Minority GroupsThe four largest minority groups in the United Stat.docx

Minority Groups
The four largest minority groups in the United States are
African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian Americans, and
Native Americans.
Using the Internet, research about the above mentioned minority
groups in the United States. Based on your research and
understanding, respond to the following:
Select at least two of the minorities listed above and describe
how being a member of that minority group might affect aging.
Be sure to include the role of family and social support.
Highlight some health and chronic conditions that are prevalent
in the chosen minority groups.
Describe the role of seniors in the chosen minority groups.
Explain the changes in the role of seniors over the years.
Explain any future challenges for the selected minority groups
in the years ahead.
Aging In Other Times At Other Places
The proportion of older people in developed as well as
developing nations of the world has been increasing. An aging
population creates new economic and social challenges for
nations.
Using the Internet, research about the economic or social
challenges of nations with an aging population. Based on your
research and understanding, compare and contrast seniors in the
U.S. with seniors in another country of your choice. Your
comparison should include, but should not be limited to, the
following:
Changes in demographics
Family roles and social supports
Advances in technology
Living arrangement
Retirement
Health issues
Population aging
will affect different societies in different ways. The United

Nations divides the world’s nations into two groups—the more
developed and the less developed—based on their demographic
and socioeconomic characteristics. “The less developed regions
include all regions of Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin
America and the Caribbean, and Oceania (excluding Australia
and New Zealand). The more developed regions include all
other regions plus the three countries excluded from the less
developed regions” (United Nations,
2002a
, p. iv).
The
developed nations
, such as France, Sweden, and the United States, will have large
proportions of older people in their populations. The proportion
of older people in most of these countries has increased
gradually over many decades. Their populations will get older
in the future. Some developed countries, such as Japan, had
relatively young populations until recently. They have seen
rapid population aging in recent years.
The
less developed nations
, such as China and Viet Nam, already have large numbers of
older people. In 2000, for example, the majority of the world’s
older persons (54%) lived in Asia (Kinsella & Velkoff,
2001
). These countries also have large numbers of young people (due
to high
birth rates
). For this reason, compared with the developed nations, they
will have lower
proportions
of older people in their populations. Still, the
large numbers
of older people will put new demands on these societies.
The less developed nations also include very undeveloped
nations, such as the countries of Africa, Oceania, parts of the

Caribbean, and parts of Latin America. These
least developed nations
will have large numbers of older people in their populations.
They will have the least resources to cope with the demands of
population aging.
Each type of society will face population aging in the years
ahead. Each will face different challenges as their older
populations grow. And each will need to make different
responses to the challenge of population aging.
This chapter (1) looks at population aging in three types of
societies, (2) describes some of the challenges created by
population aging, and (3) considers population aging in the
United States and its impact on American society.
THE CHALLENGE OF POPULATION AGING
What Is Population Aging?
When we talk about aging we generally refer to a person or even
an animal or a thing. But what do we mean when we say that
populations age?
Demographers, experts in the study of population change, use at
least three measures to describe population aging: (1) the
absolute number of older people
in a population, (2) the
median age
of the population, and (3) the increased proportion of older
people. These measures allow comparisons between societies
and between a single society at two points in time. A population
ages when any of these measures increase. Populations with
large numbers of older people or with high proportions of older
people are said to be old or aging societies.
The following discussions of societies will often make reference
to the number or proportion of older people in the society. Be
aware that a society can have a large number of older people,
but still have a relatively small proportion of its population in
old age. The less developed nations show this pattern. This kind
of society will have a high birth rate and a large number of
young people. More developed nations will have a low birth rate

and a high proportion of older people. Each of these types of
societies faces different challenges as they respond to
population aging.
THE DEMOGRAPHIC TRANSITION
The
demographic transition
describes a pattern of population change that took place in
Western nations over the past 250 years. The
developing nations
will probably go through this transition, and some of these
nations have already started the process.
Figure 3.1
shows the population trends over time that created the
transition.
The developed nations that have gone through the demographic
transition—from high to low birth and
death rates
—face new issues related to a large older population. For one
thing, the demographic transition leads to a new perspective on
the life cycle. Nearly all children can now expect to live to old
age. Most middle-aged people can expect to live a decade or
more in retirement, and many older people will live to late old
age. A larger population than ever before will live more than
100 years.
FIGURE 3.1
Stages of the Demographic Transition
Source:
Reprinted from “Demography of Aging” by G. C. Myers, in R.
H. Binstock & L. K. George, Eds.,
Handbook of Aging and the Social Sciences,
3rd ed. (p. 25). Copyright 1990, with permission from Elsevier.
The developing nations that go through this transition will
experience similar benefits and challenges as their populations
age (see
Figure 3.2
).

THREE TYPES OF SOCIETIES AND POPULATION AGING
The Less Developed Nations
The less developed nations of Africa, Asia, Oceania, the
Caribbean, and Latin America make up three quarters of the
world’s population. Most of these nations have young
populations with a small proportion of older people. In some
cases they have as few as 2% of their populations age 65 and
over. These countries will age in the years ahead, though they
will still have relatively small proportions of older people.
African nations (some of the least developed nations) will
average only a little over 4% age 65 and over in the year 2025.
Overall the developing nations will average only about 8% in
that year (United Nations,
2002a
). High birth rates will keep the
proportion
of older people relatively low in these countries, but these
nations will see explosive growth in the
number
of older people.
“By the year 2025,” Myers (
1990
, p. 27) says, “over two-thirds of the world’s older population
will be found in the developing countries.” Asia will gain over a
quarter of a billion older people. China alone will have 194
million people age 65 and over by 2025. (By comparison, the
entire U.S. population will be about 346 million people in that
year [United Nations,
2002b
].) High
fertility
in the past and greater survival of older people in the present
will produce this explosive growth.
An increase in older people in developing nations will strain
current social, health, and economic programs. Sennott-Miller (
1994

) says that developing nations need more information about
their older populations, and they need to plan for an aging
society. Countries with social programs and pension plans in
place will need to adapt these programs to serve more older
people. China provides a good example of a developing nation
that faces the challenge of population aging.
FIGURE 3.2
Elder Populations in Selected Countries, 2005, Age 65 and Over
Source:
Population Division of the Department of Economic and Social
Affairs of the United Nations Secretariat,
World Population Prospects: The 2006 Revision
and
World Urbanization Prospects: The 2005 Revision,
http://esa.un.org/unpp
. Retrieved November 15, 2007, from
http://esa.un.org/unpp/p2k0data.asp
.
TABLE 3.1
Elder Population Increases, Age 65 and Over from World and
Major Regions,
2000
to 2050
Population (in millions)
Increase (2000 as base = 100)
2000
2025
2050
2025
2050
World
421.4
832.2

1,464.9
197
348
More developed
*
171.0
260.3
320.7
152
188
Less developed
**
250.3
571.8
1,144.2
228
457
Africa
26.6
56.9
128.8
214
484
Latin America
29.1
70.1
143.7
241
494
North America
39.0
70.0
92.6
179
237
Asia

216.2
480.6
910.5
222
421
Europe
107.4
148.5
180.1
138
168
Oceania
3.0
6.1
9.2
203
307
*More developed: Europe, Japan, North America, Australia, and
New Zealand.
**Less developed: Africa, Asia (excluding Japan), Latin
America/Caribbean, Melanesia, Micronesia, and Polynesia.
The absolute number of older people given in this chart: (1)
shows the distribution of older people worldwide; (2) allows for
a comparison of the size of older populations that each country
and region will have to deal with; and (3) shows the growth rate
of the older population in each region. This growth rate gives an
idea of how much demographic change each society will
undergo.
This table shows that, worldwide, the less-developed countries
have a larger number of older people than the more developed
countries (although they have smaller percentages of older
people). It also shows that the older population will increase in
the less developed countries at a faster rate than in the more
developed countries.
In 2000, for example, Asia had five and a half times more older
people than North America. This reflects the larger size of the

total Asian population. Projections show that the Asian older
population will increase at a faster rate than the North American
older population. This reflects increased life expectancies in
Asian countries. By the year 2050, compared to North America,
Asia will have more than nine and a half times more older
people.
Bart Hircus runs exercise classes for older people at housing
complexes and recreation centers for seniors. A few years ago, a
Native American senior center invited him to hold some fitness
classes. They assigned him a room and announced the class in
advance. He came to the center eager to work with this new
group of people. About 10 people, men and women, showed up
for his session. He began with warm-up stretches and then put
on some peppy music. He launched into his routine and his
usual patter. But he noticed that after a few minutes his students
began to drift out to a nearby patio for a smoke and some talk.
People would wander in and out to see how the class was going
or to watch Bart do the exercises. This went on for about 30
minutes. Finally, Bart gave up the exercising and began talking
with the center members. He found that they didn’t get the point
of all this jumping around. They had worked hard all their lives.
Some of them had trapped, hunted, and lived in the bush. They
associated exercise with hard work. They couldn’t understand
why anyone would get sweated up and not get paid for it. To
them this looked like work, and they wanted no part of it. After
he gave up trying to get them to exercise, Bart enjoyed his
experience. He says he learned a lot from listening to these
people and from coming to understand their points of view. He
does things differently today when he presents a program to a
minority group audience. For one thing, he gets to know
something about the culture and background of the group before
he begins. For another, he explains the purpose of the program
and its benefits in advance. Finally, he tailors the program to
the background and experience of his students. Gerontologists

know that culture and life events shape an older person’s
worldview. For example, many older minority members face
disadvantages today due to discrimination they have faced
throughout their lives. Other minority members have just
arrived in the United States and have little knowledge of
American society, its language, and its customs. Gerontologists
have learned that cultural and economic barriers can keep
minority older people from living a satisfying old age. They
also know some of the things that can bring down these barriers:
offering a service in a minority language, using minority staff
to deliver the service, or locating services in settings that will
attract minority members. The study of minority aging expands
our understanding of aging today and suggests ways to improve
older minority members’ lives. This chapter looks at (1) the
size, composition, and socioeconomic status of minority groups;
(2) the experience of aging as a minority group member; and (3)
creative responses to the challenge of minority aging. WHO
ARE THE MINORITY ELDERLY?1 The term dominant group
in the United States applies to the white population. Whites
make up a numerical majority of the population in the United
States. More importantly, this group has the most power and
controls most of the social and economic resources in the
country. The encyclopedia defines a minority as a culturally,
ethnically, or racially distinct group living within a larger
society. Minority group members have a sense of peoplehood
and shared origins (Angel & Angel, 2006). In addition, minority
group members often face prejudice and discrimination within
the larger society. Sociologists include women and gays in this
definition, but here we focus on minorities based on race,
ethnicity, and national origin. The term minority as we use it
here applies to the four largest groups recognized by the U.S.
Census: African Americans, Hispanic Americans, Asian
American/Pacific Islanders (APIs), and American
Indians/Alaskan Natives (see Figure 6.1). Many people think of
the United States as a melting pot. The U.S. takes in people
from around the world and turns them into Americans. This

image arose in the early years of the 20th century when
European immigrants poured into this country. Many of them
settled in cities on the East Coast and adapted to American
customs to survive. The melting pot ideal encouraged children
to leave behind their parents’ language and customs.
Assimilation opened the way for these people to enter middle-
class American life. FIGURE 6.1 Population of the U.S. by
Racial and Ethnic Group, 2005 Note: The figures in the chart
total less than 100% due to rounding. Source: U.S. Census
Bureau, Statistical Abstract of the United States. Table No. 14.
Resident population by race, Hispanic origin, and age: 2000 and
2005, 2007. Retrieved: November 16, 2007, from
www.census.gov/compendia/statab/tables/07s0014.xls.
1Minority groups do not agree on a single term to describe their
groups. Also, government reports differ in their designation of
each group. Here, I use the most commonly used terms at this
time. I use the terms African American or black; Hispanic,
Latino, or Latina; and American Indian or Native American to
describe each of these groups. The term Hispanic American
refers to people who are Hispanic or Latino. Hispanics may be
any race. The term African American refers to people who
identify themselves as African American or black. I use the
term white to refer to whites. This view now seems naive. Large
numbers of Jews, for example, immigrated to the United States
early in the 1900s. They adopted the customs and culture of the
dominant population, but they held on to a strong group
identity. The same can be said for Asian Americans, African
Americans, and Hispanic Americans. People understand the
need to assimilate in their public lives. But they often maintain
their culture through religious practices, festivals, and food.
Ethnic identity survives for many generations and may even
grow stronger as later generations celebrate their ethnicity. The
United States today looks more like a pluralistic society where
many racial and ethnic groups exist side by side. Angel and
Angel (2006, p. 94) say that “at the beginning of the twenty-
first century, the population of the United States is socially,

demographically, and culturally almost unrecognizably different
than it was at the beginning of the twentieth century.” For one
thing, the mix of these ethnic groups looks different today than
in the last century. Migrants in the early years of the 20th
century came mostly from Europe. Today, migrants come from
all over the world, primarily from Asia and Latin America (He,
Sangupta, Velkoff, & De Barros, 2005). These new groups,
compared to the majority white population, have high fertility
rates. As a result, by the middle of this century one in two
Americans will come from Asian, Latin America, or African
American descent. The white majority of today will become one
of many minority groups. As in the past, today’s migrants retain
some of their original culture. Immigrants bring to American
society new beliefs, new cuisines, and new customs. Even third-
or fourth-generation Americans show pride in their Italian,
Polish, Chinese, or other ancestry. More recent immigrants
exhibit even closer ties to their original language and culture.
Spanish, Chinese, and other TV stations find audiences
throughout the country, as do newspapers and magazines
published in languages other than English. Ramon Valle, a
sociologist at San Diego State University, said that an
assimilation continuum exists. The continuum runs from very
traditional to bicultural to very assimilated. People can fit in
various places on this continuum for different areas of their
lives. A minority group member may be very assimilated in the
office, but adopt a traditional worldview at home. An example
or two will make this clear. A colleague of mine from India
wears a suit and tie to the office every day. He speaks English
with only a mild Indian accent, and he shows few outward signs
of his ethnic background. But at home he carries on many
traditional Indian practices. He eats a vegetarian diet, he reads
his tradition’s scriptures, and he performs a puja, or religious
ritual, every morning before work. He fits in the bicultural
category of Valle’s continuum. He scores high on assimilation
in the workplace, but he also scores high on tradition at home.
An African American friend would score high on assimilation at

the office and in his personal life, but he does not want to be
completely assimilated either at home or at work. At work, he
stands up for the interests of African Americans and expresses
views that highlight his racial identity. He also owns a cottage
in rural Virginia near his birthplace. He drives there on long
weekends and in the summer to enjoy the rural lifestyle he
identifies with his roots. Valle’s assimilation continuum points
to the complexity of ethnic and racial identity. It shows that
individuals differ in how they identify with, use, and express
their race and ethnicity. In part, this reflects personal
preference. It also reflects the demands of U.S. society for a
common public face. The older population reflects the pluralism
of U.S. society. Older people belong to a variety of ethnic and
racial minorities. Some of these older people came to the United
States from other countries many years ago. Other minority
older people were born in the United States but have had their
lives shaped by their ethnic or racial identities. Some older
minority group members have just arrived in the United States.
Some came by choice, to follow their middle-aged children.
Others came as refugees. These new immigrants face culture
shock as well as issues related to aging. They are challenged by
language barriers, difficulties in making new friends, and
problems using medical and social services (Longino &
Bradley, 2006). Researchers find that diversity exists even
within a single minority group (Burr, Mutchler, & Gerst, 2010).
Yeo (2009) notes that the Asian group, for example, includes
subgroups that differ in education, English ability, and income.
The 2000 Census reported an 11.9% poverty rate for the group
of older Asians. But poverty rates for subgroups within the
Asian group range from 5.6% for Japanese older people to
27.4% for Hmong older people. When researchers report on
“Asian” older people they miss the large and important
differences within this group. Yeo notes that similar differences
exist within the American Indian cultures and the Hispanic
population. Hispanic Americans, for example, have come to the
United States from Spain, Cuba, Puerto Rico,

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