinarian),
each with a 15 percent stake (or $10,500) in the
company.
Further Information Needed
To ensure the successful opening of Pet Élan, we
must have a deeper understanding of the customer
needs in the area. Conducting market research in
the 60657 zip code area, using techniques such as
surveys and/or focus groups of customers in Pet
Élan’s target market, could assess these needs. Pet
Élan should also begin to approach other pet ser-
vice providers in the area to explore potential
partnership opportunities that could help raise
awareness about both Pet Élan and the partnering

69. business. This would also allow the owner of Pet
Élan to form a network within the local pet prod-
ucts and services industry.
Writing a Business Plan
Pet Élan’s next step is to create a business plan to
further explore the business model of Pet Élan
from an objective point of view. By identifying
strengths and weaknesses, opportunities and
threats for Pet Élan as compared to other market
competitors, the company will have a much bet-
ter chance of reaching the business and financial
objectives outlined in this feasibility study. The
business plan will also provide vital information
about the business to potential investors and
allow them to evaluate the viability of Pet Élan’s
business model.
Support Needed
Pet Élan will seek guidance from a local Small
Business Development Center. Pet Élan will re-
view the initial draft of the business plan with a
volunteer from the Service Corps of Retired Ex-
ecutives (SCORE), which is associated with the
Small Business Association, to learn from his or
her experience. Pet Élan will also form an advi-
sory board made up of small business owners
and members of the pet retail industry.
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 104
Small Business Ideas: Creativity, Opportunity, and Feasibility C
H A P T E R 4 105

70. FINANCIALS–SUMMARY
Year 1 Year 2 Year 3
Revenue $296,740 $404,448 $458,304
Cost of Goods Sold 137,120 186,880 211,730
Gross margin 159,620 217,568 246,574
Operating expenses $147,907 $190,881 $201,744
Net profit (loss) pretax $ 11,713 $ 26,687 $ 44,830
Net profit (loss) pretax and post contribution (5%) $ 10,660 $
25,345 $ 42,589
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 105
106106 P A R T 1 Entrepreneurs, Ideas, and Plans: The Basis
of Small Business
FINANCIALS—YEAR 1
Month 1 Month 2 Month 3 Month 4 Month 5 Month 6
September October November December January February
Sales $11,620 $16,900 $20,060 $27,460 $20,060 $21,120
Less Cost of Goods Sold $ 5,370 $ 7,810 $ 9,270 $12,690 $
9,270 $ 9,760
Gross Margin $ 6,250 $ 9,090 $10,790 $14,770 $10,790 $11,360

71. Operating Expenses
Utilities 185 160 165 180 200 200
Salaries 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500
Labor — — — 2,125 2,125 2,125
Payroll Taxes and Benefits 313 313 313 578 578 578
Advertising 300 300 300 300 300 300
Website 20 20 20 20 20 20
Office Supplies 150 75 50 50 50 50
Insurance 250 250 250 400 400 400
Maintenance and Cleaning 50 50 50 50 50 50
Legal and Accounting 350 350 350 350 350 350
Licenses 300 — — — — —
Bags, Paper, etc. 150 150 200 250 250 250
Telephone 85 85 85 85 85 85
Miscellaneous 200 200 200 200 200 200
Rent 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833
Total Operating Expenses
(Fixed Costs): 10,686 10,286 10,316 12,921 12,941 12,941

72. Gross Profit (Loss) (4,436) (1,196) 475 1,849 (2,151) (1,581)
Contribution to Charity (5% of net): — — 24 92 — —
Net Profit (Loss) Pre-Tax: (4,436) (1,196) 451 1,756 (2,151)
(1,581)
First year fixed costs (FC) $ 147,910
Contribution Margin Ratio (CMR) ((sales - cogs)/sales) 53.8%
Annual breakeven sales (FC / CMR) $ 274,970
Average monthly breakeven sales $ 22,910
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 106
107Small Business Ideas: Creativity, Opportunity, and
Feasibility C H A P T E R 4 107
Month 7 Month 8 Month 9 Month 10 Month 11 Month 12 Total
March April May June July August
$ 24,290 $ 26,400 $ 28,510 $ 31,680 $ 35,900 $ 32,740 $
296,740
$11,220 $12,200 $13,170 $14,640 $16,590 $15,130 $137,120
$13,070 $14,200 $15,340 $17,040 $19,310 $17,610 $159,620
180 170 165 185 185 185 2,160
2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 30,000

73. 2,125 2,125 2,125 2,125 2,125 2,125 19,125
578 578 578 578 578 578 6,141
300 300 300 300 300 300 3,600
20 20 20 20 20 20 240
50 50 50 50 50 50 725
400 400 400 400 400 400 4,350
50 50 50 50 50 50 600
350 350 350 350 350 350 4,200
— — — — — — 300
300 300 300 300 300 300 3,050
85 85 85 85 85 85 1,020
200 200 200 200 200 200 2,400
5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 69,996
12,971 12,961 12,956 12,976 12,976 12,976 147,907
99 1,239 2,384 4,064 6,334 4,634 11,713
5 62 119 203 317 232 1,054
94 1,177 2,265 3,861 6,017 4,402 $ 10,660
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 107

74. 108108 P A R T 1 Entrepreneurs, Ideas, and Plans: The Basis
of Small Business
FINANCIALS—YEAR 2
September October November December January February
Sales: $31,680 $33,790 $35,900 $35,900 $29,570 $32,740
Less Cost of Goods Sold $14,640 $15,610 $16,590 $16,590
$13,660 $15,130
Gross Margin $17,040 $18,180 $19,310 $19,310 $15,910
$17,610
Operating Expenses
Utilities 195 170 175 190 210 210
Salaries 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500
Labor 4,250 4,250 4,250 4,250 4,250 4,250
Payroll Taxes and Benefits 844 844 844 844 844 844
Advertising 400 400 400 400 400 400
Website 30 30 30 30 30 30
Office Supplies 100 100 100 100 100 100
Insurance 550 550 550 550 550 550
Maintenance and Cleaning 60 60 60 60 60 60

75. Legal and Accounting 400 400 400 400 400 400
Licenses 300 — — — — —
Bags, Paper, etc. 400 400 400 400 400 400
Telephone 100 100 100 100 100 100
Miscellaneous 225 225 225 225 225 225
Rent 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833
Total Operating Expenses: 16,187 15,862 15,867 15,882 15,902
15,902
Gross Profit (Loss) 853 2,318 3,443 3,428 8 1,708
Contribution to Charity
(5% of net): 43 116 172 171 0 85
Net Profit (Loss) Pre-Tax: 811 2,202 3,271 3,257 8 1,623
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 108
109Small Business Ideas: Creativity, Opportunity, and
Feasibility C H A P T E R 4 109
March April May June July August Total
$31,680 $32,740 $34,850 $35,900 $33,790 $35,900 $404,448
$14,640 $15,130 $16,100 $16,590 $15,610 $16,590 $186,880
$17,040 $17,610 $18,750 $19,310 $18,180 $19,310 $217,568

76. 190 180 175 195 195 195 2,280
2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 2,500 30,000
4,250 4,250 4,250 4,250 4,250 4,250 51,000
844 844 844 844 844 844 10,125
400 400 400 400 400 400 4,800
30 30 30 30 30 30 360
100 100 100 100 100 100 1,200
550 550 550 550 550 550 6,600
60 60 60 60 60 60 720
400 400 400 400 400 400 4,800
— — — — — — 300
400 400 400 400 400 400 4,800
100 100 100 100 100 100 1,200
225 225 225 225 225 225 2,700
5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 69,996
15,882 15,872 15,867 15,887 15,887 15,887 190,881
1,158 1,738 2,883 3,423 2,293 3,423 26,687
58 87 144 171 115 171 1,334

77. 1,100 1,651 2,739 3,252 2,179 3,252 $ 25,345
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 109
110110 P A R T 1 Entrepreneurs, Ideas, and Plans: The Basis
of Small Business
FINANCIALS—YEAR 3
September October November December January February
Total Sales: $35,904 $33,792 $38,016 $42,240 $33,792 $35,904
Cost of Goods Sold: $16,590 $15,610 $17,560 $19,510 $15,610
$16,590
Gross Margin $19,314 $18,182 $20,456 $22,730 $18,182
$19,314
Operating Expenses
Utilities 205 180 185 200 220 220
Salaries 2,750 2,750 2,750 2,750 2,750 2,750
Variable Labor 4,674 4,674 4,674 4,674 4,674 4,674
Payroll Taxes and Benefits 928 928 928 928 928 928
Advertising 400 400 400 400 400 400
Website 32 32 32 32 32 32

78. Office Supplies 120 120 120 120 120 120
Insurance 570 570 570 570 570 570
Maintenance and Cleaning 70 70 70 70 70 70
Legal and Accounting 440 440 440 440 440 440
Licenses 300 — — — — —
Bags, Paper, etc. 420 420 420 420 420 420
Telephone 125 125 125 125 125 125
Miscellaneous 225 225 225 225 225 225
Rent 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833
Total Operating Expenses: 17,092 16,767 16,772 16,787 16,807
16,807
Net Profit (Loss) Pre-Tax: 2,222 1,415 3,684 5,943 1,375 2,507
Contribution (5%) 111 71 184 297 69 125
Final Net Profit (Loss) Pre-Tax: 2,111 1,344 3,500 5,646 1,306
2,382
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 110
111Small Business Ideas: Creativity, Opportunity, and
Feasibility C H A P T E R 4 111
March April May June July August Total

79. $38,016 $40,128 $40,128 $40,128 $40,128 $40,128 $458,304
$17,560 $18,540 $18,540 $18,540 $18,540 $18,540 $211,730
$20,456 $21,588 $21,588 $21,588 $21,588 $21,588 $246,574
200 190 185 205 205 205 2,400
2,750 2,750 2,750 2,750 2,750 2,750 33,000
4,674 4,674 4,674 4,674 4,674 4,674 56,088
928 928 928 928 928 928 11,136
400 400 400 400 400 400 4,800
32 32 32 32 32 32 384
120 120 120 120 120 120 1,440
570 570 570 570 570 570 6,840
70 70 70 70 70 70 840
440 440 440 440 440 440 5,280
— — — — — — 300
420 420 420 420 420 420 5,040
125 125 125 125 125 125 1,500
225 225 225 225 225 225 2,700
5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 5,833 69,996

80. 16,787 16,777 16,772 16,792 16,792 16,792 201,744
3,669 4,811 4,816 4,796 4,796 4,796 44,830
183 241 241 240 240 240 2,242
3,486 4,570 4,575 4,556 4,556 4,556 $ 42,589
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 111
112112 P A R T 1 Entrepreneurs, Ideas, and Plans: The Basis
of Small Business
INITIAL CALCULATIONS
Cost Assumptions First Year of Operations
Fixed Costs (FC) Monthly Annually
Lease payment ($35 / sq. foot) $ 5,833 $ 70,000
Utilities 200 2,400
Insurance 833 10,000
Salary of Owner 2,500 30,000
Salary of Sales Assistant 2,125 25,500
Advertising 200 2,400
General supplies 300 3,600
Professional Services 667 8,000
Miscellaneous Expenses 417 5,000

81. Website 20 240
Total 13,095 157,140
Variable Costs (VC) Monthly Annually
Cost of Goods Sold 11,427 137,120
Total 28,250 339,000
Break-Even Amount Monthly Annually
Contribution margin ratio (CMR) 53.8% 53.8%
Breakeven (FC CMR) $ 24,340 $292,082
Daily Monthly Annually
Breakeven number of customers 45 1,352 486,803
Assumptions:
Rental location will be 2,000 square feet
Average customer spends $18 per visit and comes to the store
on average twice per month.
One Time Startup Costs
Licensing & permits $ 300
Decorating $ 800
Signage $ 5,000

82. Beginning Inventory $40,000
Fixtures and Equipment $ 6,000
Professional fees (accountant, attorney) $ 5,000
Total $57,100
kat67986_ch04_76_113 10/28/05 1:20 PM Page 112
Exposure to Newspapers and Attitudes
toward Ethnic Minorities : A Longitudinal
Analysis
Maurice Vergeer
Department of Methodology
University of Nijmegen
The Netherlands
Marcel Lubbers and Peer Scheepers
Department of Sociology
University of Nijmegen
The Netherlands
This study aims to test whether exposure to certain newspapers
leads
people to perceive ethnic minorities as more threatening.
Building on culti-
vation theory as developed by Gerbner, this study extends his

83. theory by
looking at the possible eþects of exposure to newspapers.
Results indicate that exposure to a newspaper characterized by
nega-
tive reporting about ethnic crime leads people to perceive ethnic
minor-
ities as more of a threat than exposure to other newspapers
does.
KEYWORDS ethnic minorities, mass media, cultivation theory
T
here has been much debate in recent years about the presence of
ethnic minor-
ities in West-European countries. Much of this debate can be
attributed to the
increase in ethnic immigration in West-European countries,
including the
Netherlands. After a sharp drop in 1981, the inýux of ethnic
minorities consistently
increased from 10,000 per year in the period 1982–1985 to over
65,000 in 1994
(Centraal Bureau Voor de Statistiek [ CBS ], 1995, 1996).
As in many other countries, there has been much social unrest
in the Nether-
lands, especially about the temporary housing of ethnic
minorities. More generally,
many indicators show that during this period the traditional

84. norm of ethnic tolerance
has declined and, in turn, ethnic intolerance has grown. One of
the indicators of this
growth in ethnic intolerance is the support the Dutch population
expresses for ethnic
discrimination : This has increased since 1984. In both 1985 and
1989, about 31% of
the Dutch population expressed support for ethnic
discrimination. By 1992 this
support had increased to almost 35%, whereas by 1993 it
exceeded 40% (Coenders
Address correspondence to Maurice Vergeer, Department of
Methodology, Uni-
versity of Nijmegen, P.O. Box 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The
Netherlands. E-mail :
[email protected]
T he Howard J ournal of Communications, 11 :127–143, 2000
Copyright 2000 Taylor & FrancisÓ
1064-6175/00 $12.00 1 .00 127
128 M. Vergeer et al.
& Scheepers, 1998 ; Scheepers, 1996). In 1994 almost 40% of
the voters agreed to
restrict ethnic immigration, and almost 40% opposed the equal
treatment of ethnic
minorities in the labor market (Scheepers, Schmeets, & Felling,
1997).

85. Newspapers have given wide coverage to this recent inýux of
ethnic minorities
and the increased intolerance. Quantitative analysis (Lubbers,
Scheepers, & Wester,
1998) of all articles about ethnic issues published in three major
Dutch newspapers
between 1990 and 1995 has shown that over time the number of
these news reports of
ethnic minority issues has increased (see Figure 1). This trend
accompanied the
increase in ethnic immigration. Our study focuses on readers’
perception of these
ethnic issues in three important daily newspapers in the
Netherlands, namely, the
V olkskrant, the T elegraaf and the Gelderlander. The
Volkskrant, a rather progressive
newspaper, has the country’ s third largest market share. The T
elegraaf, a somewhat
conservative newspaper, has the largest market share. The
Gelderlander is the largest
regional newspaper in the Netherlands.
Bovenkerk (1978) and Van Dijk (1991, 1993) used content
analysis to show that

86. the news media tend to portray ethnic minorities in a somewhat
unfavorable light.
News reports link ethnic minorities predominantly to
problematic topics such as
crime, drugs, violence, and evictions (Van Dijk, 1983, 1987,
1991). Figure 1 conürms
these previous studies. It shows that in 1992 the number of
newspaper articles about
ethnic crime increased sharply. The period from 1992 through
1994 is relatively
stable in terms of the number of articles published about ethnic
crime. Then in 1995
there is a slight decrease.
Van Dijk has argued that, to maintain their power and that of
the White major-
ity, White elites tend to favor a positive representation of their
own group and a
negative representation of minorities (1993, p. 248). This means
that they select
topics that characterize ethnic minorities negatively—news that
deünes minorities as
Figure 1 Number of articles about ethnic crime per year (total
and per
newspaper). (Derived from Lubbers et al., Ethnic minorities in
dutch

87. newspapers 1990–1995 : Patterns of criminalization and prob-
lematization, 1998).
Exposure to Newspapers 129
diþerent, problematic, deviant, or threatening (1993, p. 249).
The news also tends to
present the topic of immigration as problematic. It draws
attention to the large
numbers, immigration rackets, and ‘‘economic’’ refugees who
are reported to be
‘‘living oþ our pockets’’ (p. 278). Also, ethnic minorities
themselves hardly have a
voice in the news : Competent and critical minority experts,
especially those special-
ized in ethnic aþairs, tend to be ignored, marginalized,
discredited, or even attacked
in the White press (p. 254).
Van Dijk also detects diþerences between conservative and
liberal newspapers.
The conservative newspapers take a less favorable approach
toward ethnic minorities
than the liberal newspapers do. These ündings have led Van
Dijk to conclude that

88. newspapers are responsible for a continued process of
polarization between ‘‘us’’ and
‘‘them.’’ This, in turn, may lead readers to believe that ethnic
immigration, and the
presence of ethnic minorities as such, pose a threat to society as
a whole and to
certain social groups in particular.
Research Problem
Few studies on the nature of news reports about ethnic
minorities researched the
consequences of exposure to these reports. In this article the
authors continue and
build on this line of research. Bovenkerk (1978) and Van Dijk
(1983, 1991) have
assumed a relationship between media messages and readers’
attitudes. However, it
has yet to be established whether exposure to this kind of
‘‘ethnic news’’ does indeed
have a detrimental eþect on people’s attitudes toward ethnic
minorities. This study
sets out to test this crucial assumption of whether being exposed
to newspaper articles
about ethnic minorities is related to unfavorable attitudes
toward ethnic minorities.

89. In other words, to what extent exposure to newspapers is
associated with people’s
perceptions of ethnic threat will be investigated. Also tested
will be whether this eþect
is constant over time, or whether it increases or decreases over
the years as the media
coverage of ethnic issues increases or decreases. The following
research questions will
be answered :
1. Do people exposed to diþerent newspapers diþer in the extent
to which
they perceive ethnic minorities as a threat ?
2. To what extent can people’s perception of ethnic threat be
attributed
solely to their exposure to newspapers, and to what extent can it
be
attributed to other social forces such as their own
sociostructural charac-
teristics and political orientation ?
3. Does the relationship between exposure to newspapers and
the perception
of ethnic threat vary over the years ?

90. Theories about Media Exposure and the Perception of Ethnic
Threat
Our ürst question is a speciüc formulation of an old question :
Does being
exposed to media messages aþect people’s attitudes ? One
important approach to the
study of media inýuences is Gerbner’s theory of cultural
indicators (1969, 1973). This
theory consists of a three-part analysis. First is the analysis of
institutional processes,
which focuses on the manner in which media institutions
operate and conduct their
130 M. Vergeer et al.
business. Second is the analysis of the message system that
focuses on the media
institutions’ products, namely, their messages. And third comes
the cultivation
analysis. This is perhaps the most important analysis because it
focuses on the impli-
cations of the previous two. The cultivation analysis
investigates the inýuence of
media messages on people and society as a whole. The most
general hypothesis that

91. can be derived from cultivation theory is that exposure to
television in general aþects
viewers’ attitudes in such a way that these conform to the
opinions and messages
expressed on television. In other words, cultivation theory
states that exposure inýu-
ences people to perceive the world in a certain manner.
Cultivation theory has been criticized heavily (Potter, 1993,
1994 ; Stilling, 1997 ;
Van Den Bulck, 1995). Potter (1993, 1994) has pointed out
several methodological
ýaws generally ignored in previous research. For example, in
earlier studies the mea-
surement of exposure to television often was very crude : It was
categorized as either
light or heavy. Furthermore, some authors (Hirsch, 1980 ;
Potter, 1993) questioned
whether exposure to television was the cause or the eþect or
both of some societal
phenomenon. Also, the empirical tests did not include other
relevant concepts that
might establish the extent to which the relationship between
television exposure and

92. measures of cultivation was in fact spurious.
Recent research (Vergeer, Rutten, & Scheepers, 1996 ; Vergeer
& Scheepers,
1998) implemented the recommendations of these critics. It has
shown that being
exposed to television leads people to perceive ethnic minorities
as a threat. In con-
trast to earlier research, however, these studies have found that
it is not general
exposure to television that makes people perceive ethnic
minorities as more of a
threat. Exposure to üctional and entertainment programs
(Vergeer et al., 1996), and
to commercial television stations (Vergeer & Scheepers, 1998)
in particular, has this
eþect. Even after controlling for relevant variables, those that
test for spuriousness,
these relationships persist. An additional test performed to
gauge the opposite
relationship, namely, the inýuence of people’s perception of
ethnic threat on their
exposure to television, rendered a negligible eþect. In other
words, when controlling
for this competing opposite relationship, we found even

93. stronger support for cultiva-
tion theory.
Like television, newspapers are an important source of
information. Our contri-
bution in this article will be to build on the cultivation theory of
media exposure.
Previous content analyses (Bovenkerk, 1978 ; Van Dijk, 1991,
1993) show that news-
papers depict ethnic minorities as a general threat to society.
While not intended as
such, these earlier analyses function as the message system
analyses that Gerbner and
his associates promoted. The next step is to establish whether
the ündings that expo-
sure to certain television programs and television stations
aþects people’s attitudes
toward ethnic minorities is also true for newspapers. Applying
Gerbner’s most crucial
hypothesis to newspapers, one would expect that exposure to
newspapers aþects
people’s perception of ethnic threat. But such a general
proposition may be too
crude. Like television stations and television programs,
newspapers diþer greatly

94. (Van Dijk, 1993). In particular, newspapers diþer in the amount
of articles they
publish about ethnic minorities. Just like exposure to diþerent
television stations and
television programs aþects people’s perception of ethnic threat
diþerently, one would
expect exposure to diþerent newspapers to have diþerent eþects
on people’s percep-
tion of ethnic threat.
Exposure to Newspapers 131
Some newspapers may consistently pay more attention to ethnic
minorities.
Some may emphasize the unfavorable characteristics of these
ethnic minorities more
strongly than other newspapers do. Figure 1 shows that the T
elegraaf publishes arti-
cles about ethnic crime more frequently than the Volkskrant and
the Gelderlander do.
Previous analyses of three important daily newspapers in the
Netherlands (Lubbers
et al., 1998) also have shown that particularly the T elegraaf
often associates ethnic

95. minorities with threatening features such as crime. The
Volkskrant, by contrast, associ-
ates ethnic minorities less often with threatening phenomena.
Gerbner (1969 ; Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, & Signorielli, 1986)
posed that,
assuming a homogeneous media content, a general measure of
exposure would
suffice. However, having ascertained that newspapers diþer, it
would be ill-advised
not to take this into account : To suffice with a general measure
of exposure could
obscure existing eþects, ones that could surface when using
diþerentiated measures of
exposure (Potter & Chang, 1990 ; Rubin, Perse, & Taylor,
1988). Hence, we expect
readers of the T elegraaf to perceive ethnic minorities as more
threatening than readers
of the V olkskrant do. This leads us to formulate the following
hypothesis :
People who are exposed to the news coverage of the Volkskrant
or the Gelderlander
perceive ethnic minorities as less of a threat than people
exposed to news coverage of

96. the T elegraaf do.
Alternative Explanations for the Perception of Ethnic Threat
To answer our second question we turn to alternative
explanations for the per-
ception of ethnic threat. Potter (1993, 1994) voiced one of the
main criticisms of
cultivation theory, namely, that the relationship between media
messages and atti-
tudes, in this case attitudes toward ethnic minorities, might be
spurious. Potter has
suggested including other social indicators that might be related
to these ethnic atti-
tudes in the analysis. Fortunately, existing theories about ethnic
attitudes predict
which other factors might be related to the perception of ethnic
threat.
Earlier sociological research has suggested that certain groups
are more likely
than others to perceive ethnic minorities as threatening. Two
theories shed light on
this process, namely, social identity theory and realistic conýict
theory (Coenders &
Scheepers, 1998 ; Eisinga & Scheepers, 1989). According to
social identity theory, as

97. developed by Tajfel (1981), every individual has an urge to
belong to a social group.
Belonging to a group that provides values and norms allows the
individual to com-
prehend his social reality. Groups that do not conform to the
values and norms to
which the in-group adheres are evaluated negatively, while
groups that hold similar
values and norms are evaluated positively. This process
involves social identiücation,
the selective perception of favorable characteristics of one’s
own group, and social
contraidentiücation, the selective perception of unfavorable
characteristics of other
groups called out-groups. As a result of these mental processes,
individuals are favor-
ably inclined toward their in-group and unfavorably inclined
toward out-groups.
These two related attitudes, known as ethnocentrism, have been
shown to correlate
positively (Billiet, Eisinga, & Scheepers, 1996 ; Pieterse,
Scheepers, & Van Der Ven,
1991 ; Scheepers, Felling, & Peters, 1990 ; Smooha, 1987).

98. 132 M. Vergeer et al.
Although these ündings have not been refuted empirically, they
do not apply to
all people equally : People belonging to certain social
categories may subscribe more
strongly to ethnocentrism than others. Realistic conýict theory
(Blalock, 1967 ;
Levine & Campbell, 1972) suggests that, in acquiring scarce
goods, social groups
have to compete with each other, which results in conýicting
interests. Especially
people who believe they must compete with ethnic minorities
tend to look for a
scapegoat whom they can hold accountable for their own
threatened social position.
People who occupy underprivileged positions, similar to the
ones occupied by many
ethnic minorities, feel more threatened by them than do people
in privileged social
positions. These underprivileged groups are particularly likely
to perceive the pres-
ence of ethnic minorities as threatening.

99. Research has shown that people who belong to less privileged
social groups (for
example, less educated people, people with low-status
occupations, and the
unemployed) tend to be the most ethnocentric. Between 1985
and 1990, ethnocen-
trism has increased among the less educated, as it did among the
better educated and
those with high-status occupations (Scheepers, Eisinga, &
Linssen, 1994). According
to realistic conýict theory, young people are more likely than
older generations to feel
threatened by ethnic minorities because they are new to the
labor market and thus
must compete with ethnic minorities. Research (Scheepers &
Coenders, 1996) has
shown that during the nineties younger cohorts have indeed
been more inclined to
support ethnic discrimination than have older cohorts.
Dependents, particularly the
unemployed, constitute another underprivileged social group.
Like young people,
they seek access to the labor market. However, to gain access to
that labor market

100. they must compete with ethnic minorities. Given these ündings,
we expect that a
person’s social class, education, and age will aþect his or her
perception of ethnic
threat.
Political orientation also is considered to be important
regarding attitudes
toward ethnic minorities in general and ethnic threat in
particular. A conservative
orientation is characterized by an apprehension about political
and social change
(Sniderman & Carmines, 1997). As a consequence, people who
favor political conser-
vatism defend the ‘‘status quo’’ and consequently oppose
societal changes, in particu-
lar those related to ethnic issues. Therefore, people who are
politically conservative
may be more likely to reject and feel threatened by ethnic
minorities.
Taking these factors into consideration allows one to ascertain
the extent to
which the relationship between being exposed to certain
newspapers and people’s
perception of ethnic threat is spurious. This helps to test our

101. hypotheses more rigor-
ously, which is why a second hypothesis has been formulated :
Even after controlling for social class, education, age, and
political orientation, the
eþects of being exposed to certain newspapers on people’s
perception of ethnic threat
remain signiücant.
Longitudinal Trend
The frequency with which ethnic crime is reported diþers not
only by newspaper,
but also by year. Particularly 1992 saw a rise in the news
reporting ethnic crime.
This was the case for all three newspapers (see Figure 1). In
total, the number of
Exposure to Newspapers 133
Figure 2 Diþerence in number of articles about ethnic minorities
in news-
papers (1990 = 100). (Derived from Lubbers et al., Ethnic
minorities in
dutch newspapers 1990–1995 : Patterns of criminalization and
prob-
lematization, 1998).
articles published between 1992 and 1994 was nearly 100%

102. higher than in 1990.
However, this increase in articles was not equal for all
newspapers (see Figure 2). 1
In particular, the indexed diþerences (1990 5 100) between the
T elegraaf and
the Gelderlander are considerable : For all years the indexed
diþerence is larger than
200, achieving its maximum of 548 in 1992. In the case of the T
elegraaf versus the
Volkskrant, the indexed diþerences are most substantial for the
years 1992, 1994, and
1995. We hypothesized earlier that exposure to a larger number
of articles about
ethnic crime would be accompanied by a larger diþerence in
perception of ethnic
threat. Therefore, larger diþerences between newspapers over
the years, in terms of
number of articles, should be accompanied by larger diþerences
in perception of
ethnic threat by people exposed to those newspapers over the
years. Based on the
ündings presented in Figure 2, the third hypothesis can be
formulated in the follow-
ing manner :
People exposed to the Volkskrant in 1992, 1994, and 1995 and

103. people exposed to the
Gelderlander in 1992 through 1995 perceive less ethnic threat
than people exposed to
the T elegraaf in those respective years.
Data and Measurements
We have used data from üve surveys conducted in the
Netherlands between 1990
and 1995. The ürst survey involved a random sample of the
Dutch population in
1990 (Eisinga, Felling, Peters, Scheepers, Schreuder, Konig, &
Jacobs, 1992). The
other surveys, those conducted in 1992 through 1995, involved
random samples of
the population of Nijmegen. Nijmegen is a Dutch city of
approximately 150,000
134 M. Vergeer et al.
residents. Intensively trained interviewers collected the data
using prestructured
questionnaires.
To examine the representativeness of each sample, we compared
the samples

104. with the populations from which they were drawn. Although we
found minor dis-
crepancies, the samples can be considered representative of
their populations. All
dataüles have been well documented and submitted for
secondary analyses to the
Dutch Steinmetz Archive (De Graaf, 1994 ; Scheepers, 1995 ;
Te Grotenhuis &
Scheepers, 1995).
In spite of minor methodological problems, the data serve our
purpose of estab-
lishing the changes over time in the relationship between
exposure to newspapers and
people’s perception of ethnic threat. In fact, the data contain
similar measurements
of the key variables included in our hypotheses.
Three items measure perceived ethnic threat. One item dealt
with concern about
the level of education, the second item concerned the
distribution of housing, 2 while
the third item dealt with concern about cutbacks on social
security. 3 These items
were scored on a üve-point Likert continuum, ranging from
‘‘strongly disagree’’ to

105. ‘‘strongly agree.’’ We applied a factor analysis to establish
whether the items were
one dimensional. The internal consistency is quite acceptable
according Cronbach’s
alpha (.76). To determine whether the factor structure is
identical in all samples, we
used LISREL 8.30 (JoÈ reskog & SoÈ rbom, 1996). Using the
multisample option, we
found that this was indeed the case.
The goodness-of-ü t, measured by the root mean square error of
approximation
(RMSEA), is .031. This allows us to conclude that the factor
structure is identical in
every year. 4
We measured exposure to newspapers by asking respondents
whether they read a
national newspaper regularly, and, if so, which newspaper(s).
They could list a
maximum of three newspapers. We also asked respondents
whether they read
regional newspapers. This resulted in a nominal variable that
indicated the
newspaper(s) to which people had been exposed : the V
olkskrant, the T elegraaf, the

106. Gelderlander, and ‘‘other’’ national newspapers.
Nearly 43% of the 2,661 respondents appear to read more than
one newspaper.
A particularly common combination is that of the Gelderlander
and one of the national
newspapers ; 32.1% of the sample read this combination of
papers. By including addi-
tional categories of people exposed to more than one newspaper
we are able to show
which eþects are unique to exposure to the T elegraaf, to
exposure to the Volkskrant,
and to exposure to the Gelderlander. We combine a few
categories of those exposed to
multiple newspapers into single categories to make sure each of
the nominal cate-
gories contained enough respondents.
We certainly are aware of the fact that our measurement of
exposure to news-
papers is both rather crude and rather meager. Including other
features of exposure
to newspapers, like the time spent reading the newspaper or the
speciüc content
elements of the newspaper, would certainly have increased the
validity of these mea-

107. surements. Unfortunately, we know of no such extensive
measurement included in
Dutch secondary longitudinal data. However, if we are able to
detect a statistical
relationship between our crude measurement of exposure to
newspapers and the per-
ception of ethnic threat, then this suggests that developing a
more extensive measure-
ment of this relationship is a worthwhile endeavor for future
research.
Exposure to Newspapers 135
To construct the variable social class, we used the EGP-
classiücation devised by
Erikson, Goldthorpe, and Portocarero (1983). This nominal
classiücation originally
consisted of 10 categories. We reduced these to üve categories
to ensure enough cases
in each category. Furthermore, we added three categories of
nonworking people so
that we ended up with an eight-category classiücation. We
measured education by
asking respondents about the highest level of education they
completed. Age was

108. determined by asking the respondents for their date of birth. We
constructed the
variable year using the year in which the respondents
participated in the survey. A
proxy for political orientation is the political party people
would vote for in the event
of national elections for parliament. Because of the great
number of political parties
in the Netherlands, we constructed four categories : left-wing
political parties (PvdA,
CPN, D66, PSP, SP, ‘‘Groen Links’’), right-wing parties (VVD,
CD), religious
parties (CDA, SGP, GPV, RPF), and other special interest
political parties (e.g.,
elderly and environmental).
Method
To determine the strength of the relationship between exposure
to newspapers
and attitudes toward ethnic minorities, we used multiple
regression analysis. By ürst
demonstrating that there is a bivariate relationship between
exposure and the culti-
vation concept and consequently adding variables belonging to

109. the competing
theory, one can explicitly test and demonstrate whether the
original relationship is
spurious.
Prior to the regression analysis, we performed various tests to
ensure that impor-
tant technical assumptions (linearity, homoscedasticity, and
interval measurement)
required for regression analysis were not violated. Because
exposure to newspapers,
social class, education, and age did not satisfy one or more of
these technical assump-
tions, we treated them as nominal dummy variables.
To ascertain whether the causal order of exposure to newspapers
and perceived
ethnic threat should be altered, we would have liked to perform
a structural equa-
tions analysis to model a reciprocal relation between exposure
to newspapers and
perceived ethnic threat. However, because of the nominal
measurement level of expo-
sure to newspapers, it is not possible to model this reciprocal
relationship.

110. To determine the relative eþects of the predictors, we usually
look at the stan-
dardized regression coefficients (b’s). To interpret the
relationship between the
nominal predictor and the dependent variable, one must look at
the unstandardized
regression coefficient (b’s) of the original dummy variables.
However, the relative
eþect of a nominal variable cannot be determined in a
straightforward manner. The
relative eþect of nominal variables is usually determined by
constructing so-called
compound variables, based on the unstandardized regression
coefficients of the
dummy variables (Eisinga, Scheepers, & van Snippenburg,
1991). One cannot inter-
pret the slope of this standardized regression coefficient
because it is by deünition
positive and therefore not appropriate in the case of a nominal
variable.
In summary, we will conduct the regression analysis in two
phases. First, we test
whether people’s exposure to news coverage from certain
newspapers is associated

111. with people’s perception of ethnic minorities as more
threatening. This test answers
136 M. Vergeer et al.
our ürst question and the ürst hypothesis. Second, we test
whether alternative expla-
nations provided by social identity theory and realistic conýict
theory prove that the
original relationship is spurious. This test corresponds to our
second question and
hypothesis. Next, we test whether the relationship we ünd
between exposure to news-
papers and the perception of ethnic threat varies over time
according to variations in
news coverage. This step answers our third question and is
related to our third
hypothesis. To establish whether these eþects of exposure to
newspapers vary over
time, we will perform a LISREL 8.30 analysis, using the
multisample option. The
multisample option in LISREL allows us to analyze several
mutually exclusive
groups simultaneously. Any degree of invariance in the model
can be tested, ranging

112. from no constraints at all to the speciücation that all parameters
are equal for all
groups. In our case, to test whether eþects of exposure to
newspapers diþer over the
years, we will specify so-called equality constraints on all
eþects of people’s exposure
to newspapers and their education, age, and social class (JoÈ
reskog & SoÈ rbom, 1996).
The criteria for the evaluation of the eþects are (1) modiücation
indices larger than
üve for exposure to newspapers, (2) signiücant standardized
residuals (larger than
1.96 or smaller than 2 1.96), and, if these criteria are met, (3) a
change in the eþects
as predicted by our third hypothesis. Furthermore, we use a
number of model üt
indices to evaluate the model as a whole.
Results
In Table 1 we present the results of the multiple regression
analyses.
According to our ürst hypothesis, exposure to the V olkskrant
and the Gelderlander
leads people to perceive ethnic minorities as less threatening
than exposure to the

113. T elegraaf does. Exposure to newspapers explains 16.4% of the
variance (b 5 .405,
signiücant). When we take a look at the unstandardized eþects,
representing mean
diþerences as deviations from the reference category (Hardy,
1993), we see that
people exposed to the V olkskrant perceive ethnic minorities as
less threatening than
those exposed to the T elegraaf do (b 5 2 2.911, signiücant).
However, people
exposed to the Gelderlander do not diþer from those exposed to
the T elegraaf. Notice
that people exposed to other national newspapers also perceive
ethnic minorities as
less threatening than people exposed to the T elegraaf do (b 5 2
.892, signiücant).
Furthermore, people who are exposed to more than one
newspaper perceive ethnic
minorities as less of a threat than those exposed only to the T
elegraaf do. This is not
true for people exposed to both the Gelderlander and the T
elegraaf. This last ünding is
not surprising since those only exposed to the Gelderlander do
not diþer from those
exposed to the T elegraaf. The results from this ürst step of our
test support our ürst

114. hypothesis with respect to the Volkskrant, however, not with
respect to the Gelderlander.
To test whether this ürst hypothesis for the diþerence between
the Volkskrant and
the T elegraaf must nevertheless be refuted, we introduce other
relevant variables con-
cerning people’s sociostructural characteristics and political
orientation into the
regression equation. This addition increases the percentage of
variance explained
from 16.4 to 28.4, a highly signiücant increase. It turns out that
education is the most
important of the three sociostructural characteristics (b 5 .235).
Less-educated
people (those who only completed elementary school, lower
vocational school, or
Exposure to Newspapers 137
Table 1 Regression of Perception of Ethnic Threat on Exposure
to Newspapers,
Socio-Structural Characteristics, and Year (n = 2,298)
Hypothesis 1 2
Newspaper .405 .208
Telegraaf (ref) (ref)
Gelderlander ( 2 .087) (.029)

115. Volkskrant (- 2.911) (- 1.330)
No newspaper (.151) (.249)
Other newspaper(s) ( - .892) (- .510)
Gelderlander 1 Volkskrant (- 2.539) (- 1.176)
Gelderlander 1 Telegraaf (.212) (.238)
Gelderlander 1 other (- 1.722) (- 1.057)
Volkskrant and/or Telegraaf and/or other ( - 1.781) (- .788)
Telegraaf 1 other (- 1.121) (- 1.098)
Gelderlander and/or Volkskrant and/or Telegraaf and/or other (-
1.734) (- .804)
Education .235
Elementary school (1.558)
Lower vocational school (1.895)
Lower secondary school (1.073)
Secondary vocational school (.788)
O- and a-levels (.663)
College (.427)
University completed (ref)
Age .088
18–24 (ref)
25–29 (.040)
30–39 (.119)
40–49 ( 2 .051)
50–59 (.320)
60 1 (.638)
Social Class .108
Managers (ref)
Routine nonmanual workers (.259)
Self-employed (.818)
Skilled manual workers (.417)
Unskilled manual workers (.661)
Dependents ( 2 .532)
Students (.194)

116. Housewives (.743)
Political Orientation .207
Left ( 2 .502)
Right (1.043)
Religious (.047)
Other (ref)
R Square .164 .284
Adjusted R Square .160 .274
Increment of R Square .120
Coefficients printed bold indicates p , .05 (one-tailed).
138 M. Vergeer et al.
lower secondary school) perceive ethnic minorities as more of a
threat than those
with a university degree (the reference category) do. People
with an average level of
education (secondary vocational school and o- and a-levels) 5
perceive ethnic minor-
ities as more threatening than the university-educated people do
but as less threat-
ening than the less-educated do. The eþects of age (b 5 .088)
and social class
(b 5 .108) are somewhat smaller than education. People older
than 60 perceive
ethnic minorities as more threatening than young people
between the ages of 18 and

117. 24 do (b 5 .638, signiücant). People who belong to üve diþerent
categories of social
class diþer signiücantly from managers (the reference category)
: the routine non-
manual workers, self-employed, skilled manual workers,
unskilled manual workers,
and housewives all perceive ethnic minorities as more of a
threat than managers do.
Contrary to our expectation, dependents do not ünd ethnic
minorities to be more
threatening than managers do : They are equal in the extent to
which they perceive
ethnic minorities as threatening. Political orientation is of
considerable importance
(b 5 .207). In line with the expectation, people who voted for
right-wing political
parties perceive ethnic minorities as more threatening than
people who voted for
other parties (b 5 1.043). People who voted for left-wing or
religious political parties
did not perceive ethnic minorities as being more threatening
than people who voted
for other parties do. This analysis provides evidence that will
allow us to evaluate our
hypotheses. We ünd that, even after statistically controlling for
alternative explana-

118. tions, the eþect of exposure to newspaper(s) remains
statistically signiücant
(b 5 .208). Although the original eþect (b 5 .405) has been
strongly reduced, we see
that people exposed to the Volkskrant (b 5 2 1.330) still
perceive ethnic minorities as
less threatening than people exposed to the T elegraaf do.
Therefore, neither the ürst
crucial hypothesis nor the second hypothesis can be refuted. 6
Table 2 shows the relative importance of exposure to
newspapers and individual
sociostructural characteristics, as expressed in the percentage
uniquely explained
variance. 7 The unique contribution of exposure to newspapers
to the variance
explained in people’s perception of ethnic threat (11.62%)
conürms the results of
previous research (Vergeer et al., 1996 ; Vergeer & Scheepers,
1998). People’s indi-
vidual sociostructural characteristics and political orientation
are responsible for
nearly 43% of the variance explained. Again, we conclude that
these sociostructural
characteristics and political orientation are more important than
exposure to news-
papers but that the latter does contribute signiücantly to the

119. total variance that our
model explains.
Regarding the third hypothesis whether people exposed to the
Volkskrant and the
Gelderlander in speciüc years perceive ethnic minorities as less
threatening as compared
Table 2 Uniquely Explained Variance
Uniquely explained % Uniquely
variance explained variance
Total .284
Exposure to newspaper .033 11.62
Sociostructural characteristics
and political orientation .120 42.54
Not unique 45.84
Exposure to Newspapers 139
Table 3 Model Fit Indices
Df 108
Chi-square 178.54
Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) .99
Standardized Root Mean Square Residual (standardized RMR)
.011
Root Mean Square Error of Approximation (RMSEA) .035
Comparative Fit Index (CFI) 1.00

120. with those who are exposed to the T elegraaf, we test whether
the eþects of exposure to
newspapers varied over time. Therefore, we specify equality
constraints on all eþects
for all years to test whether these eþects are invariant over time.
The actual hypothe-
sis then states that the regression coefficient for a particular
predictor in the year
1990 (t 5 0) is equal to the regression coefficients of that same
predictor in 1992,
1993, 1994, and 1995 (i.e., bt/ 0 5 bt/ 1 5 bt/ 2 5 bt/ 3 5 bt/ 4).
To assess the quality of the model, Jaccard and Wan (1996)
have recommended
using several indices of model üt. Table 3 shows that according
to these indices we
have an excellent model.
Yet there are some modiücation indices larger than üve and
some signiücant
standardized residuals. According to these modiücation indices
of exposure to news-
papers, the regression model should be adjusted at one point.
The modiücation index
of people exposed to the Gelderlander in 1990 indicates that
releasing this constraint

121. improves the üt of the model signiücantly. The eþect would
decrease slightly
( D b 5 2 .98), indicating that people exposed to the
Gelderlander in 1990 perceive less
ethnic threat than those exposed to the T elegraaf in 1990. This
ünding so far supports
the hypothesis. However, the other predictions concerning
exposure to the Volkskrant
do not support the third hypothesis : Larger diþerences in the
number of published
articles between these newspapers do not lead to larger
diþerences in perceived ethnic
threat. Eventually, we conclude that this longitudinal hypothesis
is refuted.
Conclusions
The goal of our study has been to elaborate cultivation theory
by applying it to
attitudes toward ethnic minorities. Although originally devised
for television mes-
sages, we applied cultivation theory to the message system of
newspapers. We found
that three diþerent Dutch newspapers diþer in the extent to
which they reported
ethnic crime. The T elegraaf reported extensively about ethnic
crime, particularly

122. when compared with the Volkskrant and the Gelderlander.
Consequently, our ürst ques-
tion has been whether readers exposed to these diþerent
newspapers diþer in the
extent to which they perceive ethnic minorities as threatening.
This question resulted
in the crucial hypothesis that people exposed to the news
coverage of the T elegraaf in
particular perceive ethnic minorities as more of a threat than
people exposed to the
news coverage of other newspapers do. This hypothesis should
in part be refuted.
People exposed to the T elegraaf indeed perceive ethnic
minorities as more threatening
than people not exposed to the T elegraaf do, with the exception
of people who are
exposed to the Gelderlander. They do not diþer from people
exposed to the T elegraaf.
140 M. Vergeer et al.
The second test for this crucial hypothesis involves a second
question, namely,
whether exposure to news coverage in newspapers is solely

123. responsible for the extent
to which people perceive ethnic minorities as threatening.
Drawing on two theories
that explain unfavorable attitudes toward ethnic minorities
(social identity theory
and realistic conýict theory), we formulated a second
hypothesis, according to which
the initial bivariate eþect of exposure to the news coverage by
newspapers persists
even after controlling for social class, education, age, and
political orientation. This
hypothesis also could not be refuted : Even after controlling for
people’s socio-
structural characteristics, the eþect of their exposure to news
coverage remains signiü-
cant. Finally, because both ethnic immigration and news
coverage of ethnic crime
increased during the period from 1990 to 1995, we formulated a
third question. We
asked whether the eþect of exposure to newspapers varied over
the years.
Our hypothesis was that the diþerences between people who
were exposed to, on
the one hand, the T elegraaf and on the other hand the

124. Volkskrant or the Gelderlander in
the extent they perceive ethnic minorities as a threat changed
over the years. This
hypothesis was refuted.
The ündings regarding the eþects of social characteristics are
somewhat mixed.
As predicted by realistic conýict theory, less-educated people
and people with low-
status occupations perceive ethnic minorities as more
threatening than other people
do. However, some predictions derived from realistic conýict
theory were refuted.
According to this theory, younger people and dependents
perceive ethnic minorities
as more of a threat than others do. Our ündings, however, show
that this is not the
case. People over 60, not younger people, perceive ethnic
minorities as more threat-
ening. The composition of the population of the city Nijmegen
might explain the
ünding that people who depend on some kind of outside
ünancial support do not
diþer from managers in terms of their perception of ethnic
threat. Because Nijmegen

125. is a university city, the number of well-educated dependents is
relatively high. 8
Eventually, we have to conclude that cultivation theory is
supported to some
degree. However, there are some ündings that cast some doubt
upon aspects of the
theory. The results show that exposure to more newspaper
messages does not always
lead to more perceived threat regarding ethnic minorities.
A remarkable result is that people exposed to more than one
newspaper perceive
ethnic minorities as less threatening than others do. According
to cultivation theory,
exposure to more media messages should lead to increased
perception of ethnic
threat. However, this is not the case here : Exposure to more
media messages from
diþerent newspapers, as compared with exposure to media
messages from only one
newspaper, leads people to perceive ethnic minorities as less
threatening. This means
a falsiücation of one particular aspect of cultivation theory. A
possible explanation

126. for this ünding is that exposure to a larger number of diþerent
opinions about ethnic
minorities, as articulated in diþerent newspapers, leads to a
more sophisticated atti-
tude than does just being exposed to the messages of a single
newspaper.
Furthermore, larger diþerences between newspapers over the
years, in terms of
articles about ethnic issues, is not necessarily accompanied by
larger diþerences in the
extent people perceive ethnic minorities as a threat.
A ünal remarkable ünding is that people without exposure to
newspapers per-
ceive ethnic minorities as equally threatening as people exposed
to the T elegraaf do.
This ünding also challenges cultivation theory (Hirsch, 1980).
However, it is possible
Exposure to Newspapers 141
that the category of people who are not exposed to newspapers
are more frequently
exposed to television, as suggested by a recent study (Sociaal en
Cutureel Planbureau

127. [ SCP ], 1996, p. 385). Consequently, they derive their
information from other sources
such as üctional and entertainment programs. Earlier research
(Vergeer et al., 1996)
has shown that the more people are exposed to üctional and
entertainment television
programs, the more they perceive ethnic minorities as
threatening. In general, future
research should focus on the interplay between exposure to
newspapers on the one
hand and to television on the other. It is possible that people
who depend exclusively
on television or on one newspaper are more ‘‘cultivated’’ (that
is, inýuenced to per-
ceive ethnic minorities as more threatening). People who read
more than one news-
paper and watch television are exposed to a larger variety of
opinions than people
who rely on only one medium are.
Future research should not only focus on the eþects of exposure
to one mass
medium. It should take into account also the cumulative eþects
of being exposed to
several mass media simultaneously. Furthermore, the
explanation of unfavorable atti-

128. tudes toward ethnic minorities should incorporate another
important, often ignored,
source of information, namely, interpersonal contact with ethnic
groups in the neigh-
borhood. Information based on these personal experiences might
intensify or weaken
the eþects of exposure to media messages. Also, exposure to
newspapers should be
measured on an interval level. This enables more precise
analyses and it also allows
for testing whether a reciprocal relationship between exposure
to newspapers and
perceived ethnic threat is plausible.
Notes
1 The larger the indexed diþerence, the larger the diþerences
between on the one hand the T elegraaf
and on the other hand the Volkskrant or the Gelderlander .
2 The Netherlands, being a densely populated country, has
trouble providing enough and adequate
housing for its population. Therefore, certain institutions
regulate the distribution of rental houses for its
population. The literal English translation of the item reads as
follows : ‘‘Regarding the distribution of
houses, people from ethnic minorities get their turn before
Dutch people do.’’

129. 3 The Netherlands has an elaborate system of social welfare
beneüts. Social security in this context
includes a wide variety of beneüts extended to the unemployed,
the disabled, the aged, and so on.
4 To determine whether this model should be improved, we
looked at the RMSEA. According to
Browne and Cudeck (1993), a RMSEA of about .05 or less
indicates a close üt. In our case, the small
RMSEA of .031 indicates that our model üts well.
5 Obtaining one’s a- and o-levels indicates a certain level of
education, roughly comparable to com-
pleting high school.
6 Because people’s perception of ethnic threat might be caused
by a more general sense of threat, we
performed an additional test not reported in Table 1. We
checked whether fear of and experience with
crime had an additional eþect on the perception of ethnic threat.
The results indicate that these factors
have only slight signiücant eþects. Thus the results pertaining to
exposure to newspapers still hold true.
7 The uniquely explained variance of a predictor variable equals
the decrease in variance explained if
the given predictor variable is deleted from the regression
model.
8 After obtaining a university degree, former students may not
directly ünd a job. In the mean time
they still live in Nijmegen, which results in highly educated
dependents.

130. 142 M. Vergeer et al.
References
Billiet, J., Eisinga, R., & Scheepers, P. (1996). Ethnocentrism
in the low countries : a comparative
perspective. N ew Community, 22, 401–416.
Blalock, H. M. (1967). T oward a theory of minority g roup
relations. New York : Wiley.
Bovenkerk, F. (1978). Rassendiscriminatie bij
misdaadverslaggeving in de pers [Racial discrimi-
nation in crime reports by the press ]. In F. Bovenkerk (Ed.),
Omdat zij anders zijn : Patronen van rassendiscri-
minatie in N ederland (pp. 119–135). Amsterdam, The
Netherlands: Boom.
Browne, M. W., & Cudeck, R. (1993). Alternative ways of
assessing model üt. In K. A. Bollen & J.
Scott Long, T esting structural equation models (pp. 136–162).
London : Sage.
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek [CBS ] (1995). Statistical
yearbook 1994. Voorburg, The Nether-
lands : CBS.
Centraal Bureau voor de Statistiek [CBS ] (1996). Statistical
yearbook 1995. Voorburg, The Nether-
lands : CBS.
Coenders, M., & Scheepers, P. (1998). Support for ethnic
discrimination in the Netherlands 1979–
1993 : Eþects of period, cohort, and individual characteristics.
European Sociological Review, 14, 405–422.

131. De Graaf, N. D. (1994). De sociale en culturele situatie van N
ijmegen [The social and cultural situation of
Nijmegen]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Steinmetz Archive.
Eisinga, R., Felling, A., Peters, J., Scheepers, P., Schreuder, O.,
Konig, R., & Jacobs, E. (1992).
Religion in Dutch society. D ocumentation of a national survey
on religious and secular attitudes in 1990. Amsterdam,
The Netherlands: Steinmetz Archive.
Eisinga, R., & Scheepers, P. (1989). Etnocentrisme in N
ederland : T heoretische en empirische modellen
[Ethnocentrism in the Netherlands: Theoretical and empirical
models ]. Nijmegen, The Netherlands: ITS.
Eisinga, R., Scheepers, P., & van Snippenburg, L. (1991). The
standardized eþect of a compound of
dummy variables or polynomial terms. Quality & Quantity, 25,
103–114.
Erikson, R., Goldthorpe, J. H., & Portocarero, L. (1983).
Intergenerational class mobility and the
convergence thesis : England, France and Sweden. British J
ournal of Sociology, 34, 303–343.
Gerbner, G. (1969). Toward ‘‘Cultural Indicators’’ : The
analysis of mass mediated public message
systems. In G. Gerbner, O. Holsti, K. Krippendorf, W. J.
Paisley, & P. Stone (Eds), T he analysis of
communication content, developments in scientiüc theories and
computer techniques (pp. 123–132). London : Wiley.
Gerbner, G. (1973). Cultural indicators : The third voice. In G.
Gerbner, L. P. Gross, & W. H.
Melody (Eds.), Communications technology and social policy
(pp. 555–573). London : Wiley.

132. Gerbner, G. (1979). Television’s inýuence on values and
behaviour. M assacommunicatie, 7, 215–222.
Gerbner, G., Gross, L., Morgan, M., & Signorielli, N. (1986).
Living with television : The dynamics
of the cultivation process. In J. Bryant & D. Zillmann (Eds.),
Perspectives on media eþ ects (pp. 17–40).
Hillsdale, NJ : Erlbaum.
Hardy, M. A. (1993). Reg ression with dummy variables.
London : Sage.
Hirsch, P. M. (1980). The ‘‘Scary World’’ of the nonviewer and
other anomalies. A reanalysis of
Gerbner et al.’s ündings on cultivation analysis. Part I.
Communication Research, 7, 403–456.
Jaccard, J., & Wan, C. K. (1996). LISREL approaches to
interaction eþ ects in multiple reg ression. London :
Sage.
JoÈ reskog, K. G., & SoÈ rbom, D. (1996). LISREL 8 user’s
reference g uide. Chicago : Scientiüc Software
International.
Levine, R. A., & Campbell, D. T. (1972). Ethnocentrism ,
theories of conýict, ethnic attitudes and g roup
behavior. New York : Wiley.
Lubbers, M., Scheepers, P., & Wester, F. (1998). Ethnic
minorities in dutch newspapers 1990–1995 :
Patterns of criminalization and problematization. Gazette,
60(5), 415–431.
Pieterse, H., Scheepers, P., & Van Der Ven, J. (1991). Religious
beliefs and ethnocentrism, a com-

133. parison between the Dutch and the white church-going South-
Africans. J ournal of Empirical T heology, 4,
64–85.
Potter, W. J. (1993). Cultivation theory and research. A
conceptual critique. Human Communication
Research, 19, 564–601.
Potter, W. J. (1994). Cultivation theory and research, a
methodological critique. J ournalism M ono-
g raphs (Serial No. 147).
Potter, W. J., & Chang, I. C. (1990). Television exposure
measures and the cultivation hypothesis.
J ournal of Broadcast and Electronic M edia, 34(3), 313–333.
Rubin, A. M., Perse, E. M., & Taylor, D. S. (1988). A
methodological investigation of cultivation.
Communication Research, 15, 107–134.
Scheepers, P. L. H. (1995). Sociaal-culturele ontwikkeling en in
N ijmegen 1995. Amsterdam, The Nether-
lands : Steinmetz Archive.
Scheepers, P. (1996). Etnocentrisme en rechts-extremisme.
Reacties op de komst en aanwezigheid
van etnische minderheden [Ethnocentrism and right wing
extremism. Reactions to the arrival and pres-
ence of ethnic minorities ]. In H. B. G. Ganzeboom & W. C.
Ultee (Eds.), De sociale segmentatie van N eder-
Exposure to Newspapers 143

134. land in 2015. Voorstudies en achtergronden. Wetenschappelijke
raad voor het regeringsbeleid (pp. 247–299). Den Haag,
The Netherlands: SDU.
Scheepers, P., & Coenders, M. (1996). Trends in etnische
discriminatie in Nederland 1980–1993
[Trends in ethnic discrimination in the Netherlands 1980–1993
]. Verkenningen, 22(3), 8–25.J ustitieÈ le
Scheepers, P., Eisinga, R., & Linssen, E. (1994). Etnocentrisme
in Nederland. Verandering bij kans-
arme en/of gepriviligeerde Groepen? [Ethnocentrism in the
Netherlands. Changes among underprivileged
and privileged groups ? ] Sociologische Gids, 41, 185–201.
Scheepers, P., Felling, A., & Peters, J. (1990). Social
conditions, authoritarianism, and ethnocen-
trism : A theoretical model of the early Frankfurt School
updated and tested. European Sociological Review,
6(1), 15–29.
Scheepers, P., Schmeets, H., & Felling, A. (1997). Fortress
Holland ? Support for ethnocentric poli-
cies among the 1994-electorate of the Netherlands. Ethnic and
Racial Studies, 20, 145–159.
Smooha, S. (1987). Jewish and Arab ethnocentrism in Israel.
Ethnic and Racial Studies, 10, 1–26.
Sniderman, P. M., & Carmines, E. G. (1997). Reaching beyond
race. Cambridge, MA : Harvard Uni-
versity Press.
Sociaal en Cultureel Planbureau [SCP ]. (1996). Sociaal en
cultureel rapport 1996 [Social and cultural
report 1996 ]. Rijswijk, The Netherlands: SCP.

135. Stilling, E. A. (1997). The electronic melting pot hypothesis :
The cultivation of acculturation among
Hispanics through television viewing. T he Howard J ournal of
Communications, 8, 77–100.
Tajfel, H. (1981). Human groups and social categ ories.
Cambridge : Cambridge University Press.
Te Grotenhuis, M., & Scheepers, P. (1995). D e sociaal-
culturele situatie van de N ijmeegse Bevolking 1994
[The social-cultural situation of the population of Nijmegen
1994 ]. Amsterdam, The Netherlands: Stein-
metz Archive.
Van Den Bulck, J. (1995). The selective viewer. Deüning
(Flemish) viewer types. European J ournal of
Communication , 10, 147–177.
Van Dijk, T. (1983). M inderheden in de media. Een analyse
van de berichtg eving over etnische minderheden in de
dag bladpers [Minorities in the media : An analysis of reports
about ethnic minorities in the daily press ].
Amsterdam, The Netherlands: SUA.
Van Dijk, T. (1987). Communicating racism : Ethnic prejudice
in thoug ht and talk. London : Sage.
Van Dijk, T. (1991). Racism and the press. London : Routledge.
Van Dijk, T. (1993). Elite discourse and racism. London :
Routledge.
Vergeer, M., Rutten, P., & Scheepers, P. (1996).
Cultivatietheorie in een veranderd media-
landschap. Overzicht van eerdere studies en een toetsing voor
een middelgrote stad [Cultivation theory in
a changed media landscape. An overview of earlier studies and
a test for a medium-sized city ]. T ijdschrift

136. voor Communicatiewetenschap, 24, 120–151.
Vergeer, M., & Scheepers, P. (1998). Publieke versus
commercieÈ le programmering : Eþecten van
blootstelling aan televisie op subjectief ervaren etnische
dreiging [Public and commercial programming :
Eþects of exposure to television on perceived ethnic threat ]. In
H. Verstraeten & El Schelfhout (Eds.), D e
rol van de media in de multiculturele samenleving (pp. 271–
292). Bruxelles, Belgium : VUBpress.
This article was downloaded by: [California State University]
On: 27 April 2014, At: 00:07
Publisher: Routledge
Informa Ltd Registered in England and Wales Registered
Number: 1072954 Registered
office: Mortimer House, 37-41 Mortimer Street, London W1T
3JH, UK
Western Journal of Communication
Publication details, including instructions for authors and
subscription information:
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rwjc20
Navigating Toward Andragogy:
Coordination and Management of
Student–Professor Conversations
Darrin S. Murray a b
a Loyola Marymount University
b California State University , Northridge
Published online: 20 Feb 2014.
To cite this article: Darrin S. Murray (2014): Navigating

137. Toward Andragogy: Coordination and
Management of Student–Professor Conversations, Western
Journal of Communication, DOI:
10.1080/10570314.2013.866687
To link to this article:
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.866687
PLEASE SCROLL DOWN FOR ARTICLE
Taylor & Francis makes every effort to ensure the accuracy of
all the information (the
“Content”) contained in the publications on our platform.
However, Taylor & Francis,
our agents, and our licensors make no representations or
warranties whatsoever as to
the accuracy, completeness, or suitability for any purpose of the
Content. Any opinions
and views expressed in this publication are the opinions and
views of the authors,
and are not the views of or endorsed by Taylor & Francis. The
accuracy of the Content
should not be relied upon and should be independently verified
with primary sources
of information. Taylor and Francis shall not be liable for any
losses, actions, claims,
proceedings, demands, costs, expenses, damages, and other
liabilities whatsoever or
howsoever caused arising directly or indirectly in connection
with, in relation to or arising
out of the use of the Content.
This article may be used for research, teaching, and private
study purposes. Any
substantial or systematic reproduction, redistribution, reselling,
loan, sub-licensing,

138. systematic supply, or distribution in any form to anyone is
expressly forbidden. Terms &
Conditions of access and use can be found at
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-
and-conditions
http://www.tandfonline.com/loi/rwjc20
http://www.tandfonline.com/action/showCitFormats?doi=10.108
0/10570314.2013.866687
http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10570314.2013.866687
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
http://www.tandfonline.com/page/terms-and-conditions
Navigating Toward Andragogy:
Coordination and Management of
Student–Professor Conversations
Darrin S. Murray
Some professors make conversational moves intended to
transform their relationships
with students and help move students through a liminal space
toward more adult-like
(or andragogical) patterns of learning. Specifically, professors
might attempt to construct
more collaborative and mutual relationships with students, and
may attempt to encour-
age students to position themselves as more intrinsically
motivated, personally respon-
sible, and self-directed. This study explored such conversations
and transitions using

139. the coordinated management of meaning as a theoretical and
heuristic lens. Conclusions
were drawn inductively from interview data, recalled
conversations, document analysis,
and ethnographic observations; a taxonomy emerged for
describing the conversational
patterns enacted when professors attempt to foster student
development toward
andragogy. This framework included identification of
significant bifurcation points (or
relational turning points) where one interlocutor might enact an
intervention intended
to transform their conversation, relationship, or conversational
partner. Further, the
model developed from this study identifies a set of explicit and
implicit strategic conver-
sational moves that were employed in those critical moments.
Finally, this essay discusses
some methodological implications and recommendations for
future research.
Keywords: Andragogy; Coordinated Management of Meaning;
Critical Pedagogy;
Instructional Communication; Student Development

140. Darrin S. Murray (Ph.D., Fielding Graduate University) is
adjunct faculty at Loyola Marymount University and
at California State University, Northridge. This manuscript was
developed in part from the author’s doctoral
dissertation at Fielding Graduate University, Santa Barbara,
CA. The author wishes to gratefully acknowledge
W. Barnett Pearce, Lita Furby, Fred Steier, Joan Goppelt,
William F. Eadie, Paige Edley, and Donald Bruce
for their assistance with this project. Correspondence to: Darrin
S. Murray, California State University,
Northridge, Department of Communication Studies, 18111
Nordhoff Street, MC 8257, Northridge, CA
91330-8257, USA. E-mail: [email protected]
Western Journal of Communication
Vol. 0, No. 0, pp. 1–27
ISSN 1057-0314 (print)/ISSN 1745-1027 (online) # 2014
Western States Communication Association
DOI: 10.1080/10570314.2013.866687
D
ow
nl
oa
de
d

141. by
[
C
al
if
or
ni
a
S
ta
te
U
ni
ve
rs
it
y]
a
t
00
:0
7
27
A

142. pr
il
2
01
4
Beyond delivering course content, some education professionals
seek to foster other
aspects of student development; specifically, to encourage
students to move beyond
child-like learning patterns and toward learning patterns more
characteristic of adults
(Knowles, 1970, 1984, 1990). This project contributes to a body
of research examin-
ing instructional communication from developmental and
relational perspectives
(Dobransky & Frymier, 2004; Frymier & Houser, 2000;
McCroskey, Valencic, &
Richmond, 2004; Sprague, 1992, 2002). In conversation
professors may attempt to
encourage students to move toward taking more personal
responsibility, enacting
more self-direction, and relying more on intrinsic motivation.

143. Such negotiation
might result in a relationship that is less authoritarian, and more
mutual, equal,
and collaborative. After reviewing the literature on relational
approaches to instruc-
tional communication, I conceptualize the liminal space
between child-like and
adult-like learning, and then detail a multimethods project that
identified professors’
conversational moves when they attempted to prompt student
development.
Literature Review
Professor–Student Relationships
Instructional communication scholars have increased attention
to student–professor
relationships as ‘‘interpersonally driven and relationally
oriented’’ (Meyers, 2006,
p. 293). Docan-Morgan (2009, 2011) not only took this
relational communication
approach to instructional communication inquiry but also
compiled convincing
arguments that achieving desirable educational outcomes is
fundamentally depen-

144. dent on the quality of the professor–student relationship (also
see Docan-Morgan
& Manusov, 2009). The preponderance of existing literature
explores student–
professor communication using quantitative variable-analytic
approaches.
Quantitative approaches
In an effort to construct a general model of instructional
communication, McCroskey
et al. (2004) reviewed 30 years of research in instructional
communication and ident-
ified a set of operationalized variables central across many
studies, including: Instruc-
tional environment; students (personality, gender, culture,
ethnicity, prior learning,
intelligence, temperament); teachers (content knowledge,
pedagogical knowledge, per-
sonality, experience, communication competence); teachers’
verbal and nonverbal
behaviors; student perception of the teacher; instructional
outcomes (cognitive, affect-
ive, and psychomotor learning). While a student–teacher
relationship is implied by this
body of literature, curiously McCroskey et al. did not explicitly