143 Economics, Management, and Financial Mar.docx

143
Economics, Management, and Financial Markets 11(1)
2016, pp. 143–151, ISSN 1842-3191, eISSN 1938-212X
LEADERSHIP VERSUS MANAGEMENT
IN PUBLIC ORGANIZATIONS
IONELA GABRIELA SOLOMON
[email protected]
Bucharest University of Economic Studies
CARMEN COSTEA
[email protected]
Spiru Haret University
AUREL MIRCEA NIŢĂ
[email protected]
National University of Political Studies
and Public Administration
ABSTRACT. Over time the concept of leadership was analyzed
from different

perspectives. Some of them refer to human relationships that are
established under
it, others are focus on management as a process. The article
analyzes the evolution
of the concept of leadership, the differences between
management and leadership,
and challenges that may arise in the management process within
a public institution,
namely public administration in Romania. This article aims
aspects of leadership in
public administration such as: the application of this concept in
the decision-making
process, and the changes that are taking place in a public
organization.
JEL codes: H00
Keywords: leadership, management; public organizations;
public administration;
competencies
1. Introduction
“Leadership involves the art of working with people. Knowing
how to lead
does not mean knowing how to dominate, but to know how to
convince
people to work for a common goal” (Goleman, 2002: 222).
Professor Mielu Zlate (2004) defines leadership as “the process
by which
a person establishes a goal or a direction to one or a certain
number of
people, and determines them to act with competence and full
commitment to
their realization.”

144
The term “leader” was used for the first time in the XIV-th
century,
according to The Oxford English Dictionary. Over time, the
term leadership
has taken on several meanings. According to Explanatory
Dictionary of the
Romanian Language, the meaning given to this term is
“management” or
“directorship”.
The leader is an individual who determines the meaning and
direction of
a group, gets the group cohesion, and then manages to motivate
the group in
order to achieve the desired results. From this statement it can
be detach the
components of the concept of leadership. The main element is
the person
who leads. The second, equally important, is the group. We
cannot speak of
leadership and leading function, without a group of followers. A
leader
without a group of followers is a “crazy loner” (Zlate, 2004).
Another
fundamental element that we can findif we study the definition
of leadership
is the goal; leader in theprocess of leading, follows the goal,
that must
become common, and have to be reached by the group after a
certain period

of time.
The leader quality does not refer to the way he presents himself,
but to
the manner he manages to exploit the powers of a group (Petca,
1999).
When we speak about leading a team in a business or a
company, the
style of leadership is very important in ensuring success. Each
of the leaders
will use at a conscious or subconscious level, a certain style of
leadership:
autocratic style, the bureaucrat style, charismatic style,
democratic style, the
people-oriented style, helpful style, task-oriented style, the
style of
transactional leader, or the transformational style.
2. Types of Leaders. A Literature Review
In literature there are many interests to characterize leaders. W.
Bennis’s
vision of a leader is the one of a “social architect”, a
transformer of an
organization that has the ability to create a global vision and to
translate it
into action (Petca, 1999).
According to Goleman’s vision (2007), we have the following
typology
of leaders: visionary leader, counselor leader, peer leader,
democratic leader,
promoter leader, dominator leader.

Manfred F.R. Kets de Vries identifies two main types of
leaders, namely:
the leader as a “chess player”, who makes strategic moves and
the second
type, the leader as a person capable of addressing to collective
imagination
of the people, in order to attract them towards the right path.
Those leaders,
from the second category, motivate people in their activity,
action that leads
to further efforts to achieve various objectives. Apart from the
two leader
types described above, the author states that there is a third
category of
leaders, namely “illusion-leaders” or “leadership as an illusion.”
People who
145
support the existence of this “leadership as an illusion” are not
interested
about who is in charge. They consider the leader as a puppet
manipulated by
other forces surrounding (Kets de Vries, 2003).
Although there are many types of leaders, in practice we focus
mainly on
typologies such as formal leader, informal leader, democratic
leader and
autocratic leader.
It prevails the professional opinion, that if we turn to autocratic
and

participatory character of the leader, we notice: first, autocratic
style requires
authority. This type of leadership pays special attention to
authority
relations, the hierarchy of direct subordination, setting the
objectives first,
establishes and maintains a climate of austerity, confidence in
the potential
of subordinates, who are treated as mere participants in their
work; they
seldom delegate and consult their subordinates or, most often
they avoid this
activity.
3. Leadership versus Management
The terms “leadership” and “management” are often used with
reference to
the same concept. In reality, the two concepts are different,
although they
have many common elements and activities aimed at improving
the
organization.
Warren Bennis, in his “On Becoming a Leader”, identifies
eleven
differences between manager and leader, as quoted below:
tes.
leader
focuses on people.

lies on
trust.
-term view, while the leader has a
long-term
view.
while
the leader respond to ‘What?’.
leader is
guided by medium and long-term results (impact).
challenging
it.
leader is
doing things ‘that have to be done.’”
146
We believe that this characterization, though the two concepts
are defined
accurately, sometimes it might seems exaggerated, since, in
practice, we
meet managers who have a vision on a medium term regarding
their
organization (as in strategic management, where the manager is

setting
target). Meanwhile, the characterization is enlightening in terms
of
membership of the two concepts: the manager belongs to formal
organization, while theleader belongstoinformal organization.
As for the differences between a leader and a manager, there are
many
arguments. They are generally based on the personal behavior of
the
manager and leader, but also on how they manage to convey
their ideas to
the people they work with.
“There is no equivalence between the leader and manager.
Ideally, all
managers are good leaders, but it is not binding. In fact, the
manager
exercises his influence on the team he leads and determines it to
act in a
particular way to achieve those objectives. Especially in
business, success
depends largely on the ability of leaders to convey the vision
and
enthusiasm. It is believed that quality of leadership is essential
but not
sufficient for a successful management” (Păuș, 2008: 17).
4. Management and Leadership in Public Administration
Public and private organizations, are complex entities whose
structure
cannot be understood outside the influences of
environmentanalysis where is
performed their activity. These influences seem to be stronger

in the case of
public organization, due to their characteristics.Leadership in
government is
characterized by an intentional process of influencing,
motivating and
directing a group of people to a common goal. The process of
influencing is
done in a consciously and deliberately way, by a leader. From
this point of
view, influence can be seen as “a person’s ability to affect the
behavior of
others. The successfully use of influence may cause changes in
opinions,
attitudes and beliefs and of course, behaviors” (Cornescu, 2000:
94).
Strategic management is seen as acomponent of a public
manageractivity
thatconsists in broadening the action to “think ahead” for the
entity he leads.
It contains two aspects: defining objectives, strategy, structure
and operating
principles for this entity; measuring theimpact in space, time
and context, of
an important decision that is taken (John, 2000). Any
manager/leader must
ensure the daily activity forthe team he leads, this being
translated into short-
term outlook, which is known as operational management. The
manager also
acts intended to broaden perspectives, in order to create a
horizon of
collective activity on the medium and long term; this area of
concern being
designed in strategic management. From here it is inferred that
the strategic

management concern the public servants located in positions of
147
responsibility, from middle and top management (Nita, 2014).
According to
this model of management, the head of agovernmental
institution, shall not
apply a stereotypical activity since his activity is directly
connected to that
level where strategic decisions are developed.
To be efficient, the public management must take into account:
the
general factors (social, economic, political), the specific factors
in each
organization, personal factors (convictions and personality of
the manager).
Leadership describes a new model of public civil servant, who
is seen as a
true agent of change, serving to introduce a new mentality in
Romanian
public administration (Nita, 2014).
Public manager is considered the new type of manager, running
the
government. This function involves the presence of features
rarely found
among ordinary civil servants, and the degree of responsibility
that it
involves is higher than the officials have. Even in that case, the
position of
public manager is very important for government and for its

future. This is
why, according to Art. 10 of the Rule of implementing
Government
Emergency Ordinance no. 92/2008, regarding the status of civil
servant
called public manager, there are set by law, the competences
necessary to a
public manager as follows:
(1) The competition aims to identify and select those that
demonstrate skills
and competencies and a minimum of general knowledge relevant
to public
administration, required to obtain the status of a public
manager.
a) the eligibility conditions set out in art. 6 para. (2) of the
Ordinance;
b) the ability to use the information and interpretation of data,
to formulate
conclusions and substantiation of administrative decisions;
c) the ability to establish and formulate objectives, and identify
logical
sequence of actions to achieve a specific purpose;
d) capacity to take decisions and to assess their impact;
e) the ability of analysis and synthesis;
f) communication skills;
g) the degree of motivation for specific public office manager;
h) owning skills other than those referred from b) to f) as
appropriate for a
public manager;
i) knowledge of the principles, rules, organization and
functioning of public
administration;
j) the knowledge of principles, rules, organization and
functioning of the EU
institutions, namely Community policies;
k) foreign languages.

148
5. Challenges to Current and Future Leadership in Public
Administration
The function shows the types of problems attributed to a
manager or a
leader, as a result of horizontal management specialization
process and
indicates the right of a manager to use the resources available
within certain
limits, specialization as a result of vertical management
process. The
characteristic of government can be classified according to
several criteria,
namely:
- The material criterion as activity requires the study of legal,
human,
financial, usable in performing tasks;
- Organic criterion determines the description of specialized
agency types;
this means, enumerating the administrative structures, such as
those of
central bodies of public administration.The most rational
criterion is the one
of finality, namely the technical and specific purpose pursued
with each task.
These goals can be classified in terms of geography, according
to the
territory where these are achieved. The tasks carried out by

central
government bodies have general importance, being performed in
the same
manner throughout the country. Other local tasks are limited to
a county or
city, aiming to satisfy specific social requirements.
Based on the purpose criterion, we can say that leadership is
oriented
toward public institutions, to increase the efficiency of the
activity, decision-
making process and solving public needs, increasing the
efficiency of the
executive management, judicious use of labor, and to reduce to
a minimum
the number of administrative officials.
The administrative decision is a complex process of choosing a
possibility from several possible choices, in order to achieve an
objective of
government and influence the activity of at least one person in
the system, to
influence the administrative system in its entirety or just society
in general.
Any administrative decision must meet the following
requirements: to be
scientifically; to have a realistic character; to intervene in a
timely manner;
to be integrated in the overall administrative decisions taken
previously; to
be appropriate.
We define two categories of participants in the foundation and
administrative decisions, depending on: the involvement in
decision-making
- civil servants that are directly involved, civil servants and

citizens
indirectly involved and/or professionals involved directly or
indirectly; by
administrative level, we define position in the organizational
structure, there
are public servants from central and local government (John,
2000).
From a political approach to decision making, there can be
distinguish
these characteristics: consideration of policy objectives, the
existence of
political coalition, and theexistence of problemspackages.
Most relevant challenges seem to be related to the status, the
position of
the leader, the position they occupy, by displaying the following
trends:
149
employee’s performance evaluation through selection and
evaluation
activities, but sometimes, it include grievance and disciplinary
cases. In all
other situations, the focus is not on individuals, but on the
positions,
organizational structures, procedures or groups of persons.
Evaluation of
individuals in terms of their business performance requires a
certain quality
of managerial judgment, which places a great responsibility on
the managers

involved in training of civil servants. The efficiency of public
services in
administrationstate is primarily determining the quality of staff.
A system of
public administration, staffed with sufficient financial and
material
resources, but with unpreparedprofessional and managerial
officials, do not
get the results suggested (Androniceanu, 2008).
Any organization needs information in order to survive or to act
successfully. Organizational change includes the actual content
of the
change that occurs within them. In addition to these two
dimensions, the
context of organizational change is as important as the “content
which
formulate a strategy must control both the context in which the
process
occurs and the process itself” (Vlăsceanu 1993: 93).
The success of organizational change depends on the quality of
the
solution found and the effectiveness of its implementation,
which can have
three consequences: (1) implementing effective, the use of
innovation or
change improves organizational performance; (2) implementing
effective,
but the organization’s performance is not affected in any way;
(3)
implementation is not successful. Change can have negative
effects if the
solutions are inappropriate to the context, which does nothing to
highlight,
once again, the lack of interdependence between content and

process of
change.
The leader in public administration evolves on the same
principles as any
other leader. Each group has the responsibility of achieving the
goals of the
organization they belong; each has a set of qualities used to
achieve those
goals. The leader in public administration however, is not only
responsible
for the group to which it belongs, but with all those affected by
decisions
taken within the group. The entire population of a territory may
benefit or
suffer because of the decisions taken by the leader of that
administrative
entity.
This leadership aims to meet the needs of the general public and
its
objectives should be focused on this direction. The leader
appeals to the
charisma and persuasiveness or other talents in order to achieve
the desired
results.
A good leader in public administration has a good sense of
responsibility
and is aware that his decisions can affect in one way or another,
the citizens
and is ready to take responsibility for his acts and decisions.
A good leader knows when to take a decision, when isthe right
moment to
act and whenhe can anticipate certain results.

150
He must have an honest character and to be devoted to his
actions so he
can bring prosperity to the area the leader is responsible of.
6. Conclusion
The public administration in Romania is in the process of
reform, tending
towards a post-bureaucratic system, system to form leaders with
vision, with
decision-making power.
New government leaders should be aware of the importance of
human
resources. Any effort to implement this concept in
administrative reform get
us closer to achieving an administrative system, based on
modern
management, which is responsive and loyal to the citizen needs,
in whose
service public administration should be. It is time for public
administration
to develop a source of authentic leaders. It is agreed or not, the
perception
according to which, we should borrow the concept stated in the
private
sector on how to form successful leaders.
Regardless the leader’s typology, we note that at this attitudinal

behavior
people’s skills are different, with different emphases placed on
the triple
objectives-results-rewards/sanctions. The most effective types
of leaders are
those with a high professional and managerial competences,
with solid
knowledge coupled with management qualities and skills that
will enable
them to promote and maintain appropriate relationships with
subordinates.
Public management means not offering fixed successful recipes
that just
apply step by step; but it can change essentially the perception
of the
administrative phenomenon and administrative action. The
solution to solve
the problems facing public administration in Romania depends
essentially
and cannot be conceived outside its action.
REFERENCES
Androniceanu, A (2008), Noutăţi în managementul public
(Novelty in public
management). Bucharest: Universitară.
Bennis, W., and Bennis, W. G. (2009), On becoming a leader.
New York: Basic
Books.
Cornescu, V. (2000), Managementul resurselor umane (Human
Resources

Management). Bucharest: Tei.
Goleman, D. (2002), Inteligenţa emoţională (Emotional
Intelligence). Bucharest:
Curtea Veche.
Goleman, D. (2007), Inteligenţa emoţională în leadership,
(Emotional intelligence
in leadership). Bucharest: Curtea Veche.
John, A. (2000), Public Service. Bucharest: Economica.
Kets de Vries, M.F.R. (2003), Leaders, fools and impostors:
Essays on the
psychology of leadership. iUniverse.
151
Niță, M. A. (2014), “The Importance of Image Management for
a Good Society,”
Research and Social Intervention Magazine 44: 308-320.
Niță, M.A. (2014), “The New Leader for Transatlantic Trend
and Public
Administration. Current Legal,” Juridical Current 59: 65-79.
Paus, V. A. (2008), “Profilul psiho-social al liderului din
instituții și organizații.
(Psychosocial Profile of the Leader of Institutions and
Organizations
Romanian),” Journal of Journalism and Communication 3(4):
17.

Petca, I. (1999), “Changes needed in human resource
management,” AFT Magazine
available online at
http://www.armyacademy.ro/revista1/rev_1.html
Romanian Government, Methodological regulations of
implementation of the
Government Emergency Ordinance no. 92/2008 regarding the
status of civil
servant called public manager, Official Gazette no. 484/2008.
Vlăsceanu, M. (1993), Psychology of Organizations and
Management, Bucharest:
Paideia, available at: http://www.apubb.ro/wp-
content/uploads/2011/02/Capitol-
Leadership.pdf, accessed on 05.04.2015
Zlate, M. (2004), Leadership şi management (Leadership and
Management).
Bucharest: Collegium.
Reproduced with permission of the copyright owner. Further
reproduction prohibited without
permission.
Running head: COMMUNICATION STRATEGY 1
COMMUNICATION STRATEGY 7

Effective Communication Strategy for Business Success- A
Case Study of Google Company
Student Name
University Affiliations
Date
Communication strategy is an important aspect of any business.
It basically entails a plan to achieve communication objectives.
Some companies effectively adopt communication strategies
while others perform dismally in the area. Google Inc. is an
example of a company that employs a comprehensive
communication strategy. The strategy applies to marketing
communications, public relations, and internal communications.
Google’s communication strategy impacts positively on sales,
services, and continuous improvement.
Girard discusses how innovative communication processes have
helped Google Company resolve information blockages. The top
reason Girard holds that position is that efficient
communication strategy has led to harmony, trust and openness
within the ranks of the company. As an illustration,
transparency, an aspect of communication, represents the
cornerstone of the company’s culture. Google’s Human
Resource Officers are trained to inspire employees to believe
that fellow employees are good. As such, a newly hire at the
company, say a software engineer is granted full access to
almost all of the company’s code on the first day of reporting to
work. Besides, the company holds weekly all-hands meetings
attended by the company’s co-founders (Girard, 2009). The
meetings look into updates from the previous week.
A second reason Girard holds that position is that
communication strategy has boosted the company’s marketing
efforts a great deal. As a tactic that employs communication,

the company employs a myriad of product promotional
methodologies. One of them is advertising by the use of
communication media such as radio, television, and social
media. Further, Google’s advertising communicates through
conventional, traditional newspapers, magazines, and outdoor
advertising. The other common promotional method employed
by Google is direct marketing. Besides Google engages in
personal selling.
A third reason Girard holds that position is that Google’s
communication strategy has led to the creation and sustenance
of a positive image among stakeholders through provision for
the engagement in public relations. Google relies on a number
of tools and techniques to help it form meaningful relationships
with stakeholders. One of the commonly used techniques is
press release (Girard, 2009). The other proficiency employed by
our company of interest is the regular preparation and
distribution of newsletters. Other than press releases and
newsletters, the company participates in public events and
conferences. For further enhancement of goodwill among
partners and clients, the company engages in reward schemes.
The communication strategy positively impacts the organization
in various levels of operation. In the sales level, the different
promotional techniques employed by Google see to it the
reaching of a wide market of consumers. Further, direct
marketing which entails communicating directly to potential
customers through text messages, online adverts, email
messages, and personalized promotional letters creates a
personal touch with the customer. Quite often, the result is
increased customer loyalty and enhanced goodwill of the
company among consumers, both current and potential
(Chatzigiannakis et.al, 2004). Personal selling which entails
Google sending its agents to potential consumers to sell
products personally has a desirable impact of building trust with
the customer. Besides, the beauty of the technique is that it
guarantees immediate feedback. Press releases increase the
confidence of stakeholders in the company, therefore,

increasing the likelihood of the personalities to enter business
deals with Google Inc. Newsletters are platforms for outlining
the company’s products, both present and prospective. Besides,
it provides insights into products that customers may be
experiencing in interaction with various products. The catalogue
role of a newsletter enables consumers to compare notes and
make up their minds to buy Google’s products.
Turning to service, openness and trust created by entrusting
employees with the company’s sensitive data and code boosts
employee satisfaction and improves their morale a great deal.
During the weekly meetings held, 30 minutes of the meetings
are dedicated to the fielding of questions by any person in the
company on any imaginable topic. As such, the meetings
provide a platform for seeking clarifications regarding services
to customers. Besides, employees get an opportunity to air any
possible grievances and challenges they may be going through
in the course of delivering services. The trust created between
employees enhances teamwork which taps the resultant synergy
for quality customer service. In general, motivated employees
have a higher likelihood of serving with passion
(Chatzigiannakis et.al, 2004). Besides, Google experiences
minimal turnover, a situation that assures the acquisition of
experience by employees for quality of services offered.
On continuous improvement, Google engages in public relations
by the employment of a range of techniques for efficiency.
Pressers give information of interest to interested parties. Such
information ranges from the hiring of key staff members to
launch of products. Dissemination of information prompts the
airing of views and recommendations by intended audiences for
improvement of Google. Similarly, newsletters update interested
parties on interesting developments within the company. Such
information elicits discussions that Google taps into for
enhancement of operations and products. Participation in public
events by Google presents opportunity for meeting and
interacting with customers and other stakeholders. Examples of
events that Google participates in include the Firebase Summit,

Android development summit, and chrome development summit.
Such summits involve the showcasing of new knowledge and
technologies that Google adopts for improvement. In addition,
reward schemes invite creativity and innovation among
participants. Examples of such programs include 2019 Google
play awards and the Google Premier Partner Awards. The
creativity and innovation exhibited by participants represent
opportunities for improvement by Google.
A potential problem with the communications in Google is the
possible leaking of sensitive information. Since all employees
access the information, it is possible for competitors to
approach an employee and bribe them into sharing the
information. However, use of effective management skills to
improve the morale of the employees would effectively counter
the challenge. Potential motivational strategies would involve
rewarding employees fairly, respecting them, giving them an
opportunity to grow, and making them part of the organization.
Previously, I worked for Chic-fil-A. Though it has a
communication strategy in place, the strategy was not as
effective as that of Google Company. The former particularly
performs dismally in internal communications and public
relations. Borrowing Google’s communication strategy would
change the organization for the better. Integration of the
strategy in Chic-fil-A would involve a number of important
steps. One of them would be acknowledging impoverished
communication strategy and pointing to the need to review it.
The major shortcomings of the current strategy should be
highlighted. Next, a team of reviewers would be dispatched for
a benchmark at Google. Information obtained from the
benchmarking session would be used for preparation of a new,
comprehensive strategy that takes care of the three important
aspects of business operations (Alvesson, & Sveningsson,
2015). For success of the review, employees should be fully
involved in the whole process. After development of a new
communication strategy, necessary systems should be put in
place for its effective implementation. Further, internal

communication should be enhanced to communicate the new
strategy widely and repetitively. During implementation, cross-
functional teams should be created to help in comparing of
notes. Finally, post-implementation reviews should be
undertaken on regular basis.
In conclusion, Google’s communication strategy is successful a
great deal. The strategy has resulted to enormous benefits in
sales, service-delivery, and continuous improvement. Indeed, I
may recommend the strategy to my former employer, Chic-fil-
A. Implementation of the strategy in Chic-fil-A would involve a
number of decisional steps.
References
Alvesson, M., & Sveningsson, S. (2015). Changing
organizational culture: Cultural change work in progress.
Routledge.
Chatzigiannakis, I., Nikoletseas, S., & Spirakis, P. (2001,
October). An efficient communication strategy for ad-hoc
mobile networks. In International Symposium on Distributed
Computing (pp. 285-299). Springer, Berlin, Heidelberg.
Girard, B. (2009). The Google way: How one company is
revolutionizing management as we know it. No Starch Press.
BBA 2026, Organizational Communication 1
Course Learning Outcomes for Unit VII
Upon completion of this unit, students should be able to:
7. Summarize the differences in communication styles of

managers vs. leaders.
7.1. Describe different ways managers and leaders use
communication to guide their organizations.
7.2. Discuss the effectiveness of communication through the
message, channel, and the potential
for feedback.
Reading Assignment
In order to access the following resources, click the links
below:
Detert, J. R., Burris, E. R., Harrison, D. A., & Martin, S. R.
(2013). Voice flows to and around leaders:
Understanding when units are helped or hurt by employee voice.
Administrative Science Quarterly,
58(4), 624-668. Retrieved from
https://libraryresources.columbiasouthern.edu/login?url=http://s
earch.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=bth&AN=92688565&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Grossman, L. (2016). Inside Apple’s code war. Time, 187(11),
42-49. Retrieved from
earch.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direc
t=true&db=bth&AN=113831986&site=ehost-live&scope=site
Solomon, I. G., Costea, C., & Nita, A. M. (2016). Leadership
versus management in public organizations.

Economics, Management, and Financial Markets, 11(1), 143-
151. Retrieved from
earch.proquest.com.libraryresources.c
olumbiasouthern.edu/docview/1782998705?accountid=33337
Click here to view the Unit VII Presentation.
Click here to view the Unit VII Presentation transcript.
Course/Unit
Learning Outcomes
Learning Activity
7
Unit Lesson
Unit VII Presentation
Article: “Voice flows to and around leaders: Understanding
when units are
helped or hurt by employee voice”
Article: “Inside Apple’s code war”
Article: “Leadership versus management in public
organizations”
Unit VII Mini Project
7.1
Unit Lesson
Article: “Leadership versus management in public
organizations”

7.2
Unit Lesson
UNIT VII STUDY GUIDE
The Different Communication Styles
of Managers and Leaders
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UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Unit Lesson
Introduction
When discussing the difference between leadership and
management, many articles, books, seminars,
workshops, video series, and motivational presentations have
been created. A simple search in the CSU
Online Library, or with a search engine like Google or Bing,
will reveal a plethora of resources that address
the issue. The sources provide a variety of opinions on how to
define the two roles and how to help a
manager transition into the role of a leader or how a leader can
become a more effective manager.
It is important to realize that the two roles are not mutually
exclusive, but the tasks each complete in an
organization require a certain set of skills. Managers usually
focus on specific work and tasks that fit within
the subject of a designated resource: human, time, financial,
equipment, and so forth. The skills managers
develop work within the constraints of the system and enforce
the desired standards of work on the
employees. Leaders, on the other hand, often concentrate on the
long-term vision or goal of the organization
and work on defining the system that allows the organization to

operate. Leaders concentrate more on the
overall view and try to expand the standards of work by
motivating, mentoring, and building relationships with
employees.
Organizations need managers to decide about resources and
manage risk. Acquiring resources requires a
significant investment for an organization, so managers need to
make good decisions, not just about
technology, but also when hiring new employees. For example,
Christina Merhar (2016) estimates that every
time an organization hires a salaried employee, it costs between
six and nine months’ salary on average in
recruiting and training expenses. Deciding upon the employees
to hire for a job is an essential part of working
within the constraints of the system.
Hiring talented employees and retaining them is part of creating
a functioning organization. The leadership
role focuses on the overall view of employee retention and
expands standards that will benefit the
organization. After all, as Merhar (2016) suggests, beyond the
cost of hiring and training new employees,
organizations face additional costs in lost productivity and
engagement, increased customer service errors,
loss of income due to dissatisfied customers, and a cultural
impact with other employees.
Beyond employee hiring and retention, though, organizations
need to work with strategic partners, academic
institutions, and also contract workers. Both managers and
leaders are required to achieve these tasks, and
their primary tool is communication.
While this information is focused on managers, it can also help
employees and staff who are looking to move

from their current role to a more visible leadership position. As
Detert, Burris, Harrison, and Martin (2013)
relate, leaders are not just those in the most senior positions in
organizations. They define leaders as
members of the organization who formally oversee the
collective effort of employees who are accountable for
measured results.
Case Study: Apple Versus the U.S. Government
In order to understand the way in which a leader communicates,
it can be helpful to study a real-life situation.
Tim Cook, who is the CEO of Apple, has been embroiled in a
public debate regarding a request from the U.S.
government to unlock an iPhone. Apple has complied with the
government in the past, but the current
situation is different due to the scope of the request.
The phone is owned by the San Bernardino Department of
Public Health, which provided it as a work phone
for Syed Rizwan Farook, one of the shooter suspects in a
massacre in San Bernardino, California, where 14
people were killed, and 22 people were injured. Due to the iOS8
operating system installed on the phone,
data (e.g., photos, messages, contacts, call history) is securely
encrypted using a password. Apple cannot
bypass the passcode to obtain the data; this is one of the selling-
features that the company provides for its
customers. The encryption protects users from hackers and
criminals.
In “Inside Apple’s Code War,” Lev Grossman (2016) explains
that after the Orange County Regional
Computer Forensics Laboratory retrieved the phone and booted
it up, the authorities learned that it required a
passcode for access. Since the phone belonged to San

Bernardino County, a technician was able to remotely
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
reset the iCloud password. Unfortunately, this meant that the
iPhone, which has its own passcode, would no
longer back up information to iCloud.
If the iCloud password had not been changed, Apple could have
provided the iPhone’s back up data to the
government. However, as Kim Zetter (2016) notes, by changing
the iCloud password, there is no chance for
the iPhone to back up additional data. Zetter (2016) states that
the best opportunity to get the data from the
iPhone was nullified by the technician changing the Apple ID.
If this had not occurred, then Apple would not
have to resist the government’s attempt to break the security of
its own operating system.
What would have been a simple request before the change now
resulted in a massive issue. The FBI
requested that Apple make a new version of the iPhone
operating system that circumvented important
security features and install it on the iPhone recovered during
the investigation of Syed Rizwan Farook.
Apple’s argument is that once this type of software is
developed, it can be used to unlock any iPhone, and

there would be no way to limit its use.
Managers
Zetter (2016) explains that Apple has a standard procedure
when working with government agencies. There
is a specific department set up to deal with technical requests of
this sort, and Apple technicians walked the
government agents through the standard process of retrieving
the data. The agents did not inform the Apple
technicians that the iCloud password had been changed,
however, so the information remained locked.
The managers, at this point, had focused on one specific area:
They were working on the technical support
aspect of the phone. Their communications were centered on
fixing this one particular problem; they were
meeting the specific demands of a single situation.
Leaders
Cook became involved when the FBI requested that Apple
create a new version of iOS 9 that would allow
them to unlock the phone. At this point, the issue had moved
from a single situation to one of company policy.
Cook did not just make a unilateral decision; instead, he
consulted with his managers and staff. Cook
explained that the company engaged in long, internal
discussions prior to the decision being made (as cited in
Grossman, 2016).
This is an area of leadership. The leader has to be focused on
how all of the departments in an organization
work together. Since this is a problem that could affect the
entire company, Cook took the time to gather
feedback from his executives, managers, and staff. Each person

had an opportunity to provide information
and to influence the decision.
When the U.S. government filed a motion to compel Apple’s
assistance in unlocking the iPhone, the situation
changed once again. By not filing a sealed case, Grossman
(2016) notes, the FBI was trying to bring the court
of public opinion into play about the issue. As the leader of
Apple, Cook was now faced with anticipating the
reactions of his employees to this situation, as well as
customers, strategic partners, and so forth. He needed
to make decisions in regard to this issue, but he also needed to
explain the rationale for those decisions to
everyone involved.
Creating a Communications Strategy that Fosters Change and
Innovation
Cook addressed this through creating messages about Apple’s
company mission, goals, and responsibilities.
He stressed Apple’s dedication to helping law enforcement and
provided details on the special efforts the
company makes to provide support. Cook focused on customer
protection, security, and human rights under
the U.S. Constitution. He provided transparency with the court
documents and Apple’s response.
Along with conducting media interviews to clarify Apple’s
position, Cook released “A Message to our
Customers” where he stressed the company's efforts to keep
consumers' information private. The letter calls
for public discussion of the issues and presents an overview of
the situation so both Apple customers and
people throughout the United States can understand what is at
stake. He lays out the argument for keeping
encryption and adds that if the government uses the All Writs

Act to unlock one iPhone, it would have the
ability to go into any device to monitor and/or collect data. This
would extend to health records, financial data,
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
and location tracking. The All Writs Act could be used to
constantly access and monitor any smart phone’s
microphone and camera without the user’s knowledge (Cook,
2016).
In the letter, Cook states that this legal challenge by Apple was
not taken lightly but with the deepest respect
for American democracy. He feels that the organization is
standing up to an overreach of authority by the U.S.
government. He welcomes a discussion with the public where
people consider the full implications of
government surveillance to this extent. Cook concludes the
letter by stating that, while the FBI has good
intentions in this one case, what will follow will undermine the
freedoms and liberty of law-abiding citizens who
our government should be protecting (Cook, 2016).
Variations of this message have been repeated by Cook in
interviews and at the Town Hall meeting that
occurs quarterly at 1 Infinite Circle Plaza. But Cook goes one
step further in certain interviews, pointing out

that even if the government outlaws encryption by companies in
the United States, criminals will simply
download apps from outside its borders. Since the Internet is
worldwide, it is easy to purchase encryption
apps from other countries. So the criminals’ data would be
unavailable to law enforcement, and everyone else
would be vulnerable. Financial information, personal messages,
photos, and work documents—anything
stored on a computer, tablet, or smart phone—would be
vulnerable. This type of technology, Cook states, will
only affect good, law-abiding citizens. It will not deter
criminals (as cited in Grossman, 2016).
References
Cook, T. (2016). A message to our customers. Retrieved from
http://www.apple.com/customer-letter/
Detert, J. R., Burris, E. R., Harrison, D. A., & Martin, S. R.
(2013). Voice flows to and around leaders:
Understanding when units are helped or hurt by employee voice.
Administrative Science Quarterly,
58(4), 624-668.
Grossman, L. (2016). Inside Apple’s code war. Time, 187(11),
42-49.
Merhar, C. (2016, February 4). Employee retention – the real
cost of losing an employee [Blog post].
Retrieved from
http://www.zanebenefits.com/blog/bid/312123/Employee-

Retention-The-Real-Cost-of-
Losing-an-Employee
Zetter, K. (2016, February 19). Apple says the government
bungled its chance to get that iPhone’s data.
Wired. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/2016/02/apple-
says-the-government-bungled-its-chance-
to-hack-that-iphone/
Suggested Reading
In order to access the following resources, click the links
below:
The articles below highlight some of the issues related to the
topics discussed in the Unit VII Lesson.
Merhar, C. (2016, February 4). Employee retention—the real
cost of losing an employee [Blog post].
Retrieved from
Retention-The-Real-Cost-of-
Losing-an-Employee
Zetter, K. (2016, February 19). Apple says the government
bungled its chance to get that iPhone’s data.
Wired. Retrieved from http://www.wired.com/2016/02/apple-
says-the-government-bungled-its-chance-
to-hack-that-iphone/

Retention-The-Real-Cost-of-Losing-an-Employee
Retention-The-Real-Cost-of-Losing-an-Employee
http://www.wired.com/2016/02/apple-says-the-government-
bungled-its-chance-to-hack-that-iphone/
http://www.wired.com/2016/02/apple-says-the-government-
bungled-its-chance-to-hack-that-iphone/
UNIT x STUDY GUIDE
Title
Learning Activities (Nongraded)
Nongraded Learning Activities are provided to aid students in
their course of study. You do not have to submit
them. If you have questions, contact your instructor for further
guidance and information.
Apply What You Have Learned
In your current (or past) place of employment, reflect on how
leaders communicate company policy.

143 Economics, Management, and Financial Mar.docx

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